Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.7 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 1777 104411 28396 2026-06-22T12:23:42Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104411 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Meri Nana-Ama Danquah''' (dem born am 13 September 1967) be Ghanaian-American writer, editor, journalist den public speaker, wey na ein name for birth be '''Mildred Mary Nana-Ama Boakyewaa Brobby'''.<ref>Danquah, Meri Nana-Ama (1998). ''[[iarchive:willowweepformeb00danq/page/103|Willow Weep for Me: A Black Woman's Journey Through Depression]]'' (First&nbsp;ed.). W.W. Norton & Co. p.&nbsp;[[iarchive:willowweepformeb00danq/page/103|103]]. ISBN&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/9780393045673|9780393045673]]</bdi>.</ref> She be best known for ein 1998 memoir ''Willow Weep for Me: A Black Woman's Journey Through Depression.'' Dem shortlist ein short story "When a Man Loves a Woman" for de 2022 AKO Caine Prize for African Writing.<ref>[http://www.caineprize.com/press-releases/2022/6/8/the-ako-caine-prize-announces-its-2022-shortlisted-authors "The AKO Caine Prize announces its 2022 shortlisted writers"]. The AKO Caine Prize. 8 June 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2022.</ref> == Bibliography == === As author === *''Willow Weep for Me: A Black Woman’s Journey Through Depression'', W. W. Norton & Company, 1998, ISBN 9780393045673 === As editor === * ''Shaking the Tree: A Collection of New Fiction and Memoir by Black Women'', W. W. Norton, 2003, ISBN 978-0393050677 * ''The Black Body'', Seven Stories Press, 2009, ISBN 978-1583228890 * ''Becoming American: Personal Essays by First Generation Immigrant Women'', Hyperion Books, 2000, ISBN 978-0786865895 * ''American Woman: Personal Essays by First Generation Immigrant Women'' (Expanded Second Edition), Seven Stories Press, 2012, ISBN 978-1609804084 * ''Accra Noir'', Akashic Books, 2020, ISBN 9781617758898 === Selected essays and articles === * [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/middleground/danquah.htm "Life as an Alien"], in O'Hearn, Claudine Chiawei (ed.), ''Half and Half: Writers on Growing Up Biracial and Bicultural'' (Pantheon Books, 1998), ''The Washington Post'', 17 May 1998. * [https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2014/05/28/what-i-learned-from-my-auntie-maya/ "What I Learned From My Auntie Maya"], ''Wall Street Journal'', 28 May 2014. * [http://www.kwelijournal.org/nonfiction/2014/8/6/a-different-breed-by-nana-ama-danquah "A Different Breed"] (memoir excerpt), ''Kweli'', 9 August 2014. * "Afro-Kinky Human Hair", in: ''Everything But The Burden: What White People Are Taking From Black Culture'', edited by Greg Tate, 2003, New York: Harlem Moon Broadway Books, ISBN 978-0-7679-1497-0 * "Saying Goodbye to Mary Danquah", in ''New Daughters of Africa'', edited by Margaret Busby, 2019. London: Myriad Editions; New York: Amistad Press. * "When A Man Loves A Woman", ''Accra Noir'', 2020.<ref>"When A Man Loves A Woman". ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20241101075424/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/565c3d39e4b027c789ba5b70/t/629e2154d520f727f401d1a5/1654530389142/When+A+Man+Loves+A+Woman+-+Nana+Ama+Danquah+%28Accra+Noir%29.pdf Accra Noir]'' (PDF). Retrieved 11 June 2022.</ref> == References == [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Ghanaians]] [[Category:1967 births]] [[Category:Ghanaian writers]] [[Category:Women anthologists]] [[Category:Women essayists]] [[Category:Women memoirists]] [[Category:Ghanaian women short story writers]] [[Category:People wey komot Accra]] [[Category:Ghanaian emigrants to de United States]] [[Category:Writers wey komot Accra]] [[Category:American women memoirists]] [[Category:American people of Ghanaian descent]] [[Category:Bennington College alumni]] [[Category:University of Ghana people]] <references /> ==External links== * [https://kentgh.wordpress.com/2011/04/15/interview-ghanas-literary-icon-%E2%80%93-nana-ama-danquah/ "INTERVIEW: Ghana's literary icon – Nana-Ama Danquah"], Kent's Diaries, 15 April 2011. * [https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/on-the-margin-thursday-march-4-2021/id1155173935?i=1000511583181 Guest: Nana-Ama Danquah, editor of ''Accra Noir''], ''On The Margin'' with Ethelbert Miller, WPFW, 4 March 2021. * Joanne Hichens, [https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/books/news/2022-01-18-qa-with-ghanas-nana-ama-danquah/ "Q&A with Ghana’s Nana-Ama Danquah"], ''TimesLIVE'', 18 January 2022. * [https://africainwords.com/2022/07/13/qas-nana-ama-danquah-ako-caine-prize-shortlist-2022/ "Q&As: Nana-Ama Danquah – AKO Caine Prize shortlist 2022"], ''Africa In Words'', 13 July 2022. sjg87joam9ro1i0vvwypit6l9u2f26g 0 6212 104613 104083 2026-06-22T22:16:51Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104613 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Mouloud Mammeri University of Tizi Ouzou''' be university insyd Tizi Ouzou, [[Algeria]]. Dem name am as after Mouloud Mammeri. As of 2012 Naceur Eddine Haddachi be de rector of de university.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20151002204621/http://www.ummto.dz/spip.php?rubrique1 Bienvenue du Recteur]." () Mouloud Mammeri University of Tizi Ouzou. Retrieved on 23 September 2012.</ref> De university get eight faculties den twenty-five departments.<ref name="History">"[https://web.archive.org/web/20180116060624/http://www.ummto.dz/spip.php?rubrique388 Historique]" (). Mouloud Mammeri University of Tizi Ouzou. Retrieved on 23 September 2012.</ref> == History == Insyd 1977 Presido of Algeria Houari Boumediene inaugurate de ''Centre Universitaire de Tizi-Ouzou'' (C.U.T.O.) as per de executive decree No. 17-77 of 20 June 1977.<ref name="History"/> De University Hospital employ Africa ein first woman neurosurgeon, Faiza Lalam, insyd 1982. == References == <references /> == External links == Wikimedia Commons get media wey dey relate to '''''[[commons:Category:University_of_Tizi-Ouzou|University of Tizi-Ouzou]]'''''. * [http://www.ummto.dz/ Mouloud Mammeri University of Tizi Ouzou] (insyd French) {{Authority control}} [[Category:1977 establishments insyd Algeria]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 1977]] [[Category:Universities insyd Algeria]] [[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Tizi Ouzou Province]] [[Category:Education insyd Algeria]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 1977]] es5x6dxty3mc8lpq5dcfjl9ngnyqqfj 0 13201 104608 82898 2026-06-22T19:30:48Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104608 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque_Kadirga_plan_Gurlitt_1912.jpg|right|thumb|Plan by Cornelius Gurlitt, 1912]] [[File:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque_Kadirga_section_Gurlitt_1912.jpg|right|thumb|Cross section by Cornelius Gurlitt, 1912]] '''Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque''' (Turkish: ''Sokollu Mehmet Paşa Camii'') be a 16th-century Ottoman mosque insyd de Kadırga neighborhood insyd Fatih district, Istanbul, [[Turkey]]. Ne be commissioned jointly by de grand vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha den ein wifey İsmihan Sultan. Na ebe designed by de imperial architect Mimar Sinan wey na dem plete am insyd 1571/2. Na de mosque be noted for de fine quality of de Iznik tiles wey decorate de interior walls. == History == Na de mosque be designed by Ottoman imperial architect Mimar Sinan give de grand vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha den ein wifey İsmihan Sultan, a daughter of Selim II den one of de granddaughters of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.<ref>[[:en:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque,_Kadırga#CITEREFNecipo%C4%9Flu2005|Necipoğlu 2005]], pp. 331–335.</ref> According to de foundation inscription insyd Turkish above de north entrance to de courtyard, na dem plete de building insyd AH&nbsp;979 (1571/72 CE). Although İsmihan Sultan den ein husby jointly endow de mosque, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha per dem list for de foundation inscription.<ref>[[:en:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque,_Kadırga#CITEREFNecipo%C4%9Flu2005|Necipoğlu 2005]], pp. 335–337.</ref> == Architecture == === Exterior === Dem note de mosque for ein architecturally challenging location for a steep slope. Sinan resolve dis issue by fronting de mosque plus a two-storey courtyard. Dem divide de bottom storey into shops, wey na ein rents dem intend make e help support de upkeep of de mosque. De upper storey plus an open colonnaded courtyard get de spaces between de columns on three sides walled off make dem form small rooms, each plus a small window, fireplace den niche make e store bedding, dey form de living accommodations give a madrasah. De fourth side of de courtyard be de mosque einself, wich dem design as a hexagon dem inscribe insyd a rectangle, topped by a dome plus four small semi-domes insyd de corners.<ref>[[:en:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque,_Kadırga#CITEREFGoodwin2003|Goodwin 2003]], pp. 272–275.</ref> De dome be {{convert|13|m|ft}} for diameter insyd den {{convert|22.8|m|ft}} high.<ref>[[:en:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque,_Kadırga#CITEREFNecipo%C4%9Flu2005|Necipoğlu 2005]], p. 340.</ref> De ablution fountain insyd de courtyard get twelve columns wey dey support an onion shaped dome.<ref>[[:en:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque,_Kadırga#CITEREFNecipo%C4%9Flu2005|Necipoğlu 2005]], p. 339.</ref> Dem place de single minaret for de northeast corner of de mosque.<ref>[[:en:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque,_Kadırga#CITEREFGoodwin2003|Goodwin 2003]], p. 276.</ref> ===Interior=== De interior of de Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque be famous for de İznik tiles, dem decorate plus a wide variety of blue, red den green floral designs, plus panels of calligraphy for white ''thuluth'' letters for a blue ground.<ref>[[:en:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque,_Kadırga#CITEREFDenny2004|Denny 2004]], pp. 101–107.</ref> De interior columns make use of polychrome marble. Dem make de ''minbar'' of white marble plus a conical cap, dem sheath insyd Iznik tiles. De windows above de ''mihrab'' get stained glass. Above de main entrance, dem frame by a gilded brass bezel, be a fragment of de [[Kaaba]] insyd [[Mecca]]; oda fragments of dis black stone be above de ''minbar'' den ''mihrab''.<ref>[[:en:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque,_Kadırga#CITEREFDenny2004|Denny 2004]], p. 105.</ref> As well as de tilework, na dem originally paint de parts of de mosque. Na dem renovate chaw of de paintwork buh sam of de original paintwork dey survive above de vestibule of de north entrance, for de brackets wey dey support de balcony above de entrance, den under de ceilings of de side galleries.<ref>[[:en:Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha_Mosque,_Kadırga#CITEREFNecipo%C4%9Flu2005|Necipoğlu 2005]], p. 341, figs 333-34.</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Mosque Dome Painting -Sep 2010.jpg|Dome View File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Camii interior.jpg|Interior view File:Mehmet Pasha Mosque 11.jpg|Detail File:Mehmet Pasha Mosque.jpg File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 7346.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque front File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 7342.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque courtyard File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5722.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque courtyard File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 7335.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5710.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque mihrab and minber File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5716.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque mihrab den minber File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5719.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque mihrab den minber detail File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5715.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Mosque calligraphic tiles File:Istanbul Sokollu Mosque 2002 399.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Mosque calligraphic tiles File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5253.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Mosque Iznik tiles File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5706.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Mosque Iznik tiles File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5702.jpg|Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Mosque Iznik tiles </gallery> == References == [[Category:2025 Wiki Dey Love Ramadan Contributions]] <references /> == Sources == * {{cite book|last=Denny|first=Walter B.|year=2004|title=Iznik: The Artistry of Ottoman Ceramics|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|isbn=978-0-500-51192-3}} * {{cite book|last=Goodwin|first=Godfrey|year=2003|orig-year=1971|title=A History of Ottoman Architecture|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|isbn=978-0-500-27429-3}} * {{cite book|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|year=2005|title=The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Reaktion Books|place=London|isbn=978-1-86189-253-9}} == Read further == * {{cite book|last=Faroqhi|first=Suraiyah|year=2005|title=Subjects of the Sultan: Culture and Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=1-85043-760-2}} * {{cite book|last=Rogers|first=J.M.|year=2007|title=Sinan: Makers of Islamic Civilization|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-096-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/sinan0000roge}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20231116112125/https://www.archnet.org/sites/2787 Sokullu Mehmet Paşa ve Ismihan Sultan Külliyesi (Kadırga)], ArchNet. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20241202041453/http://www.3dmekanlar.com/en/sokullu-mosque-2.html 360 degree panoramic view of the mosque interior], 3dmekanlar. * [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/sokollumehmet Photographs of the Sokollu Mehmet Mosque by Dick Osseman] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Religious buildings den structures dem plete insyd 1572]] [[Category:Mimar Sinan buildings]] [[Category:Ottoman mosques insyd Istanbul]] [[Category:1572 establishments insyd de Ottoman Empire]] [[Category:Fatih]] [[Category:Mosques dem plete insyd de 1570s]] 03wopz4oh7wmgzt4xvdb7scwzx81l03 0 16048 104593 79986 2026-06-22T17:11:08Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104593 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Reparations for slavery''' be reparations for victims of slavery. [[Reparations (transitional justice)|Reparations]] fi take chaw forms, wey dey include financial compensation, legal remedy of damages, public apology den guarantees of non-repetition. Victims of slavery fi refer to historical slavery anaa ongoing slavery insyd de 21st century. Sam reparations for slavery date back to de 18th century. ==United Nations resolution== [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 60/147]] dey refer to measures to repair violations of human rights wey dey include restitution den compensation.<ref name="e910">{{cite web | title=Reparations | website=OHCHR | date=15 December 2020 | url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/transitional-justice/reparations | access-date=31 May 2025}}</ref> ==Types== Reparations fi take chaw forms, wey dey include practical measures such as individual monetary payments; settlements; scholarships den oda educational schemes; systemic initiatives to offset injustices; anaa land-based compensation wey relate to independence. Oda types of reparations dey include apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices;<ref name="UMass Reparations Article">{{cite web |url=https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations |title=An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations |first=Allen |last=Davis |publisher=University of Massachusetts Amherst |access-date=July 12, 2020 |date=May 11, 2020}}</ref> de removal of monuments den renaming of streets wey dey honour enslavers den defenders of slavery; anaa naming a building after an enslaved person anaa someone wey be connected plus abolition.<ref name="Black Asheville Demands">{{cite web |website=Black Asheville Demands (BAD)|title= Reparations Section |url=https://www.blackavldemands.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=15 June 2020 |access-date=July 12, 2020 |date=June 26, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered|url=https://wlos.com/news/local/vance-monument-robert-e-lee-confederate-monuments-downtown-asheville-removed-covered |date=July 10, 2020 |access-date=July 12, 2020 |first1=Kristy |last1=Kepley-Steward |first2=Stephanie |last2=Santostasi |website=wlos.com}}</ref> Development aid be generally no be counted as reparations.<ref name="u881">{{cite journal |last=Andrews |first=Kehinde |year=2024 |title=The Knife is Still in Our Backs: Reparations Washing and the Limits of Reparatory Justice Campaigns |journal=Development and Change |publisher=Wiley |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=628–650 |doi=10.1111/dech.12848 |issn=0012-155X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Sam dey view financial reparations be insufficient, den dey demand as reparations for slavery opportunity to repatriate to country of origin before slavery den "dey bring an end to de current political den economic system".<ref name="u881" /> == By region of perpetration == ===== Netherlands ===== For December 2022, the prime minister wey dem dey call Mark Rutte from Netherlands come apologize for the Dutch Government about their role for slavery during one event for National Archives for The Hague, wey e get plenty people from different advocacy groups. Dem also talk say dem go give €200 million to help 'raise awareness, make people engage and face wetin slavery dey do now', and dem dey plan big event for 1 July 2023 to remember slavery history with Dutch Caribbean nations, Suriname, and other countries.<ref>{{cite web|date=19 December 2022|title=Government apologises for the Netherlands' role in the history of slavery|url=https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2022/12/19/government-apologises-for-the-netherlands-role-in-the-history-of-slavery|access-date=12 May 2023|website=Government of the Netherlands}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Mission Statement|url=https://www.heirsofslavery.org/mission-statement|access-date=12 May 2023|website=Heirs of Slavery}}</ref> ===== United Kingdom ===== By 2010s, e be said examples of international reparations for slavery be say dem sabi say slavery wrong, and dem go apologize for the matter, but no money go come inside.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Howard-Hassmann |first=Rhoda E. |author-link=Rhoda E. Howard-Hassmann |date=2004 |title=Reparations to Africa and the Group of Eminent Persons |url=https://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/4543?lang=en |journal=Cahiers d'Études africaines |volume=44 |issue=173–174 |pages=81–97 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.4543 |s2cid=145746084 |access-date=July 20, 2020 |quote=...a French law of 2001 that recognizes the trans-Atlantic slave trade as a crime against humanity, and the admission by the Belgians in 2002 of their role in the murder of Patrice Lumumba, first President of independent Congo. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Blair apology">{{cite web|date=27 November 2006|title=Blair 'sorrow' over slave trade {{!}} Prime Minister Tony Blair has said he feels 'deep sorrow' for Britain's role in the slave trade|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6185176.stm|access-date=15 March 2007|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> For June 2023, Brattle Group drop report for one event for University of the West Indies wey talk say dem estimate reparations for all di wahala during and after transatlantic chattel slavery go pass 100 trillion dollars.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mahon|first=Leah|date=August 2023|title=£18 trillion – what Britain owes in reparations. Time to pay up|pages=6–7|url=https://www.voice-online.co.uk/news/features-news/2023/07/28/18-trillion-what-britain-owes-in-reparations-time-to-pay-up/|newspaper=[[The Voice (British newspaper)|The Voice]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Brown|first=Kim|date=2023-07-10|title=Brattle Consultants Quantify Reparations for Transatlantic Chattel Slavery in Pro Bono Paper|url=https://www.brattle.com/insights-events/publications/brattle-consultants-quantify-reparations-for-transatlantic-chattel-slavery-in-pro-bono-paper/|access-date=2023-08-03|website=Brattle|language=en-US}}</ref> For October 2023, UK Reparations Conference happen, dem issue joint declaration say full reparatory justice dey must be 'pursue and achieve'.<ref>{{cite web|title=UK Reparations Conference 2023 Statement|url=https://www.appg-ar.org/uk-reparations-conference-2023-statement|access-date=2024-05-22|publisher=All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) for Afrikan Reparations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Holloway|first=Lester|date=November 2023|title=Reparations on the agenda|pages=8|work=[[The Voice (British newspaper)|The Voice]]}}</ref> ===== Slave owners' compensation (1837) ===== Di Slave Compensation Act 1837 na one law wey UK parliament sign on 23 December 1837, e be to make sure dem go free di slaves wey dem go pay dem some money.<ref>{{cite web|date=1837|title=1837: 1 Victoria c.3: Slavery Compensation Act|url=https://statutes.org.uk/site/the-statutes/nineteenth-century/1837-1-victoria-c-3-slavery-compensation-act/|access-date=5 January 2023|publisher=[[British Government]]|via=The Statutes Project}}</ref> Dem wey dey enslave people collect around £20 million as compensation for 40,000 awards wey dey for enslaved pipo wey dem free for Caribbean, Mauritius, and Cape of Good Hope.<ref>{{cite book|title=BBC History magazine|date=June 2010|publisher=Bristol Magazines Ltd|issn=1469-8552}}</ref> Dis one be like 40 percent of di British Treasury yearly money wey dem dey chop, and e fit make am about £16.5bn for today level.<ref name="naarc">{{cite web|date=7 October 2021|title=Britain's colonial shame: Slave-owners given huge payouts after abolition|url=https://reparationscomm.org/reparations-news/britains-colonial-shame-slave-owners-given-huge-payouts-after-abolition/|access-date=6 January 2023|website=[[National African American Reparations Commission]] (NAARC)}}</ref> Some payments turn 3.5% government annuities, wey make the process dey long like dat.<ref>{{cite web|last=Brown|first=Matthew|date=30 June 2020|title=Fact check: United Kingdom finished paying off debts to slave-owning families in 2015|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2020/06/30/fact-check-u-k-paid-off-debts-slave-owning-families-2015/3283908001/|access-date=5 January 2023|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> ===== Abuja Proclamation and ARM (1993) ===== Africa Reparations Movement, wey dem dey call ARM (UK), na im be formed for 1993 after dem declare Abuja Proclamation for First Pan-African Conference wey happen for Abuja, Nigeria, that same year. Di conference na Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and di Nigerian government organize am.<ref name="cr">{{cite web|title=African Union - Colonialism|url=https://www.colonialismreparation.org/en/compensations/african-union-colonialism.html|access-date=12 May 2023|website=Colonialism Reparation}}</ref> For early 1993, British MP Bernie Grant waka go round di country dey talk say we need reparations for slavery matter.<ref>{{cite web|last=Grant|first=Bernie|title=Reparations or Bust!|url=http://berniegrantarchive.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Reparations-or-Bust-Speech.pdf|series=Information Sheet No. 3|publisher=Africa Reparations Movement (UK)|pages=1–10|quote=...edited version of a speech he gave in Birmingham on 12th April...}}</ref> For 10 May 1993, e bring motion come House of Commons wey talk say, make House welcome di proclamation and sabi say di proclamation dey "call make di international community recognize say di moral debt wey dem owe African people him never settle, and e dey urge all di countries wey profit from enslavement and colonization make dem check di matter for reparations wey dem suppose pay to Africa and Africans wey dey Diaspora; e recognize di palava wey still dey affect di economy and personal life of Africa and Africans for Diaspora and di racism wey come out from am; and e dey support di OAU as dem dey push hard to pursue di matter of reparations." Di motion na Bernie Grant, Tony Benn, Tony Banks, John Austin-Walker, Harry Barnes, and Gerry Bermingham dey sponsor am. Plus 46 Labour Party MPs don sign join support di motion, include di future opposition leader, Jeremy Corbyn.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 May 1993|title=Abuja Proclamation – Early Day Motions|url=https://edm.parliament.uk/early-day-motion/5521/abuja-proclamation|access-date=2020-07-09|website=edm.parliament.uk|publisher=UK Parliament}}</ref> Abuja Proclamation dey call make dem set up national reparations committees everywhere for Africa and di diaspora. Bernie Grant form ARM UK for December 1993.<ref name="hub">{{cite web|title=Africa Reparations Movement (UK)|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/e592d7bc-9dd7-3c28-8a10-49f56aadecab|access-date=12 May 2023|website=Archives Hub}}</ref>as di co-founda and chairperson, with im main pipo wey include: secretary Sam Walker; treasurer Linda Bellos and trustees Patrick Wilmott, Stephen A. Small (na British scholar wey sabi slavery<ref>{{cite web|title=Stephen A. Small|url=https://africam.berkeley.edu/people/stephen-a-small/|access-date=12 May 2023|website=African American Studies}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=25 August 2020|title=Professor Stephen Small|url=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/slavery-remembrance-day/professor-stephen-small|access-date=12 May 2023|website=National Museums Liverpool}}</ref>) and Hugh Oxley.<ref name="hub3">{{cite web|title=Africa Reparations Movement (UK)|url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/e592d7bc-9dd7-3c28-8a10-49f56aadecab|access-date=12 May 2023|website=Archives Hub}}</ref> ARM aimed:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/6a140a54-662a-44cf-b533-4e8146898d7b|title=African Reparations Movement records 1963 – 2000|publisher=The National Archives|language=en|quote=This record is held by the [[Bishopsgate Institute]].}}</ref> * make we use all di legal waya we fit get back wetin we lose for slavery and colonization of Africa people for Africa and everywhere dem dey. * use all di correct ways to make sure say dem bring back African artefacts from anywhere dem dey now. * make we chop apology from western governments for how dem carry enslave and colonize African people. * make we push for people to sabi how African pipo dey contribute to world history and civilisation. * make we dey push for correct story of African history so we fit bring back respect and dignity to African pipo. * to teach and gree African youths, for the land and abroad, about di sweet African cultures, languages and our big big ways wey we live. After Bernie Grant knack bucket for 2000, ARM UK no dey active again.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stanford-Xosei|first=Esther|title=Black British History : New Perspectives|date=March 2019|publisher=Zed|isbn=978-1786994257|editor-last=Adi|editor-first=Hakim|editor-link=Hakim Adi|location=London|pages=176–198|chapter=The Long Road of Pan-African Liberation to Reparatory Justice}}</ref> ===== Class action (2004) ===== For 2004, dem lawyer wey dey carry wahala, Ed Fagan, start case against Lloyd's of London wey dey handle insurance for slave ships wey dey do transatlantic slave trade.<ref>{{Cite journal |year=2004 |title=Slave descendants file $1 billion lawsuit against companies with alleged ties to slave trade |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CL4DAAAAMBAJ&q=lloyds+of+london+genocide&pg=PA36 |journal=Jet |volume=150 |issue=17 |pages=36–37}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2004/mar/28/insurance.usnews|title=Slave descendants sue Lloyd's for billions|last=Walsh|first=Conal|date=27 March 2004|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-03-14|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/uk/3578863.stm Slave descendants to sue Lloyd's]". [[BBC News]], 29 March 2004. Retrieved on 15 October 2009.</ref>The case no work at all.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Stamp|first=Gavin|date=20 March 2007|title=Counting the cost of the slave trade|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6422721.stm|access-date=2017-03-14|website=BBC News news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> ===== Apologies ===== For 27 November 2006, British PM Tony Blair talk say him dey feel 'deep sorrow' for wetin Britain do for slave trade, e say na 'profoundly shameful' matter. Reparations activists for UK no gree rest, Esther Stanford talk say Blair suppose give 'real apology', wey go follow with 'plenty reparative measures wey include money compensation'.<ref name="Blair apology2">{{cite web|date=27 November 2006|title=Blair 'sorrow' over slave trade {{!}} Prime Minister Tony Blair has said he feels 'deep sorrow' for Britain's role in the slave trade|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6185176.stm|access-date=15 March 2007|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Blair come chop another apology for 2007 after e meet Ghana's President John Kufuor.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6451793.stm "Blair 'sorry' for UK slavery role"]. BBC News, 14 March 2007. Accessed 15 March 2007.</ref> For 24 August 2007, di former Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, talk say he sorry for how London take part for transatlantic slave trade during di event wey dem mark 200 years since dem pass di 1807 Slave Trade Act. For him speech, he urge di British Government make dem pass law wey go bring UK-wide Annual Slavery Memorial Day wey go remember di slavery.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2007/aug/24/london.humanrights|title=Livingstone weeps as he apologises for slavery|date=24 August 2007|newspaper=The Guardian|last1=Muir|first1=Hugh|access-date=30 July 2014}}</ref> ===== Heirs of Slavery ===== For February 2023, former BBC journalist Laura Trevelyan wey her family get plantations for Grenada, go Grenada come apologize for the damage wey dem cause and also to give reparations. Her family don still apologize to di island nation for di harm wey slavery bring, and dem dey call British Prime Minister and King Charles make dem also apologize officially for di UK.<ref name="baker2023">{{cite web|last=Baker|first=Nick|date=11 May 2023|title=These British 'heirs of slavery' are trying to make amends for past wrongs|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-11/british-heirs-of-slavery-reparations-caribbean/102308216|access-date=11 May 2023|website=[[ABC News (Australia)]]}}</ref> For April 2023, she start Heirs of Slavery, na group wey get pikin dem wey profit from British transatlantic slavery and wan make amends. Trevelyan family don drop money for education matter for Grenada through CARICOM, dem dey hope say Heirs of Slavery go fit do same for bigger level. By May 2023, the other members of the group be David Lascelles, 8th Earl of Harewood; Charles Gladstone, wey be pikin of prime minister William Gladstone; journalist Alex Renton;<ref name="baker20232">{{cite web|last=Baker|first=Nick|date=11 May 2023|title=These British 'heirs of slavery' are trying to make amends for past wrongs|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-11/british-heirs-of-slavery-reparations-caribbean/102308216|access-date=11 May 2023|website=[[ABC News (Australia)]]}}</ref> Richard Atkinson; John Dower (from Trevelyan family); Rosemary Harrison; and Robin Wedderburn.<ref>{{cite web|date=26 April 2023|title=About Us|url=https://www.heirsofslavery.org/members|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503095309/https://www.heirsofslavery.org/members|archive-date=3 May 2023|access-date=12 May 2023|website=Heirs of Slavery}}</ref> ===== United States ===== {{Main|Reparations for slavery in the United States}}Slavery finish for United States for 1865 when American Civil War end and dem ratify Thirteenth Amendment to Constitution wey talk say, "No be slavery or involuntary servitude go dey, except as punishment for crime wey person don truly guilty, go fit dey inside United States or anywhere wey dem get control." <ref>{{Cite web|title=United States of America 1789 (rev. 1992)|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/United_States_of_America_1992|website=Constitute Project}}</ref>At that time, four million African Americans don free.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=Wilma |year=2004 |title=Slavery, United States |url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&id=GALE%7CCX3402800373&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&authCount=1 |journal=Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood: In History and Society |volume=3 |pages=757–758}}</ref> E get times wey dem don talk say make dem pay for slavery, from the Atlantic slave trade, wey don dey since 1783 for North America,<ref name="UMass Reparations Article2">{{cite web|last=Davis|first=Allen|date=May 11, 2020|title=An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations|url=https://guides.library.umass.edu/reparations|access-date=July 12, 2020|publisher=University of Massachusetts Amherst}}</ref> and now plenty people dey shout for payback for slavery for US as protest dey grow around police wahala and another type of racism matter.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gambino|first=Lauren|date=June 20, 2020|title=Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/20/joe-biden-reparations-slavery-george-floyd-protests|access-date=July 20, 2020|quote="Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations."|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> Dem dey call for both pay for racism and for slavery too.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/reparations-for-slavery-arent-enough-official-racism-lasted-much-longer/2019/06/21/2c0ecbe8-9397-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html|title=Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer.|first=Cheryll|last=Cashin|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=June 21, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Black Asheville Demands2">{{cite web|date=June 26, 2020|title=Reparations Section|url=https://www.blackavldemands.org/|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615185752/https://www.blackavldemands.org/|archive-date=15 June 2020|access-date=July 12, 2020|website=Black Asheville Demands (BAD)}}</ref> U.S. reparations movement leaders don create dis racial repair framework wey go fit categorize wetin go happen for reparations for slavery: 1. Reckoning: Understand wetin happen, who do am, how e happen and why e happen. 2. Acknowledgment: Make public say harm don happen. 3. Accountability: Own up and promise say you go take action, stop di harm and make am better. 4. Redress: Dem go do restitution, give money and help people, plus take steps wey go bring racial justice come inside system and 'heal di wound'. ===== Support for reparations ===== For politics matter, dem don propose bill wey go make dem pay reparations for slavery. Na the 'Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act' be di name, wey di former Rep. John Conyers Jr. (D-MI) dey carry go Congress every year from 1989 till e resign for 2017.<ref name=":0">Conyers, John (3 October 2013). [http://ibw21.org/commentary/my-reparations-bill-hr-40/ "My Reparations Bill – HR 40"], ''IBW21'' (Institute of the Black World).</ref>As e name talk am, di bill sabi say make dem fit create one commission we go study di "impact of slavery on di social, political and economic life for we country";<ref>{{Cite web|last=114th Congress|date=2016|title=All Bill Information for H.R.40 – Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/40/all-info|website=Congress.Gov}}</ref> but e get some cities and institutions wey don start reparations for di US (check § Legislation and other actions for di list). For 1999, African-American lawyer wey dey fight for equality, Randall Robinson, wey start TransAfrica group, talk say America history of race wahala, lynching, and discrimination don cause $1.4 trillion loss for African Americans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Randall |year=1999 |title=He Drove the First U.S Stake in South African Apartheid |journal=Journal of Blacks in Higher Education |volume=24 |pages=58}}</ref>Economist Robert Browne talk say, di main aim of reparations be to "bring back di black community to di economic level e for dey if dem no suffer slavery and discrimination".<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=2000-01-01 |title=Six White Congressmen Endorse Reparations for Slavery |journal=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education |issue=27 |pages=20–21 |doi=10.2307/2678973 |jstor=2678973}}</ref> Him dey estimate say true compensation go be anywhere wey dey between $1.4 to $4.7 trillion, or about $142,000 (wey be like $188,000 for 2024) for every black American wey dey alive now.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |date=2000-01-01 |title=Six White Congressmen Endorse Reparations for Slavery |journal=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education |issue=27 |pages=20–21 |doi=10.2307/2678973 |jstor=2678973}}</ref> Other estimates dey range from $5.7 to $14.2<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Craemer |first1=Thomas |date=21 April 2015 |title=Estimating Slavery Reparations: Present Value Comparisons of Historical Multigenerational Reparations Policies |journal=Social Science Quarterly |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=639–655 |doi=10.1111/ssqu.12151}}</ref> and $17.1 trillion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Craemer |first1=Thomas |date=21 April 2015 |title=Estimating Slavery Reparations: Present Value Comparisons of Historical Multigenerational Reparations Policies |journal=Social Science Quarterly |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=639–655 |doi=10.1111/ssqu.12151}}</ref> For 2014, American journalist Ta-Nehisi Coates drop one article wey him title am "The Case for Reparations", wey talk say slavery and Jim Crow laws still dey affect people. Him dey shout for people to pay reparations again. Coates dey mention Rep. John Conyers Jr. H.R.40 Bill, and him point say Congress no fit pass this bill, e show say dem no dey ready to correct wetin dem don do wrong before.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/|title=The Case for Reparations|last=Coates|first=Ta-Nehisi|date=June 2014|work=The Atlantic}}</ref> For September 2016, United Nations' Work Group wey dey check on People of African Descent tell Congress make dem pass H.R.40 to study how to fit do reparations. But, dem no gree support any specific reparations plan. Dem report show say racial inequality still dey affect America, and dem talk say "Even though plenty things don change since Jim Crow time and civil rights fight, that ideology wey dey make one group feel say dem get power over another still dey make life hard for African Americans today." The report con add say, "that wahala ideology wey dey cause systemic racism dey make people no fit live together well for the US."<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 18, 2016|title=Report of the Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent on its mission to the United States of America|url=https://www.ushrnetwork.org/sites/ushrnetwork.org/files/unwgepad_us_visit_final_report_9_15_16.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117075452/http://www.ushrnetwork.org/sites/ushrnetwork.org/files/unwgepad_us_visit_final_report_9_15_16.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2018|access-date=11 July 2018|website=US Human Rights Network}}</ref> Di matter of reparations com back for 2020<ref>{{cite web|last1=Peyton|first1=Nellie|last2=Murray|first2=Christine|date=June 24, 2020|title=Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20200624170052-dt00z/}}</ref> as di Black Lives Matter movement talk say na one of dem policy wey dem wan pursue for United States. For 2020, rapper T.I. dey behind reparations wey go give every African American US$1 million and e talk say slavery cause plenty people for jail, poverty and many other wahala.<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 24, 2020|title=Rapper T.I. Demands $44 Trillion in Slavery Reparations|url=https://pulptastic.com/rapper-t-i-demands-44-trillion-in-slavery-reparations/|website=Pulptastic}}</ref> ===== Caribbean ===== Reparations talk really blow up for 2020 as Black Lives Matter group dey shout for am no be small for USA. When you look am from international law side, e be question if watin happen like slavery and genocide don sweet like sweet at di time wey dem do am for Caribbean; for example, 'Even though genocide don dey happen since ancient times, e be only early 20th century wey international law start to prohibit am.' Plus, as per wetin dem dey agree globally, any new government go still carry di tag of providing reparative justice. With di international principle wey dey talk about intertemporal law, wetin we fit ban today no fit apply back. Some people even talk say, exceptions dey for intertemporal law when e come to crimes against humanity because European countries no fit expect slavery for future to dey legal (dem fit call am teleological reduction of di principle). But abeg, e be complex law matter we dey talk so.<ref name="buser2017">{{Cite journal |last=Buser |first=Andreas |date=2017 |title=Colonial Injustices and the Law of State Responsibility: The CARICOM Claim to Compensate Slavery and (Native) Genocide |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3050647 |journal=Heidelberg Journal of International Law |pages=91–115 |ssrn=3050647}}</ref> ===== CARICOM Reparations Commission ===== Di Caribbean Community (CARICOM), wey dem set up for 1973, na intergovernmental group wey be political and economic union of 15 member countries for di Caribbean.<ref>{{cite news|last=Ramjeet|first=Oscar|date=2009-04-16|title=CARICOM countries will speak with one voice in meetings with US and Canadian leaders|work=Caribbean Net News|url=https://idsa.in/idsacomments/wither-caricom-prospects-post-brexit_sbmagaraj_110716|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713154312/http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/wither-caricom-prospects-post-brexit_sbmagaraj_110716|archive-date=July 13, 2016|url-status=live|access-date=2009-04-16}}</ref> E be only di English-speaking side wey join until 1995 when Suriname (Dutch) come enter; Haiti and some other non-Anglophone nations don follow join too.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spanish agreed as CARICOM second language|url=http://www.landofsixpeoples.com/news304/nc310133.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818060949/http://www.landofsixpeoples.com/news304/nc310133.htm|archive-date=2021-08-18|access-date=2020-08-04|website=www.landofsixpeoples.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Who we are|url=https://caricom.org/our-community/who-we-are/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814200923/https://caricom.org/our-community/who-we-are/|archive-date=2020-08-14|access-date=2020-08-04|publisher=Caribbean Community (CARICOM)}}</ref> For 2013, when dem start one lecture series for Georgetown, Guyana, to mark 250 years since the 1763 Berbice Slave Revolt, the Principal for Cave Hill Campus of University of the West Indies, Sir Hilary Beckles, talk say make CARICOM countries follow wetin Jews do when dem dey face wahala during Second World War, and how dem don gather money for Jewish reparations fund.<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 15, 2013|title=UWI principal wants CARICOM to seek reparation for slavery|url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/UWI-principal-wants-CARICOM-to-seek-reparation-for-slavery|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215061238/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/UWI-principal-wants-CARICOM-to-seek-reparation-for-slavery|archive-date=2013-02-15|website=Jamaica Observer}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The New York Carib News|url=https://www.nycaribnews.com/|website=New York Carib News -}}</ref> E be after Beckles' advice, dem come create CARICOM Reparations Commission for September 2013. For 2014, 15 Caribbean nations come dey show the 'CARICOM Ten Point Plan for Reparatory Justice', wey talk about how dem wan collect reparations from Europe... for all the wahala wey Atlantic slave trade put people through.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/09/caribbean-nations-demand-slavery-reparations|title=Caribbean nations prepare demand for slavery reparations|last=Pilkington|first=Ed|date=March 9, 2014|work=The Guardian}}</ref> Dem dey ask for plenty things, like formal apology from all di countries wey fit involved (not be just 'statements of regret'), make dem bring back di displaced Africans go dem own land, programs wey go help Africans sabi dem own history and share am, and institutions to make sure di descendants of slavery fit read well, be healthy, and get good mind.<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 13, 2015|title=Reparations for Native Genocide And Slavery|url=http://www.caricom.org/reparations-for-native-genocide-and-slavery|website=CARICOM}}</ref> Di representatives wey dey represent Caribbean states don talk plenty times say dem go carry dis wahala go International Court of Justice (ICJ).<ref name="buser20172">{{Cite journal |last=Buser |first=Andreas |date=2017 |title=Colonial Injustices and the Law of State Responsibility: The CARICOM Claim to Compensate Slavery and (Native) Genocide |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3050647 |journal=Heidelberg Journal of International Law |pages=91–115 |ssrn=3050647}}</ref> But as January 2023, nothing don happen wey go make di Barbadian Government case fit go international arbitration.<ref name="armitage2023">{{cite web|last=Armitage|first=Rebecca|date=4 January 2023|title=Benedict Cumberbatch's ancestors got rich from slavery in Barbados. Now he could be on the hook for reparations|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-01-04/benedict-cumberbatch-slavery-reparations/101822368|access-date=4 January 2023|website=ABC News|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]}}</ref> ===== Antigua and Barbuda ===== For 2011, Antigua and Barbuda don talk say make dem dey ask for reparations for United Nations. Dem say, "the way dem dey segregate and use violence for people wey get African blood don hold dem back from progress as nations, communities and individuals".<ref>{{cite web|last=Section|first=United Nations News Service|date=24 September 2011|title=Reparations should be made for African slave trade, Antigua and Barbuda tells UN|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39770&Cr=slave&Cr1=#.UThm9zDcTmM}}</ref> Fast forward to 2016, the Ambassador wey represent Antigua and Barbuda for United States, Sir Ronald Sanders, don urge Harvard University make dem show say dem dey sorry and pay debt to some slaves wey no fit mention from Antigua and Barbuda. Sanders talk say the first law professor for Harvard, Isaac Royall Jr., use the slaves wey dey his plantation for Antigua when e dey build Harvard Law School. E suggest say make dem do the reparations as yearly scholarships for Antiguans and Barbudans.<ref>{{cite web|last=Section|first=United Nations News Service|date=24 September 2011|title=Reparations should be made for African slave trade, Antigua and Barbuda tells UN|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39770&Cr=slave&Cr1=#.UThm9zDcTmM}}</ref> ===== Barbados ===== For 2012, Barbados government set up twelve people Reparations Task Force wey go help push for reparations matter locally, regionally, and internationally.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|author=Stan|date=November 7, 2012|title=Barbados Takes Lead in Fight For Reparations in the Caribbean|url=https://atlantablackstar.com/2012/11/06/barbados-takes-lead-in-fight-for-reparations-for-slavery-in-the-caribbean/|website=Atlanta Black Star}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Hunter|first=Patrick|date=20 February 2013|title=CARICOM and reparations for slavery|url=http://sharenews.com/caricom-and-reparations-for-slavery/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227195153/http://sharenews.com/caricom-and-reparations-for-slavery/|archive-date=27 February 2013|access-date=7 March 2013|website=Share}}</ref> Dem dey run the show for 'calling for reparations from colonial people for wetin slaves and their families suffer.' <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/britain-s-colonial-shame-slave-owners-given-huge-payouts-after-abolition-8508358.html|title=Britain's colonial shame: Slave-owners given huge payouts after|first=Sanchez|last=Manning|date=February 26, 2013|newspaper=The Independent}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|author=Stan|date=November 7, 2012|title=Barbados Takes Lead in Fight For Reparations in the Caribbean|url=https://atlantablackstar.com/2012/11/06/barbados-takes-lead-in-fight-for-reparations-for-slavery-in-the-caribbean/|website=Atlanta Black Star}}</ref> Dem talk say Barbados dey lead di way (as 2021 be) for dem wey dey call for dem wey go pay reparations for slavery.<ref name="naarc2">{{cite web|date=7 October 2021|title=Britain's colonial shame: Slave-owners given huge payouts after abolition|url=https://reparationscomm.org/reparations-news/britains-colonial-shame-slave-owners-given-huge-payouts-after-abolition/|access-date=6 January 2023|website=[[National African American Reparations Commission]] (NAARC)}}</ref> By January 2023, Barbados National Task Force on Reparations, part of CARICOM Reparations Commission, dey hot on wealthy British MP Richard Drax for him family paddy wey get hand for slavery matter. Drax family get big estate for Barbados; Richard Drax dey worth 'at least £150m.'<ref name="lashmar">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/26/barbados-tory-mp-pay-reparations-family-slave-richard-drax-caribbean-sugar-plantation|title=Barbados plans to make Tory MP pay reparations for family's slave past|first1=Paul|last1=Lashmar|first2=Jonathan|last2=Smith|access-date=4 January 2023|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=26 November 2022}}</ref> If dem no gree make Drax Hall return to Barbados, government go carry am go international arbitration.<ref name="armitage20232">{{cite web|last=Armitage|first=Rebecca|date=4 January 2023|title=Benedict Cumberbatch's ancestors got rich from slavery in Barbados. Now he could be on the hook for reparations|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-01-04/benedict-cumberbatch-slavery-reparations/101822368|access-date=4 January 2023|website=ABC News|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]}}</ref> ===== Guyana ===== For 2007, Guyana President Bharrat Jagdeo don talk say European countries make dem pay back for slave trade.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|date=27 March 2007|title=Guyana calls for reparations|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2007/03/070327_jagdeoreparations.shtml|publisher=BBCCaribbean.com}}</ref> President Jagdeo yan: "Even though some people for international community don sabi say dem get hand for this bad matter, dem need to carry am go further and support make dem pay reparations."<ref name=":22">{{cite web|date=27 March 2007|title=Guyana calls for reparations|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2007/03/070327_jagdeoreparations.shtml|publisher=BBCCaribbean.com}}</ref> For 2014, Guyana Parliament come set up "Reparations Committee of Guyana" wey go check how slavery affect people and create formal demand for dem to pay back.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Establishment of the Reparations Committee of Guyana|url=http://parliament.gov.gy/chamber-business/notice-papers/establishment-of-the-reparations-committee-of-guyana/|website=Parliament of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana}}</ref> ===== Haiti ===== Haiti take im independence from France for 1804 after wahala wey no dey easy, so di matter for reparations fit make sense. After small time, France come demand say di new Haiti go pay dem 90 million francs for di 'theft' wey be di lives of di people wey dem enslave (dem call am compensated emancipation) and di land wey dem turn to sugar and coffee farms to sabi say di new nation get im independence.<ref name="odiousdebts.org">{{cite web|last=De Côrdoba|first=José|date=January 2, 2004|title=Impoverished Haiti pins hopes for future on a very old debt|url=http://www.odiousdebts.org/odiousdebts/index.cfm?DSP=content&ContentID=9636|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112093243/http://www.odiousdebts.org/odiousdebts/index.cfm?DSP=content&ContentID=9636|archive-date=2010-11-12|access-date=2011-03-08|via=Odious Debts|newspaper=Wall Street Journal}}</ref> French banks and Citibank carry di debt go and e finish for 1947.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0817/France-dismisses-petition-for-it-to-pay-17-billion-in-Haiti-reparations|title=France dismisses petition for it to pay $17 billion in Haiti reparations|date=2010-08-17|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|access-date=2019-08-31|issn=0882-7729|first=Robert|last=Marquand}}</ref> For 2003, di president wey dey Haiti den Jean-Bertrand Aristide talk say make France pay Haiti more than US$21 billion, na wetin be di current money wey e equal to di 90 million gold francs wey Haiti gatz pay to fit get international recognition.<ref name="Jackson Miller">{{cite news|first=Dionne|last=Jackson Miller|title=HAITI: Aristide's Call for Reparations From France Unlikely to Die|date=March 12, 2004|access-date=20 April 2009|publisher=[[Inter Press Service]] news|url=http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=22828|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202065348/http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=22828|archive-date=2 December 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Revolution">{{cite web|last=Smitha|first=Frank E.|title=Haiti, 1789 to 1806|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h34-np2.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212182348/http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h34-np2.html|archive-date=2009-02-12|access-date=2009-04-20}}</ref> Aristide later accuse France and di United States say dem carry him go down for coup wey dem do am well well: e say na because of di demands wey him make. ===== Jamaica ===== For 2004, some Jamaican activists join together, with Rastafari pipo dey demand say European countries wey join for slave trade go fit support make dem settle 500,000 Rastafari for Ethiopia (dem dey calculate am say na 72.5 billion pound sterling, or about $150,000 per person). But British government no gree take the demand.<ref name="JamaicanCommission">{{cite news|title=Jamaicans Form Commission to Investigate Slavery Reparations from Britain|date=1 November 2012|agency=Associated Press|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jamaica-revives-slavery-reparations-commission|access-date=23 December 2012|archive-date=26 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026141900/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jamaica-revives-slavery-reparations-commission|url-status=dead}}</ref> For 2012, Jamaican Government don wake back their reparations commission make dem fit check if di country go fit ask for apology or reparations from Britain for wetin dem do for slave trade.<ref name="JamaicanCommission2">{{cite news|title=Jamaicans Form Commission to Investigate Slavery Reparations from Britain|date=1 November 2012|agency=Associated Press|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jamaica-revives-slavery-reparations-commission|access-date=23 December 2012|archive-date=26 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026141900/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jamaica-revives-slavery-reparations-commission|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dem opposition talk say because Britain help stop di slave trade, dem no suppose give any reparations. For 2021, Jamaican government check di matter again about reparations for slavery. Reports show say dem dey look for like 7 billion pounds sterling as reparations for di damages wey slavery cause, plus di 20 million wey British government don pay to former enslavers.<ref>{{Cite web|last=McLeod|first=Sheri-Kae|date=2021-07-15|title=Jamaica Demands Billions in Slavery Reparations from UK|url=https://www.caribbeannationalweekly.com/caribbean-breaking-news-featured/jamaica-demands-billions-in-slavery-reparations-from-uk/|access-date=2021-07-15|website=Caribbean News|language=en}}</ref> ===== Muslim world ===== Dem don talk say make dem fit give reparations for di slavery wey happen for Muslim world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brown|first=J.A.C.|title=Slavery and Islam|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year=2020|isbn=9781786076366}}</ref> == By region of origin of slaves == ===== Africa ===== {{Further|African apologies for the Atlantic slave trade}}For 1999, di African World Reparations and Repatriation Truth Commission yan say West make dem pay Africa $777 trillion (like $1.34 quadrillion for 2023) within five years.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC|title=Africa Trillions demanded in slavery reparations|date=August 20, 1999|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/424984.stm}}</ref> For September 2001, United Nations host World Conference wey dey tackle Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and all di wahala for Durban, South Africa. Di Durban Review Conference come drop one resolution wey talk say di West suppose pay back Africa because of di "racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia, and di yawa wey Atlantic slave trade bring come".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Howard-Hassmann |first=Rhoda E. |date=2004-01-01 |title=Reparations to Africa and the Group of Eminent Persons (Les réparations pour l'Afrique et le Groupe de personnalités éminentes) |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=44 |issue=173/174 |pages=81–97 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.4543 |jstor=4393370 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.un.org/WCAR/pressreleases/rd-d24.html|title=Acknowledgement of Past, Compensation Urged by Many Leaders in Continuing Debate at Racism Conference|publisher=World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance|date=September 2, 2001|access-date=November 15, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.un.org/WCAR/pressreleases/rd-d35.htm|title=Action Against Wide Range of Discriminatory Practices Urged at Racism Conference|publisher=United Nations|access-date=November 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807020652/http://www.un.org/WCAR/pressreleases/rd-d35.htm|archive-date=August 7, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Plenty African leaders back this resolution. Di former Minister of Justice for Sudan, Ali Mohamed Osman Yassin, talk say di slave trade na di main wahala wey dey cause Africa current gbege. President Cyril Ramaphosa dey back reparations for slavery and slave trade, to celebrate 20 years of Durban declaration.[https://www.timeslive.co.za/politics/2021-09-22-un-must-prioritise-repatriation-of-victims-of-slave-trade-says-ramaphosa/][https://dirco.gov.za/president-cyril-ramaphosa-arrives-in-addis-ababa-ethiopia-leading-the-south-african-delegation-to-the-african-union-summit/][https://www.news24.com/ramaphosa-asks-un-to-discuss-reparations-for-slavery-20210922][https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-general-assembly-africa-caribbean-united-states-middle-east-7954470f191f811d6bcc65542faa6f32][https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-09-22/south-africa-calls-for-reparations-for-victims-of-slave-trade] ===== African Union and Caricom Global Reparation Fund ===== African Union and Caricom dem set up Global Reparation Fund for conference wey happen for Ghana for November 2023.<ref name="GuardNov23">{{cite news|last=Gentleman|first=Amelia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/nov/17/african-and-caribbean-nations-agree-move-to-seek-reparations-for-slavery|title=African and Caribbean nations agree move to seek reparations for slavery|date=17 November 2023|access-date=17 November 2023|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> President of Ghana, Nana Akufo-Addo, talk for the conference say, "All di time wey slavery dey happen, our progress, for money, culture, and mind matter, dey suffer. Plenty stories dey about families wey slavery scatter ... You no fit put number for di wahala wey dem tragedies cause, but e need make we sabi am."<ref name="GuardNov232">{{cite news|last=Gentleman|first=Amelia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/nov/17/african-and-caribbean-nations-agree-move-to-seek-reparations-for-slavery|title=African and Caribbean nations agree move to seek reparations for slavery|date=17 November 2023|access-date=17 November 2023|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> == Criticism == Pipo no dey support slavery reparations well well for America. One study wey YouGov do for 2014 show say only 37% of Americans feel say dem for pay cash to enslaved pipo when dem free am. Plus, only 15% believe say the children of dem wey be enslaved for collect cash too. E show say black and white Americans get clear wahala. The study talk say: "Only 6% of white Americans gree say make dem pay cash to the children of slaves, but 59% of black Americans dey support am. E be same too, only 19% of whites – but 63% of blacks – go support special education and job training programs for the children of slaves."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moore|first=Peter|date=2 June 2014|title=Overwhelming opposition to reparations for slavery and Jim Crow {{!}} YouGov|url=https://today.yougov.com/topics/politics/articles-reports/2014/06/02/reparations|access-date=2020-02-13|website=today.yougov.com|language=en-us}}</ref> For 2014, as Ta-Nehisi Coates drop im article wey dem dey call "The Case for Reparations", one conservative journalist, Kevin D. Williamson, come publish im own article wey dem name "The Case Against Reparations". Inside dat one, Williamson talk say: "De people wey dem owe reparations don don die long time ago."<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2014/05/case-against-reparations-kevin-d-williamson/|title=The Case Against Reparations|last=Williamson|first=Kevin D.|date=May 24, 2014|work=National Review}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite news|title=The centuries-long fight for reparations|first=Ana Lucia|last=Araujo|author-link=|date=April 28, 2019 |newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/04/28/centuries-long-fight-reparations/}} <!--* Araujo, Ana Lucia. 2017. "Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History"?'','' New York: Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 276.--> * Araujo, Ana Lucia. 2017. ''Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History'', New York / London: Bloomsbury Academic. {{ISBN|135001060X}} * Barragan, Yesenia. 2021. ''Freedom's Captives: Slavery and Gradual Emancipation on the Colombian Black Pacific (Afro-Latin America)'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{doi|10.1017/9781108935890}} * Beckles, Hilary. ''Britain's Black Debt: Reparations for Caribbean Slavery and Native Genocide'', Kingston: University of the West Indies Press, 2013. {{ISBN|978-9766402686}} * Buser, Andreas. [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3050647 "Colonial Injustices and the Law of State Responsibility: The CARICOM Claim to Compensate Slavery and (Native) Genocide"], ''Heidelberg Journal of International Law'' (2017), pp.&nbsp;409–446. * Coates, Ta-Nehisi. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ "The Case for Reparations"], ''The Atlantic'', June 2014. * du Plessis, Max. 2003. "Historical Injustice and International Law: An Exploratory Discussion of Reparation for Slavery" Human Rights Quarterly, 25(3), 624–659. * Manjapra, Kris. June 17, 2022. "D.C.'s Enslavers Got Reparations. Freed People Got Nothing", ''Politico''. * Manjapra, Kris. 2019. "The Scandal of the British Slavery Abolition Act Loan", ''Social and Economic Studies'', 68(3/4), 165–184. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/45299245 45299245] * America, Richard F. ''Wealth of Races: The Present Value of Benefits from Past Injustices''. Praeger Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0313257531}} * Burlette, Carterm W.. [http://scholarship.law.gwu.edu/faculty_publications/1030/ "True Reparations"], ''The George Washington Law Review'', Vol. 68, No. 1021, 2000. * America, Richard F. "Racial Inequality, Economic Dysfunction, and Reparations'','' Challenge, ''Vol. 38, No. 6, 1995, pp.&nbsp;40–45. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40721651 40721651]'' ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * ''[https://policy.m4bl.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Reparations-Now-Toolkit-FINAL.pdf Reparations Now Toolkit] [https://web.archive.org/web/20191015100013/https://policy.m4bl.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Reparations-Now-Toolkit-FINAL.pdf Archived] 15 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine'', Movement for Black Lives, 2019. * ''[http://www.c-span.org/person/?richardamerica The Case for Black Reparations]'', Richard F. America, C-SPAN video of the TransAfrica Forum, 11 January 2000. * ''[https://www.npr.org/programs/specials/racism/010827.reparations.html Making Amends: Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery]'', National Public Radio, August 27, 2001. *[http://www.zinnedproject.org/news/reparations-and-climate-justice/ Reparations and Climate Justice] (w/ Olúfẹ́mi O. Táíwò), part of the Teach the Black Freedom Struggle online series. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20250610110920/https://caricomreparations.org/ Caribbean Reparations Commission] [[Category:Reparations for slavery| ]] drgwyo0wbwk6zsuu6n9j5ea7uvwjg76 0 27437 104458 104093 2026-06-22T14:46:22Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104458 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image (SeaWiFS) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast inland delta for [[Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[Okavango River]] dey reach a tectonic trough at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de endorheic basin of de Kalahari Desert insyd. E be a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Site as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately evaporate den transpire. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into Lake Ngami. De area be once part of Lake Makgadikgadi, an ancient lake dat de early Holocene already mostly dry up. De Moremi Game Reserve dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de Seven Natural Wonders of Africa, wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for Arusha, [[Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de Kavango pippoe of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say German colonial reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to Herero influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == === Floods === Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid transpiration den evaporation, wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during Botswana ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of wildlife. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger lagoons insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant palm tree. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as termite mounds (often ''Macrotermes'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a fault line form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an oasis for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de big five game animals, de lion, leopard, African buffalo, African bush elephant, black den white rhinoceros dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of lechwe antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de red lechwe, plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de giraffe, blue wildebeest, plains zebra, hippopotamus,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> impala, common eland, greater kudu, sable antelope, roan antelope, puku, waterbuck, sitatunga, tsessebe, cheetah,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> African wild dog, spotted hyena, black-backed jackal, caracal, serval, aardvark, aardwolf, bat-eared fox, African savanna hare, honey badger, common warthog, chacma baboon, vervet monkey den Nile crocodile.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de helmeted guineafowl, African fish eagle, Pel's fishing owl, Egyptian goose, South African shelduck, African jacana, African skimmer, marabou stork, crested crane, African spoonbill, African darter, southern ground hornbill, wattled crane,<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> lilac-breasted roller, secretary bird den common ostrich.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus Hwange National Park.<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. === Fish === De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de tigerfish, species of tilapia, den various species of catfish. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) African sharptooth catfish to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) sickle barb. De same species dey occur for de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''Papyrus cyperus'' for de deeper waters insyd'', Miscanthus'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''Phragmites australis'', ''Typha capensis'' den ''Pycreus'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''Philenoptera violacea'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''Hyphaene'' ''petersiana'' den acacias.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein makoro for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de Hambukushu (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de Wayeyi (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, River Bushmen, Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be Bushmen, wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de Caprivi Strip of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de Boteti River. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around Seronga as well as de southern delta around Maun, den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around Etsha for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de Batawana (a Tswana nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a Bangwato offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de tsetse fly dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of Maun dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den mokoro canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a hydropower station for de Zambezi Region insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist Rick Lomba warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''The End of Eden'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by Conservation International Botswana for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * Kalahari Basin == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q650872|c=Category:Okavango Delta|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=Okavango Delta|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml |date=8 April 2007 }} *[https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] *[http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information for Okavango Delta planning is the weblog of the Library of the Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ The Ngami Times is Ngamiland's weekly newspaper] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site on Moremi Game Reserve, inside the Okavango Delta] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185832/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/natures-most-amazing-events/how-stuff-works/kalahari-elephants.html Discovery Channel - Kalahari Flood] *[http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf Flood-recession cropping in the molapos of the Okavango Delta] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150401231635/http://www.orc.ub.bw/ Okavango Research Institute] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120807161048/http://168.167.30.198/ori/ Current Okavango water levels, weather data and satellite images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807161048/http://168.167.30.198/ori/ |date=7 August 2012 }} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_J-ODVl9Omg/ 1986 Documentary The End of Eden by Rick Lomba] *[http://www.southern-african-game-reserves.co.za/botswana/okavango-delta/index.html Southern African Game Reserves - Okavango Delta] {{Authority control}} [[Category:River deltas of Africa]] [[Category:Wetlands of Botswana]] [[Category:Swamps of Africa]] [[Category:Floodplains of Africa]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Botswana]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Botswana]] [[Category:Zambezian flooded grasslands]] [[Category:Kalahari Desert]] [[Category:First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites]] 4mf5szhzqs8dbn0heg1zu3d1cmjbg35 0 27488 104407 102791 2026-06-22T12:01:51Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104407 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Boyoma Falls''' (Swahili: ''Maporomoko ya Maji ya Boyoma'', French: ''Chutes de Boyoma'', Dutch: ''Boyomawatervallen''),<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ndeo|first1=Oscar|last2=Hauffe|first2=Torsten|last3=Delicado|first3=Diana|last4=Busanga|first4=Alidor|last5=Albrecht|first5=Christian|date=2017-05-02|title=Mollusk communities of the central Congo River shaped by combined effects of barriers, environmental gradients, and species dispersal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316971348|journal=Journal of Limnology|volume=76|doi=10.4081/jlimnol.2017.1585|doi-access=free}}</ref> dem formerly known as '''Stanley Falls''' (French: ''Chutes Stanley''; Dutch: ''Stanleywatervallen''), be a series of seven cataracts, each no be more dan {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on}} high, wey dey extend over more dan {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} along a curve of de Lualaba River between de river port towns of Ubundu den Kisangani (dem sanso know as Boyoma) insyd de Orientale Province of de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].<ref name=Stanley>Stanley, H.M., 1899, Through the Dark Continent, London: G. Newnes, Vol. One {{ISBN|0486256677}}, Vol. Two {{ISBN|0486256685}}</ref>{{rp|Vol.Two,175}} De seven cataracts get a total drop of {{convert|61|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Dem dey form de largest waterfall by volume of annual flow rate insyd de world, wey dey exceed both de Niagara Falls den de Iguazu Falls. De two major cataracts be de first below Ubundu, wey dey form a narrow den crooked stream dat be hardly accessible, wey dem fi see de last den visited from Kisangani. At de bottom of de rapids, de Lualaba be known as de [[Congo River]]. A 1 m-gauge (3 ft 3 in) portage railway bypasses de series of rapids, wey dey connect Kisangani den Ubundu. De last of de seven cataracts of de Boyoma Falls sanso be known as de '''Wagenia Falls''' (French: ''Chutes Wagenia'', Dutch: ''Wageniawatervallen''),<ref name=":0" /> wey dey refer to de local Wagenya fishermen, wey develop a special technique to fish insyd de river. Dem build systems of wooden tripods across de rapids fixed insyd holes wey dey carve insyd de rock by de water current. Dese dey serve as anchors for baskets dat entrap large fish. De baskets be lowered insyd de rapids to “sieve” de waters for fish. E be a very selective fishing method, as dese baskets be quite big, den only large fish be entrapped. De falls formerly be named after Henry Morton Stanley, wey explore de region den note de fishing technique of de Wagenya. According to Stanley, ''"...by taking advantage of the rocks, the natives have been enabled to fix upright heavy poles, 6 inches (150 mm) in diameter, to each of which they attach enormous fish-baskets by means of rattan-cane cable. There are probably sixty or seventy baskets laid in the river on each side, every day; and though some may be brought up empty, in general they seem to be tolerably successful, for out of half-a-dozen baskets...twenty-eight large fish were collected..."''<ref name="Stanley" />{{rp|197}} == Gallery == <gallery> File:Stanley Falls Map.jpg|De falls dey insyd de bottom center of Stanley's map. Ein route be indicated by de solid black line. File:Stanley Falls.jpg|Stanley Falls as Stanley interprete am File:Wagenia 17 copy.jpg|Wagenya fishermen at Wagenia Falls File:Zaire kisangani stroom 12 copy (cropped).jpg|Wagenia Falls. </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Lualaba River]] [[Category:Congo River]] [[Category:Cascade waterfalls]] idhoabndoddissg5rt7flug10ujpx6t 104408 104407 2026-06-22T12:04:24Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104408 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Boyoma Falls''' (Swahili: ''Maporomoko ya Maji ya Boyoma'', French: ''Chutes de Boyoma'', Dutch: ''Boyomawatervallen''),<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ndeo|first1=Oscar|last2=Hauffe|first2=Torsten|last3=Delicado|first3=Diana|last4=Busanga|first4=Alidor|last5=Albrecht|first5=Christian|date=2017-05-02|title=Mollusk communities of the central Congo River shaped by combined effects of barriers, environmental gradients, and species dispersal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316971348|journal=Journal of Limnology|volume=76|doi=10.4081/jlimnol.2017.1585|doi-access=free}}</ref> dem formerly known as '''Stanley Falls''' (French: ''Chutes Stanley''; Dutch: ''Stanleywatervallen''), be a series of seven cataracts, each no be more dan {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on}} high, wey dey extend over more dan {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} along a curve of de Lualaba River between de river port towns of Ubundu den Kisangani (dem sanso know as Boyoma) insyd de Orientale Province of de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].<ref name=Stanley>Stanley, H.M., 1899, Through the Dark Continent, London: G. Newnes, Vol. One {{ISBN|0486256677}}, Vol. Two {{ISBN|0486256685}}</ref>{{rp|Vol.Two,175}} De seven cataracts get a total drop of {{convert|61|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Dem dey form de largest waterfall by volume of annual flow rate insyd de world, wey dey exceed both de Niagara Falls den de Iguazu Falls. De two major cataracts be de first below Ubundu, wey dey form a narrow den crooked stream dat be hardly accessible, wey dem fi see de last den visited from Kisangani. At de bottom of de rapids, de Lualaba be known as de [[Congo River]]. A 1 m-gauge (3 ft 3 in) portage railway bypasses de series of rapids, wey dey connect Kisangani den Ubundu. De last of de seven cataracts of de Boyoma Falls sanso be known as de '''Wagenia Falls''' (French: ''Chutes Wagenia'', Dutch: ''Wageniawatervallen''),<ref name=":0" /> wey dey refer to de local Wagenya fishermen, wey develop a special technique to fish insyd de river. Dem build systems of wooden tripods across de rapids fixed insyd holes wey dey carve insyd de rock by de water current. Dese dey serve as anchors for baskets dat entrap large fish. De baskets be lowered insyd de rapids to “sieve” de waters for fish. E be a very selective fishing method, as dese baskets be quite big, den only large fish be entrapped. De falls formerly be named after Henry Morton Stanley, wey explore de region den note de fishing technique of de Wagenya. According to Stanley, ''"...by taking advantage of the rocks, the natives have been enabled to fix upright heavy poles, 6 inches (150 mm) in diameter, to each of which they attach enormous fish-baskets by means of rattan-cane cable. There are probably sixty or seventy baskets laid in the river on each side, every day; and though some may be brought up empty, in general they seem to be tolerably successful, for out of half-a-dozen baskets...twenty-eight large fish were collected..."''<ref name="Stanley" />{{rp|197}} == Gallery == <gallery> File:Stanley Falls Map.jpg|De falls dey insyd de bottom center of Stanley's map. Ein route be indicated by de solid black line. File:Stanley Falls.jpg|Stanley Falls as Stanley interprete am File:Wagenia 17 copy.jpg|Wagenya fishermen at Wagenia Falls File:Zaire kisangani stroom 12 copy (cropped).jpg|Wagenia Falls. </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Boyoma Falls}} [[Category:Lualaba River]] [[Category:Waterfalls of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Cascade waterfalls]] [[Category:Congo River]] nl8l65kgomtegdfdve0rr180l8i8n84 0 27489 104422 102068 2026-06-22T13:38:55Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104422 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shire''' {{IPAc-en|'|sh|i:|r|ei}} be de largest river insyd [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldsenz.blogspot.com/2010/12/shire-river-malawi.html|title=The Ruins of the Moment: Shire River, Malawi — Photos by Pete McGregor|date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> E be de only outlet of [[Lake Malawi]] den flows into de [[Zambezi]] River insyd [[Mozambique]]. Ein length be {{convert|402|km|mi}}. De upper Shire River dey flow out of Lake Malawi den dey run approximately {{convert|12|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} before e enter de shallow Lake Malombe. E then dey drain Lake Malombe den dey flow south thru Liwonde National Park wey large concentrations of hippopotamus be common along ein banks. Between de towns of Matope den Chikwawa, de middle river dey drop approximately {{convert|1300|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} thru a series of falls den gorges, wey dey include Kapachira Falls. Dem build two hydroelectric dams along de Shire northwest of Blantyre. Beyond Chikwawa, de lower river dey turn southeast den dey enter de low-lying Mozambique plain. Ein largest den one of ein few perennial tributaries, de Ruo River, dey join de Shire near de Malawian town of Chiromo. De muddy waters pass thru a large stagnant area wey dem know as de Elephant Marsh before reaching de confluence plus de Zambezi River south of de town of Sena, Mozambique. Insyd 1859, [[David Livingstone]] ein Second Zambezi expedition travel up de Shire river.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Philip|title=Malawi|date=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|page=9|language=en}}</ref> De river ein valley be part of de East African Rift system.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2c0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |title=Live Search Maps |access-date=2007-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203211025/http://mappoint.msn.com/(rddmzdbprlpfsl5504qmz245)/map.aspx?C=0%2C0&A=100000&L=WLD0409 |archive-date=2007-12-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Shire River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Malawi]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] [[Category:Lake Malawi]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Zambezi River]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] li5oct1wzqyjjwlr0inwhl74b5syrjw 0 27490 104425 102829 2026-06-22T13:43:26Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104425 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q10990705}} De '''Olifants River''' (Afrikaans: Olifantsrivier) be sam river for de northwestern side of de Western Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. De upper den main catchment area of de Olifants River dey around Ceres den de Cederberg mountains. De Clanwilliam and Bulshoek dams dey on top de river wey dem dey provide water for de towns den farms wey dey along de watercourse. De river dey about 285 km long wey e get catchment area of 46,220 km². E dey flow enter de [[Atlantic Ocean]] for Papendorp, about 250 km north of Cape Town. ==Ein Watershed== De Olifants River rise for de Winterhoek Mountains north of Ceres. De mainstem be about 265 km long. De river dey flow go northwest through sam deep, narrow valley wey later widen den flatten become broad floodplain below Clanwilliam. De river eventually drain enter de Atlantic Ocean near Papendorp. For de mouth, de Olifants River split into two by sam island wey get interesting rock formations.<ref>Cornel Truter, ''West Coast tourist guide'', University of Cape Town Press, {{ISBN|9781919713243}}</ref> ===Ein Tributaries=== E main tributary be de Doring River, wey e change name cam turn Melkboom/Oudrif before e join de Olifants. De tributaries wey dey flow from de east, like de Thee River, Noordhoek River, Boontjies River, Rondegat River den de Jan Dissels River, dem usually dey perennial, except de Sout River. De ones wey dey flow cam from de west, like de Ratel River, Elandskloof River den de Seekoeivlei River, dem be small-small den seasonal, so dem no dey contribute much to de flow for de system.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA17OlifantsDoorn.jpg Olifants/Doorn WMA 17]</ref> ==Ein Dams== Dams wey dey insyd de catchment area of de Olifants River: * Clanwilliam Dam, plus storage capacity of {{convert|127000000|m3}} * Bulshoek Dam, plus storage capacity of {{convert|7500000|m3}} De major towns below de Olifants/Doring river catchment include Lutzville, Vredendal den Vanrhynsdorp wey dey insyd de lower catchment area den Clanwilliam den Citrusdal insyd de middle catchment areas. == Ein Ecology == Endemism for de rivers of de Olifants/Doring basin insyd be unusually high for South Africa, plus eight species wey dey only for dis system. De upper Olifants River be one of de main places where adult sawfins (''Pseudobarbus serra'') dey live.<ref>Impson, D.; Van der Walt, R.; Jordaan, M. (2017). "''[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2569/100148283 Pseudobarbus serra]''". ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2017''' e.T2569A100148283. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2569A100148283.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2569A100148283.en.]] Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> Dis local endemic species dem classify am as Endangered by de IUCN. For now, e don become so rare say fishing or angling fit even put am for danger, so people no suppose catch or kill am. E be long-lived den slow-growing species, e need several years make e grow well without disturbance, but e fit reach about 40 cm when e become adult after like ten years. CapeNature don try some trials to adapt am for aquaculture or fishery, but dis one need better conservation of de river ecosystem. De Clanwilliam redfin ("P." calidus)<ref>Van der Walt, R.; Jordaan, M.; Impson, D. (2017). "''[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2562/100139530 Pseudobarbus calidus]''". [[:en:IUCN_Red_List|''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''.]] '''2017''' e.T2562A100139530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2562A100139530.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2562A100139530.en.]] Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> be another threatened den legally protected species wey dey Olifants River; ebe chao.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007ab)</ref> De Clanwilliam yellowfish (''Labeobarbus seeberi'') be another big cyprinid for dis basin wey be endemic to de Western Cape region. Dem don try some captive breeding work for am den e stocks dey in better shape. However, e fit don disappear for Olifants River, den at least e almost sure say e no dey again between Olifants Gorge den Clanwilliam Dam.<ref>Impson, D.; Van der Walt, R.; Jordaan, M. (2017). "''[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/63290/100163027 Labeobarbus seeberi]''". ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2017''' e.T63290A100163027. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63290A100163027.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63290A100163027.en.]] Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> Whether dem go reintroduce am no clear, because sawfin den Clanwilliam yellowfish adults probably dey compete for same ecological space, den until dem restore Olifants River well well for ecological level, both of dem fit no fit survive well at di same time.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007b)</ref> De Olifants River mark de northern limit of de Cape galaxias (''Galaxias zebratus''), sam South African fish species wey dey share de same habitat with imported trout species den dey live for area between de Olifants den de Keurbooms River. Although for South Africa dis relatively delicate fish be only Near Threatened, for [[Australia]] species of de same genus don dey driven go extinction by competing salmonids.<ref>[http://www.ru.ac.za/static/affiliates/am/m&g/mg17.htm Albany Museum - Freshwater Ichthyology]</ref> Other species wey dey occur for de Olifants riverine system include Twee River redfin (''Pseudobarbus erubescens''), Fiery redfin (''Pseudobarbus phlegethon''), Austroglanis barnardi, Clanwilliam rock-catfish (''Austroglanis gilli''), Chubbyhead barb (''Enteromius anoplus''), den Clanwilliam sandfish (''Labeo seeberi''). De most severe biological threat to de river ecosystem be probably de Smallmouth Bass (''Micropterus dolomieu''). Originally dem introduce am for sport fishing, but ecam turn sam kind pest by depleting de stocks of other fish species. Dem dey encourage e eradication under de Cape Action for People den de Environment program. Non-biological threats be mainly excessive removal of river water for irrigation, wey de resultant toxic surface runoff from plantations (especially agrumes). Dem often dey grow these crops right up to de river bank, without leaving enough natural vegetation to filter out pesticides den fertilizer den stop erosion, den dis dey cause both de river den adjacent cropland to degrade.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007abc)</ref> ==References== <references /> ==External links== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110115064450/http://www.floatinglines.com/2008/04/03/flyfishing-olifants-river-ceres-western-cape-2/ Flyfishing Olifants River] *[http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol091jj.html Military History Journal Vol 9 No 1 - June 1992] *[http://www.capeadventurezone.com/adventure-activities/River-Rafting River Rafting Adventures / Cape Town - Cape Adventure Zone] *[http://academic.sun.ac.za/cib/team/students/jeremy/jeremy.htm Invasion biology] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001907/http://www.nisc.co.za/oneAbstract?absId=1420 A preliminary assessment of the impact of alien rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) on indigenous fishes of the upper Berg River, Western Cape Province, South Africa] [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] gwfbj17463fihiuwuift5apgtmcoyx7 104426 104425 2026-06-22T13:46:05Z DaSupremo 9 /* External links */ Add sister link 104426 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q10990705}} De '''Olifants River''' (Afrikaans: Olifantsrivier) be sam river for de northwestern side of de Western Cape Province of [[South Africa]]. De upper den main catchment area of de Olifants River dey around Ceres den de Cederberg mountains. De Clanwilliam and Bulshoek dams dey on top de river wey dem dey provide water for de towns den farms wey dey along de watercourse. De river dey about 285 km long wey e get catchment area of 46,220 km². E dey flow enter de [[Atlantic Ocean]] for Papendorp, about 250 km north of Cape Town. ==Ein Watershed== De Olifants River rise for de Winterhoek Mountains north of Ceres. De mainstem be about 265 km long. De river dey flow go northwest through sam deep, narrow valley wey later widen den flatten become broad floodplain below Clanwilliam. De river eventually drain enter de Atlantic Ocean near Papendorp. For de mouth, de Olifants River split into two by sam island wey get interesting rock formations.<ref>Cornel Truter, ''West Coast tourist guide'', University of Cape Town Press, {{ISBN|9781919713243}}</ref> ===Ein Tributaries=== E main tributary be de Doring River, wey e change name cam turn Melkboom/Oudrif before e join de Olifants. De tributaries wey dey flow from de east, like de Thee River, Noordhoek River, Boontjies River, Rondegat River den de Jan Dissels River, dem usually dey perennial, except de Sout River. De ones wey dey flow cam from de west, like de Ratel River, Elandskloof River den de Seekoeivlei River, dem be small-small den seasonal, so dem no dey contribute much to de flow for de system.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA17OlifantsDoorn.jpg Olifants/Doorn WMA 17]</ref> ==Ein Dams== Dams wey dey insyd de catchment area of de Olifants River: * Clanwilliam Dam, plus storage capacity of {{convert|127000000|m3}} * Bulshoek Dam, plus storage capacity of {{convert|7500000|m3}} De major towns below de Olifants/Doring river catchment include Lutzville, Vredendal den Vanrhynsdorp wey dey insyd de lower catchment area den Clanwilliam den Citrusdal insyd de middle catchment areas. == Ein Ecology == Endemism for de rivers of de Olifants/Doring basin insyd be unusually high for South Africa, plus eight species wey dey only for dis system. De upper Olifants River be one of de main places where adult sawfins (''Pseudobarbus serra'') dey live.<ref>Impson, D.; Van der Walt, R.; Jordaan, M. (2017). "''[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2569/100148283 Pseudobarbus serra]''". ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2017''' e.T2569A100148283. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2569A100148283.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2569A100148283.en.]] Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> Dis local endemic species dem classify am as Endangered by de IUCN. For now, e don become so rare say fishing or angling fit even put am for danger, so people no suppose catch or kill am. E be long-lived den slow-growing species, e need several years make e grow well without disturbance, but e fit reach about 40 cm when e become adult after like ten years. CapeNature don try some trials to adapt am for aquaculture or fishery, but dis one need better conservation of de river ecosystem. De Clanwilliam redfin ("P." calidus)<ref>Van der Walt, R.; Jordaan, M.; Impson, D. (2017). "''[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2562/100139530 Pseudobarbus calidus]''". [[:en:IUCN_Red_List|''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''.]] '''2017''' e.T2562A100139530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2562A100139530.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2562A100139530.en.]] Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> be another threatened den legally protected species wey dey Olifants River; ebe chao.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007ab)</ref> De Clanwilliam yellowfish (''Labeobarbus seeberi'') be another big cyprinid for dis basin wey be endemic to de Western Cape region. Dem don try some captive breeding work for am den e stocks dey in better shape. However, e fit don disappear for Olifants River, den at least e almost sure say e no dey again between Olifants Gorge den Clanwilliam Dam.<ref>Impson, D.; Van der Walt, R.; Jordaan, M. (2017). "''[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/63290/100163027 Labeobarbus seeberi]''". ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2017''' e.T63290A100163027. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63290A100163027.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63290A100163027.en.]] Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> Whether dem go reintroduce am no clear, because sawfin den Clanwilliam yellowfish adults probably dey compete for same ecological space, den until dem restore Olifants River well well for ecological level, both of dem fit no fit survive well at di same time.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007b)</ref> De Olifants River mark de northern limit of de Cape galaxias (''Galaxias zebratus''), sam South African fish species wey dey share de same habitat with imported trout species den dey live for area between de Olifants den de Keurbooms River. Although for South Africa dis relatively delicate fish be only Near Threatened, for [[Australia]] species of de same genus don dey driven go extinction by competing salmonids.<ref>[http://www.ru.ac.za/static/affiliates/am/m&g/mg17.htm Albany Museum - Freshwater Ichthyology]</ref> Other species wey dey occur for de Olifants riverine system include Twee River redfin (''Pseudobarbus erubescens''), Fiery redfin (''Pseudobarbus phlegethon''), Austroglanis barnardi, Clanwilliam rock-catfish (''Austroglanis gilli''), Chubbyhead barb (''Enteromius anoplus''), den Clanwilliam sandfish (''Labeo seeberi''). De most severe biological threat to de river ecosystem be probably de Smallmouth Bass (''Micropterus dolomieu''). Originally dem introduce am for sport fishing, but ecam turn sam kind pest by depleting de stocks of other fish species. Dem dey encourage e eradication under de Cape Action for People den de Environment program. Non-biological threats be mainly excessive removal of river water for irrigation, wey de resultant toxic surface runoff from plantations (especially agrumes). Dem often dey grow these crops right up to de river bank, without leaving enough natural vegetation to filter out pesticides den fertilizer den stop erosion, den dis dey cause both de river den adjacent cropland to degrade.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007abc)</ref> ==References== <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110115064450/http://www.floatinglines.com/2008/04/03/flyfishing-olifants-river-ceres-western-cape-2/ Flyfishing Olifants River] *[http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol091jj.html Military History Journal Vol 9 No 1 - June 1992] *[http://www.capeadventurezone.com/adventure-activities/River-Rafting River Rafting Adventures / Cape Town - Cape Adventure Zone] *[http://academic.sun.ac.za/cib/team/students/jeremy/jeremy.htm Invasion biology] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001907/http://www.nisc.co.za/oneAbstract?absId=1420 A preliminary assessment of the impact of alien rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) on indigenous fishes of the upper Berg River, Western Cape Province, South Africa] [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] 1q4i2yhwqds26usnxbk3czz0s9uapes 0 27491 104431 103147 2026-06-22T14:00:43Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104431 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|thumb|384x384px|View of de Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).]] De '''Niger Delta''' be de delta of de [[Niger River]] wey dey sit directly for de [[Gulf of Guinea]] top for de [[Atlantic Ocean]] top for Nigeria insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166 "Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Earth''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075935/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166|date=2013-04-20}}, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Umoh |first1=Unyime U. |last2=Li |first2=Li |last3=Wang |first3=Junjian |last4=Kauluma |first4=Ndamononghenda |last5=Asuquo |first5=Francis E. |last6=Akpan |first6=Ekom R. |date=August 2022 |title=Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=170 |bibcode=2022OrGeo.17004461U |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461 |s2cid=249615285 |article-number=104461}}</ref> Dem locate am within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, wey dey include: all six states from de South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone den two states (Abia den Imo) from South East geopolitical zone. De Niger Delta be a very densely populated region wey dem samtimes bell am de '''Oil Rivers''' sekof e once be a major producer of palm oil.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Otoabasi |first=Akpan |title=The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan |publisher=Spectrum Books |year=2011}}</ref> De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De delta be a petroleum-rich region den e already get de center of international concern ova extensive pollution wey dem often use am as an example of ecocide.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2021-04-07 |title='Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ecocide-movement-pushes-new-international-crime-environmental-destruction-n1263142 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=5 February 2014 |title=Fighting ecocide in Nigeria |url=https://theecologist.org/2014/feb/05/fighting-ecocide-nigeria |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=theecologist.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making? |url=https://unpo.org/article/19131 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=unpo.org}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|date=2011-08-22|title=How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/22/ecocide-law-nigerian-oil-disaster|access-date=2023-07-06|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> De principal cause be major oil spills by multinational corporations of de petroleum industry.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Aghalino |first=S.O |title=Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. |publisher=Maiduguri journal of Historical studies |year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dakolo |first=Bubaraye |title=The Riddle of the Oil Thief |publisher=Purple Shelves |year=2021 |isbn=978-978-988-990-7 |location=Lagos |pages=117–170}}</ref> == Geography == De Niger Delta, as rydee dem define am officially by de Nigerian government, dey extend ova 70,000 km² (27,000 sq mi) den dey make up 7.5% of Nigeria ein land mass.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chukwu|first=Ignatius|date=2023-10-01|title=What Nigeria’s independence means for Niger Delta|url=https://businessday.ng/life/article/what-nigerias-independence-means-for-niger-delta/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2025-11-21|newspaper=[[BusinessDay (Nigeria)|BusinessDay]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Historically den cartographically, e dey consist of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, den Rivers States. For 2000 insyd, howeva, Obasanjo ein regime wey e include Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo den Ondo States for de region insyd.<ref name=":0" /> De Niger Delta den de South-South geopolitical zone (wey dey contain six of de states for de Niger Delta insyd) be two different entities. De Niger Delta dey separate de Bight of Benin from de Bight of Bonny within de larger Gulf of Guinea.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpan |first=D. |title=Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference. |year=2006}}</ref> == Demographics == De political Niger Delta be home to approximately 31 million pippoe from ova 40 ethnic groups, wey dey include de Ijaws—such as de Kalabari, Okrika, Epie-Atissa, Ogbia, Abua, Obolo, Opobo, Ibani, Apoi, Arogbo, Olodiama, Biseni, Akinima, Ibibio, Urhobo, Annang, Oron, Efik, Ogoni, Edo, Esan, Isoko, Igbo den Okpe among odas. Dem communities dey speak around 250 different dialects. De Ijaw be de largest ethnic group for de Niger Delta insyd, plus a widespread presence across six states for de region insyd. De major language groups wey dem speak for de Niger Delta insyd dey include de Ijaw languages, Ibibio-Efik,<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org">{{Cite web |title=The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group |url=https://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/the-niger-delta/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |language=en-US}}</ref> Edoid languages.<ref name=":1" /> == History == === Colonial period === De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De core Niger Delta later becam a part of de eastern region of Nigeria, wey cam into being for 1951 insyd (one of de three regions, den later one of de four regions). De majority of de pippoe be dem pippoe from de colonial Calabar den Ogoja divisions, de present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoni pippoe. De National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) be de ruling political party of de region. De NCNC later becam de National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decide to separate from Nigeria. De ruling party of eastern Nigeria no seek to preclude de separation den even encourage am. De then Eastern Region get de third, fourth, den fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups for de country, wey be de Igbo, Ijaw den Ibibio. For 1953 insyd, de Old Eastern region get a major crisis wen dem expel professor Eyo Ita from office by de majority Igbo tribe of de Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, be one of de pioneer nationalists give Nigerian independence. De non-igbo of den then eastern region, de Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoja, wey dem situate along de southeastern coast den for de delta region insyd den demand a state of demma own, wey dem bell am de Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. De Ibibio pippoe of de present Akwa Ibom State den Cross River State wey dem sanso champion give demma state thru de Ibibio State Union. De struggle give de creation of de COR state continue den be a major issue wey dey concern de status of minorities for Nigeria insyd during debates for Europe insyd for Nigerian independence top. As a result of dis crisis, Professor Eyo Ita lef de NCNC to form a new political party wey dem bell am National Independence Party wey be one of de five Nigerian political parties wey dem represent am at de conferences for Nigerian Constitution den Independence top.<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org" /> === Post-colonial period === For 1961 insyd, anoda major crisis occur wen de then-eastern region of Nigeria allow present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from de region of wat rydee be Akwa Ibom den Cross River states) thru a plebiscite while de leadership of de Northern Region take de necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon for Nigeria insyd, for present-day Adamawa den Taraba states insyd. De aftermath of de 1961 plebiscite lead to a dispute between Cameroon den Nigeria ova de small territory of Bakassi. A new phase of de struggle see de declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian presido Ironsi ein administration, just before de Nigerian Civil War.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Writer|first=Guest|date=2018-05-22|title=The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after|url=https://www.thecable.ng/the-revolutionist-as-the-true-national-knight-retelling-major-isaac-boro-fifty-years-after/|access-date=2024-07-04|newspaper=[[TheCable]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Sanso just before de Nigerian civil war, dem create Southeastern State of Nigeria (dem sanso know am Southeastern Nigeria anaa Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), wey get de colonial Calabar division, den colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State wey dem sanso create am. Southeastern State den River State becam two states give de minorities of de old eastern region, den de majority Igbo of de old eastern region get a state wey dem bell am East Central State. Dem rename Southeastern State as Cross River State den dem later split am into Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. Dem later divide Rivers State into Rivers State den Bayelsa State. === Nigerian Civil War === Niger Delta pippoe suffer heavily plus de great loss of lives den properties, hunger den starvation, den sustain many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, wey dem sanso know am de Biafran War, for wey de eastern region declare an independent state wey dem name am Biafra wey dem eventually defeat am.<ref>{{Citation |title=The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 |date=2015-12-31 |pages=xv–xx |chapter=Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1515/9781400871285-003 |isbn=978-1-4008-7128-5}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Heerten |first1=Lasse |title=The Nigeria-Biafra War |date=2017-07-06 |work=Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide |pages=3–43 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315229294-1 |isbn=978-1-315-22929-4 |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. |title=The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath. |date=1991 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=0-88946-235-6 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |oclc=476261625}}</ref> During dis period, dem shut down schools completely, den gunfire becam a daily occurrence. === Non-violent resistance === Following de civil war, local communities increasingly social den environmental justice wey dem demand from de federal government, plus Ken Saro Wiwa den de Ogoni tribe as de lead figures give dis phase of de struggle. Cohesive oil protests becam most pronounced for 1990 insyd plus de publication of de Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous pippoe protest against de lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, den hospitals, for de region insyd, despite all de oil wealth wey dem create. Dem sanso complain about environmental pollution den de destruction of demma land den rivers by foreign oil companies. Dem arrest den kill Ken Saro Wiwa den nine oda oil activists from Movement give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe (MOSOP) under Sani Abacha for 1995 insyd.<ref>Strutton, Laine (2014). ''The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria'' (Thesis). [[:en:ProQuest|ProQuest]] [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1666393541 1666393541].</ref> === Recent armed conflict === Wen long-held dey concern about loss of control ova resources to de oil companies wey de Ijaw pippoe voice am for de Kaiama Declaration insyd for 1998 insyd, de Nigerian government send troops to occupy de Bayelsa den Delta states. Soldiers open fire plus rifles, machine guns, den tear gas, wey e kill at least three protesters den dey arrest twenty-five more.<ref>{{cite web |date=1998-12-30 |title=State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805220129/http://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |archive-date=2012-08-05 |access-date=2018-01-19 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> Since then, local Indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries den pipelines for de region insyd increase for frequency den militancy insyd. Recently foreign employees of Shell, de primary corporation wey dey operate for de region insyd, dem take hostage by local pippoe. Such activities sanso result for greater governmental intervention insyd for de area insyd den de mobilization of de Nigerian Army den State Security Service into de region, wey e result for violence den human rights abuses insyd. For April 2006 insyd, a bomb explode near an oil refinery for de Niger Delta region insyd, a warning against Chinese expansion for de region insyd. De Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) state: "We wish to warn de Chinese government den ein oil companies to steer well clear of de Niger Delta. De Chinese government, by investing for stolen crude insyd, dey places ein citizens for our line of fire insyd."<ref>Ian Taylor, [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa "China's environmental footprint in Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223061935/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa|date=2007-02-23}}, ''China Dialogue'', 2 February 2007.</ref> Government den private initiatives to develop de Niger Delta region, dem already introduce dem recently. Dem dey include de Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, den de Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization wey dey base for Port Harcourt insyd. Uz den Uz Transnational, a company plus a strong commitment to de Niger Delta, wey introduce ways of developing de poor for de Niger Delta insyd, especially for Rivers State insyd. For September 2008 insyd, MEND release a statement wey dey proclaim dat demma militants launch an "oil war" thruout de Niger Delta against both, pipelines den oil-production facilities, den de Nigerian soldiers dat dey protect dem. Both MEND den de Nigerian Government dey claim to have inflicted heavy casualties for one anoda top.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm "Nigeria militants warn of oil war"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915064938/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm|date=2008-09-15}}, BBC News, 14 September 2008.</ref> For August 2009 insyd, de Nigerian government grant amnesty to de militants; many militants subsequently surrender demma weapons for exchange give a presidential pardon insyd, rehabilitation programme, den education. == Sub-regions == '''Western Niger Delta''' dey consist of de western section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Delta, den de southernmost parts of Edo, den Ondo States. De western (anaa Northern) Niger Delta be a heterogeneous society plus several ethnic groups wey dey include de Urhobo, De Western Igbos; Ika pippoe, Aniocha Pippoe, Isoko, Ijaw (anaa Izon) den Ukwuani, Itsekiri de Bini, Esan, Auchi, Esako, oral, den Afenmai for Edo State insyd; den de Ilaje Yoruba for Ondo State insyd. Demma livelihoods be primarily dey base for fishing den farming top. History get am say de Kings of de four primary ethnic groups control Western Niger de Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, den, Itsekiri plus wey de British government get to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" for demma formation of "Protectorates" insyd dat later becam southern Nigeria. '''Central Niger Delta''' dey consist of de central section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia, den Imo States. De Central Niger Delta region get de Ijaw (wey dey include de Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari pippoe, Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni den Andoni clans), de Ogoni pippoe (Khana, Gokana, Tai den Eleme), De Igbos (de Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye den Ndoki) for Rivers State insyd. '''Eastern Niger Delta''' dey consist of Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. E get de homogeneous Annang, Efik, Ibibio den Oron pippoe, Ogoja (dat dey include Ekoi den Bekwara). == Nigerian oil == Nigeria becam West Africa ein biggest producer of petroleum. Dem extract sam 2 million barrels (320,000 m³) per day for de Niger Delta insyd, plus an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Isumonah |first=V. Adelfemi |year=2013 |title=Armed Society in the Niger Delta |journal=Armed Forces & Society |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=331–358 |doi=10.1177/0095327x12446925 |s2cid=110566551}}</ref> De first oil operations for de region insyd begin for de 1950s insyd den dem undertake am by multinational corporations, wey provide Nigeria plus necessary technological den financial resources to extract oil.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Scott R. |title=Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8047-0749-9 |location=Stanford |page=13}}</ref> Since 1975, de region account give more dan 75% of Nigeria ein export earnings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpeninor |first=James Ohwofasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESk7b8iKIU0C&pg=PA576 |title=Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution? |date=2012-08-28 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-1868-6 |language=en}}</ref> Togeda oil den natural gas extraction dey comprise "97 percent of Nigeria ein foreign exchange revenues".<ref>''Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta''. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.</ref> More dan 70% of de natural gas wey dem extract for oil wells insyd for de delta insyd, dem immediately burn, anaa flared, into de air at a rate of approximately 70 million m³ per day.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 4, 2024 |title=A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233298409_A_review_of_the_effects_of_gas_flaring_on_the_Niger_Delta_environment |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref> Dis be equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption den dey form de largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions for de planet top. For 2003 insyd, dem flare about 99% of excess gas for de Niger Delta insyd, <ref>{{cite web |date=Nov 2003 |title=Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115182631/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=UNFCC}}</ref> although dis value fall to 11% for 2010 insyd.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301124210/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html|date=2012-03-01}}, "Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010."</ref> (Make you sanso see [[:en:Gas_flaring#Volume|gas flaring volumes]]). De biggest gas flaring company be de Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture dat be majority-owned by de Nigerian government. For Nigeria insyd, "...despite regulations wey dem introduce 20 years ago to outlaw de practice, dem flare most associated gas, wey e cause local pollution den dey contribute to climate change."<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2004 |title=Gas Flaring in Nigeria |url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225211133/http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=Friends of the Earth}}</ref> De environmental devastation wey dem associate plus de industry den de lack of distribution of oil wealth already be de source den/anaa key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements den inter-ethnic conflicts for de region insyd, wey dey include recent guerrilla activity by MEND. For September 2012 insyd Eland Oil & Gas purchase a 45% interest for OML 40 insyd, plus ein partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from de Shell Group. Dem intend to recommission de existing infrastructure den restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m³) of oil per day plus a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m³) of oil per day within four years. === Oil revenue derivation === Oil revenue allocation already be de subject of much contention well before Nigeria gain ein independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, wey e owe to de First Republic ein high degree of regional autonomy, den as low as 10% during de military dictatorships. {| class="wikitable" |+Oil revenue sharing formula !Year !Federal !State* !Local !Special Projects !Derivation Formula** |- |1958 |40% |60% |0% |0% |50% |- |1968 |80% |20% |0% |0% |10% |- |1977 |75% |22% |3% |0% |10% |- |1982 |55% |32.5% |10% |2.5% |10% |- |1989 |50% |24% |15% |11% |10% |- |1995 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |- |2001 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |} ''* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.'' ''**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state.'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm World Bank Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm|date=2016-09-21}} == Media == De documentary film ''Sweet Crude'', wey dem premier April 2009 at de Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, dey tell de story of Nigeria ein Niger Delta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi |url=http://www.sweetcrudemovie.com/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=www.sweetcrudemovie.com}}</ref> == Environmental issues == De Niger Delta be a region of unparalleled ecological richness, wey ein intricate network of waterways characterize am, lush mangrove forests, den diverse ecosystems. Howeva, dem damage de serene beauty of dis landscape by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Ova de years, de Niger Delta experience a series of devastating oil spills, wey industrial activities wey relate to de extraction den transportation of oil den gas primarily cause am. Sekof dis high amount of spills, dem consider de Niger Delta as one of de most polluted areas for Earth top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anejionu |first1=Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony |last2=Blackburn |first2=George Alan |last3=Whyatt |first3=J. Duncan |date=4 March 2014 |title=Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1900–1925 |bibcode=2014IJRS...35.1900A |doi=10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |s2cid=53705868 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dem spills inflict severe den continuous damage for de delicate balance of de region ein ecosystems top. Dem impact both de environment den de livelihoods of de communities dat dey depend for ein resources top. Two spills for 2008 den 2009 insyd already be de largest den most harmful by far, collectively dey last give almost 150 days den dey cause flora death thruout 393 km². De extensive network of tidal rivers den mangrove swamps dey make am even easier give de oil to spread quickly, den de delta dey becam a sink, wey e trap de oil dat dem no remove am.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal |last1=Obida |first1=Christopher B. |last2=Blackburn |first2=George A. |last3=Whyatt |first3=James D. |last4=Semple |first4=Kirk T. |date=25 June 2021 |title=Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with >1million people in the impact zone |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721009219 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=775 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.775n5854O |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854 |s2cid=233538622 |url-access=subscription |article-number=145854}}</ref> De spills cam from a pipeline wey Shell Petroleum Development Company operate am. For addition to smaller spills insyd dat take place ova de years 2006–2019, dem estimate am dat dem release a total of 92,479,170 liters (anaa 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil into de area wey dem study.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Since then, following spills continue to exacerbate de ecological damage. De exact impact of spills like dem be hard to know sekof traditional field studies dey nearly impossible for dis region. Howeva, techniques such as de normalized difference vegetation index already be successful for measuring de impact of oil spills insyd for de river ein plant health top. Additionally, field samples wey dem independently collect am, dem confirm de presence of hydrocarbon pollutants for high concentrations insyd for de impacted areas insyd.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Oil den gas pollution/spills dey greatly increase de possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil be particularly concerning sekof demma link to de health problems wey exposure cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ugochukwu |first1=Uzochukwu C. |last2=Ochonogor |first2=Alfred |last3=Jidere |first3=Chika M. |last4=Agu |first4=Chizoba |last5=Nkoloagu |first5=Frida |last6=Ewoh |first6=John |last7=Okwu-Delunzu |first7=Virginia U. |date=1 June 2018 |title=Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016041201732158X |journal=Environment International |volume=115 |pages=38–47 |bibcode=2018EnInt.115...38U |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010 |pmid=29547867 |s2cid=3902367 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dis dey include organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene den xylene,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Philibert |first1=Danielle A. |last2=Lyons |first2=Danielle |last3=Philibert |first3=Clara |last4=Tierney |first4=Keith B. |date=10 January 2019 |title=Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718330213 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=647 |pages=1148–1157 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.647.1148P |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052 |pmid=30180323 |s2cid=52156999 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium den cadmium. In fact, according to de Scientific Committee for Health, Environmental den Emerging Risks top, dem fi put more dan 1300 different chemicals into de environment as a result of oil den gas exploration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertollini |first1=Roberto |last2=Teresa |first2=Borges |last3=Pim |first3=deVoogt |last4=Peter |first4=Hoet |date=30 November 2018 |title=OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU |journal=Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER}}</ref> Then, humans cam for contact insyd plus dem harmful substances thru eating contaminated food as well as breathing for de air pollution insyd.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of">{{cite journal |last1=Afshar-Mohajer |first1=Nima |last2=Fox |first2=Mary A. |last3=Koehler |first3=Kirsten |date=1 March 2019 |title=The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718344656 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=654 |pages=924–932 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.654..924A |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110 |pmid=30453262 |s2cid=53946118 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons be especially concerning sekof demma persistence for de environment insyd. Even for low amounts insyd, prolonged exposure fi cause serious health issues such as cancer den oda chronic illnesses.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> For general insyd, de harmful pollutants wey dem emit from oil spills den oda pollution dey include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, den infertility.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> Less deadly, but still serious, health problems dey include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes for face den neck top, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, den diarrhea be common issues wey oil spills cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nriagu |first1=Jerome |last2=Udofia |first2=Emilia A. |last3=Ekong |first3=Ibanga |last4=Ebuk |first4=Godwin |date=March 2016 |title=Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=346 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13030346 |pmc=4809009 |pmid=27007391 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Collectively, more dan 1 million pippoe dey live for de area insyd dat oil/gas pollution already contaminate am. Dis population be especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses sekof demma pre-existing low life expectancy den large ratio of young pippoe.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Additionally, a 2006 report wey de United Nations Development Programme do am dey say "De Niger Delta be a region wey dey suffer from administrative neglect, wey dey crumble social infrastructure den services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth den squalor, den endemic conflict,"<ref>{{cite web |author1=United Nations |date=1 January 2006 |title=Human Development Report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report#:~:text=%22The%20Niger%20Delta%20is%20a,conflict%2C%22%20says%20the%20report. |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>. Dem factors dey make am increasingly harder give de local communities to deal plus de negative effects wey foreign oil exploration cause am. De pippoe wey oil spills affect am for de Niger Delta insyd be diverse communities wey dey reside for de region insyd. Dem intricately connect demma lives to de natural environment. Dem communities, often make up of indigenous groups, dey rely for de Niger Delta ein resources top give demma food, water, livelihoods, den cultural practices. De impact of oil spills for dem communities top be multi-faceted den dey extend beyond health problems. Fishing den agriculture be central to de livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills dey contaminate water sources den farmlands, wey e severely affect fish stocks den crops. Dis disruption fi lead to food shortages den economic hardship give dem dependent for dem activities top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Osuagwu |first1=Eze Simpson |last2=Olaifa |first2=Eseoghene |date=25 October 2018 |title=Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1305114O |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0205114 |pmc=6201865 |pmid=30359365 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0205114}}</ref> Anoda facet of de pippoe ein livelihoods be demma culture. De Niger Delta ein pippoe get strong spiritual den cultural ties to demma environment. De harm inflict for demma land top den waterways wey oil spills cause am dey deeply disrupt sacred sites den dey interfere plus demma cultural practices. De loss of dem cultural elements dey contribute to a sense of displacement den identity crisis among de affected groups/communities.<ref name="soa">{{cite journal |last=Aghalino |first=S.O. |date=February 2011 |title=Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301637735 |journal=Africana |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=15 |access-date=December 14, 2023}}</ref> Additionally, wen communities fight back against de oil industries as an act of protest, violence be often perpetuated. Since de 1990s der already be continuous violence for an effort insyd to give local communities control of de oil for de delta insyd. Dem acts of violence dey include de kidnapping of foreign oil workers den dey hold dem give ransom, vandalization, den even de blowing up of oil installations.<ref name="soa" /> == Notes == <references /> == References == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174150/http://nigerdeltavine.com/ Niger Delta-Archive of News, Interviews, Articles, Analysis from 1999 to Present] * ''Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928–1937''. Edited by Monday Efiong Noah. Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo. * Urhobo Historical Society (4 August 2003). Urhobo Historical Society Responds to Itsekiri Claims on Warri City and Western Niger Delta. * [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/30/oil-spills-nigeria-niger-delta-shell/ "Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it"] == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text National Geographic Magazine: "Curse of the Black Gold, Hope, and betrayal on the Niger Delta"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text|date=2008-08-26}} — ''February 2007 issue''. * [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, Nigerdeltaforum.com: forum] [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, for de Niger Delta top den ein pippoe] *Niger-Delta Development Commission, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051025160835/http://www.nddconline.org/The_Niger_Delta/ Niger Delta: A Brief History] *American Association give de Advancement of Science, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051119105233/http://www.aaas.org/international/ssd/nigerdelta/ Niger Delta] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/ Environmental Rights Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/|date=2005-08-10}} *[http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta News] [http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta for de Niger Delta top] q8q2ojoco8whljp7eeinvazc9knoj9q 104432 104431 2026-06-22T14:02:17Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104432 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|thumb|384x384px|View of de Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).]] De '''Niger Delta''' be de delta of de [[Niger River]] wey dey sit directly for de [[Gulf of Guinea]] top for de [[Atlantic Ocean]] top for Nigeria insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166 "Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Earth''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075935/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166|date=2013-04-20}}, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Umoh |first1=Unyime U. |last2=Li |first2=Li |last3=Wang |first3=Junjian |last4=Kauluma |first4=Ndamononghenda |last5=Asuquo |first5=Francis E. |last6=Akpan |first6=Ekom R. |date=August 2022 |title=Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=170 |bibcode=2022OrGeo.17004461U |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461 |s2cid=249615285 |article-number=104461}}</ref> Dem locate am within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, wey dey include: all six states from de South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone den two states (Abia den Imo) from South East geopolitical zone. De Niger Delta be a very densely populated region wey dem samtimes bell am de '''Oil Rivers''' sekof e once be a major producer of palm oil.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Otoabasi |first=Akpan |title=The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan |publisher=Spectrum Books |year=2011}}</ref> De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De delta be a petroleum-rich region den e already get de center of international concern ova extensive pollution wey dem often use am as an example of ecocide.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2021-04-07 |title='Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ecocide-movement-pushes-new-international-crime-environmental-destruction-n1263142 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=5 February 2014 |title=Fighting ecocide in Nigeria |url=https://theecologist.org/2014/feb/05/fighting-ecocide-nigeria |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=theecologist.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making? |url=https://unpo.org/article/19131 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=unpo.org}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|date=2011-08-22|title=How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/22/ecocide-law-nigerian-oil-disaster|access-date=2023-07-06|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> De principal cause be major oil spills by multinational corporations of de petroleum industry.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Aghalino |first=S.O |title=Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. |publisher=Maiduguri journal of Historical studies |year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dakolo |first=Bubaraye |title=The Riddle of the Oil Thief |publisher=Purple Shelves |year=2021 |isbn=978-978-988-990-7 |location=Lagos |pages=117–170}}</ref> == Geography == De Niger Delta, as rydee dem define am officially by de Nigerian government, dey extend ova 70,000 km² (27,000 sq mi) den dey make up 7.5% of Nigeria ein land mass.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chukwu|first=Ignatius|date=2023-10-01|title=What Nigeria’s independence means for Niger Delta|url=https://businessday.ng/life/article/what-nigerias-independence-means-for-niger-delta/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2025-11-21|newspaper=[[BusinessDay (Nigeria)|BusinessDay]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Historically den cartographically, e dey consist of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, den Rivers States. For 2000 insyd, howeva, Obasanjo ein regime wey e include Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo den Ondo States for de region insyd.<ref name=":0" /> De Niger Delta den de South-South geopolitical zone (wey dey contain six of de states for de Niger Delta insyd) be two different entities. De Niger Delta dey separate de Bight of Benin from de Bight of Bonny within de larger Gulf of Guinea.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpan |first=D. |title=Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference. |year=2006}}</ref> == Demographics == De political Niger Delta be home to approximately 31 million pippoe from ova 40 ethnic groups, wey dey include de Ijaws—such as de Kalabari, Okrika, Epie-Atissa, Ogbia, Abua, Obolo, Opobo, Ibani, Apoi, Arogbo, Olodiama, Biseni, Akinima, Ibibio, Urhobo, Annang, Oron, Efik, Ogoni, Edo, Esan, Isoko, Igbo den Okpe among odas. Dem communities dey speak around 250 different dialects. De Ijaw be de largest ethnic group for de Niger Delta insyd, plus a widespread presence across six states for de region insyd. De major language groups wey dem speak for de Niger Delta insyd dey include de Ijaw languages, Ibibio-Efik,<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org">{{Cite web |title=The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group |url=https://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/the-niger-delta/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |language=en-US}}</ref> Edoid languages.<ref name=":1" /> == History == === Colonial period === De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De core Niger Delta later becam a part of de eastern region of Nigeria, wey cam into being for 1951 insyd (one of de three regions, den later one of de four regions). De majority of de pippoe be dem pippoe from de colonial Calabar den Ogoja divisions, de present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoni pippoe. De National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) be de ruling political party of de region. De NCNC later becam de National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decide to separate from Nigeria. De ruling party of eastern Nigeria no seek to preclude de separation den even encourage am. De then Eastern Region get de third, fourth, den fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups for de country, wey be de Igbo, Ijaw den Ibibio. For 1953 insyd, de Old Eastern region get a major crisis wen dem expel professor Eyo Ita from office by de majority Igbo tribe of de Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, be one of de pioneer nationalists give Nigerian independence. De non-igbo of den then eastern region, de Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoja, wey dem situate along de southeastern coast den for de delta region insyd den demand a state of demma own, wey dem bell am de Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. De Ibibio pippoe of de present Akwa Ibom State den Cross River State wey dem sanso champion give demma state thru de Ibibio State Union. De struggle give de creation of de COR state continue den be a major issue wey dey concern de status of minorities for Nigeria insyd during debates for Europe insyd for Nigerian independence top. As a result of dis crisis, Professor Eyo Ita lef de NCNC to form a new political party wey dem bell am National Independence Party wey be one of de five Nigerian political parties wey dem represent am at de conferences for Nigerian Constitution den Independence top.<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org" /> === Post-colonial period === For 1961 insyd, anoda major crisis occur wen de then-eastern region of Nigeria allow present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from de region of wat rydee be Akwa Ibom den Cross River states) thru a plebiscite while de leadership of de Northern Region take de necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon for Nigeria insyd, for present-day Adamawa den Taraba states insyd. De aftermath of de 1961 plebiscite lead to a dispute between Cameroon den Nigeria ova de small territory of Bakassi. A new phase of de struggle see de declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian presido Ironsi ein administration, just before de Nigerian Civil War.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Writer|first=Guest|date=2018-05-22|title=The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after|url=https://www.thecable.ng/the-revolutionist-as-the-true-national-knight-retelling-major-isaac-boro-fifty-years-after/|access-date=2024-07-04|newspaper=[[TheCable]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Sanso just before de Nigerian civil war, dem create Southeastern State of Nigeria (dem sanso know am Southeastern Nigeria anaa Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), wey get de colonial Calabar division, den colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State wey dem sanso create am. Southeastern State den River State becam two states give de minorities of de old eastern region, den de majority Igbo of de old eastern region get a state wey dem bell am East Central State. Dem rename Southeastern State as Cross River State den dem later split am into Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. Dem later divide Rivers State into Rivers State den Bayelsa State. === Nigerian Civil War === Niger Delta pippoe suffer heavily plus de great loss of lives den properties, hunger den starvation, den sustain many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, wey dem sanso know am de Biafran War, for wey de eastern region declare an independent state wey dem name am Biafra wey dem eventually defeat am.<ref>{{Citation |title=The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 |date=2015-12-31 |pages=xv–xx |chapter=Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1515/9781400871285-003 |isbn=978-1-4008-7128-5}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Heerten |first1=Lasse |title=The Nigeria-Biafra War |date=2017-07-06 |work=Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide |pages=3–43 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315229294-1 |isbn=978-1-315-22929-4 |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. |title=The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath. |date=1991 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=0-88946-235-6 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |oclc=476261625}}</ref> During dis period, dem shut down schools completely, den gunfire becam a daily occurrence. === Non-violent resistance === Following de civil war, local communities increasingly social den environmental justice wey dem demand from de federal government, plus Ken Saro Wiwa den de Ogoni tribe as de lead figures give dis phase of de struggle. Cohesive oil protests becam most pronounced for 1990 insyd plus de publication of de Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous pippoe protest against de lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, den hospitals, for de region insyd, despite all de oil wealth wey dem create. Dem sanso complain about environmental pollution den de destruction of demma land den rivers by foreign oil companies. Dem arrest den kill Ken Saro Wiwa den nine oda oil activists from Movement give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe (MOSOP) under Sani Abacha for 1995 insyd.<ref>Strutton, Laine (2014). ''The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria'' (Thesis). [[:en:ProQuest|ProQuest]] [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1666393541 1666393541].</ref> === Recent armed conflict === Wen long-held dey concern about loss of control ova resources to de oil companies wey de Ijaw pippoe voice am for de Kaiama Declaration insyd for 1998 insyd, de Nigerian government send troops to occupy de Bayelsa den Delta states. Soldiers open fire plus rifles, machine guns, den tear gas, wey e kill at least three protesters den dey arrest twenty-five more.<ref>{{cite web |date=1998-12-30 |title=State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805220129/http://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |archive-date=2012-08-05 |access-date=2018-01-19 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> Since then, local Indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries den pipelines for de region insyd increase for frequency den militancy insyd. Recently foreign employees of Shell, de primary corporation wey dey operate for de region insyd, dem take hostage by local pippoe. Such activities sanso result for greater governmental intervention insyd for de area insyd den de mobilization of de Nigerian Army den State Security Service into de region, wey e result for violence den human rights abuses insyd. For April 2006 insyd, a bomb explode near an oil refinery for de Niger Delta region insyd, a warning against Chinese expansion for de region insyd. De Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) state: "We wish to warn de Chinese government den ein oil companies to steer well clear of de Niger Delta. De Chinese government, by investing for stolen crude insyd, dey places ein citizens for our line of fire insyd."<ref>Ian Taylor, [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa "China's environmental footprint in Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223061935/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa|date=2007-02-23}}, ''China Dialogue'', 2 February 2007.</ref> Government den private initiatives to develop de Niger Delta region, dem already introduce dem recently. Dem dey include de Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, den de Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization wey dey base for Port Harcourt insyd. Uz den Uz Transnational, a company plus a strong commitment to de Niger Delta, wey introduce ways of developing de poor for de Niger Delta insyd, especially for Rivers State insyd. For September 2008 insyd, MEND release a statement wey dey proclaim dat demma militants launch an "oil war" thruout de Niger Delta against both, pipelines den oil-production facilities, den de Nigerian soldiers dat dey protect dem. Both MEND den de Nigerian Government dey claim to have inflicted heavy casualties for one anoda top.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm "Nigeria militants warn of oil war"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915064938/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm|date=2008-09-15}}, BBC News, 14 September 2008.</ref> For August 2009 insyd, de Nigerian government grant amnesty to de militants; many militants subsequently surrender demma weapons for exchange give a presidential pardon insyd, rehabilitation programme, den education. == Sub-regions == '''Western Niger Delta''' dey consist of de western section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Delta, den de southernmost parts of Edo, den Ondo States. De western (anaa Northern) Niger Delta be a heterogeneous society plus several ethnic groups wey dey include de Urhobo, De Western Igbos; Ika pippoe, Aniocha Pippoe, Isoko, Ijaw (anaa Izon) den Ukwuani, Itsekiri de Bini, Esan, Auchi, Esako, oral, den Afenmai for Edo State insyd; den de Ilaje Yoruba for Ondo State insyd. Demma livelihoods be primarily dey base for fishing den farming top. History get am say de Kings of de four primary ethnic groups control Western Niger de Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, den, Itsekiri plus wey de British government get to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" for demma formation of "Protectorates" insyd dat later becam southern Nigeria. '''Central Niger Delta''' dey consist of de central section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia, den Imo States. De Central Niger Delta region get de Ijaw (wey dey include de Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari pippoe, Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni den Andoni clans), de Ogoni pippoe (Khana, Gokana, Tai den Eleme), De Igbos (de Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye den Ndoki) for Rivers State insyd. '''Eastern Niger Delta''' dey consist of Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. E get de homogeneous Annang, Efik, Ibibio den Oron pippoe, Ogoja (dat dey include Ekoi den Bekwara). == Nigerian oil == Nigeria becam West Africa ein biggest producer of petroleum. Dem extract sam 2 million barrels (320,000 m³) per day for de Niger Delta insyd, plus an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Isumonah |first=V. Adelfemi |year=2013 |title=Armed Society in the Niger Delta |journal=Armed Forces & Society |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=331–358 |doi=10.1177/0095327x12446925 |s2cid=110566551}}</ref> De first oil operations for de region insyd begin for de 1950s insyd den dem undertake am by multinational corporations, wey provide Nigeria plus necessary technological den financial resources to extract oil.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Scott R. |title=Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8047-0749-9 |location=Stanford |page=13}}</ref> Since 1975, de region account give more dan 75% of Nigeria ein export earnings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpeninor |first=James Ohwofasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESk7b8iKIU0C&pg=PA576 |title=Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution? |date=2012-08-28 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-1868-6 |language=en}}</ref> Togeda oil den natural gas extraction dey comprise "97 percent of Nigeria ein foreign exchange revenues".<ref>''Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta''. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.</ref> More dan 70% of de natural gas wey dem extract for oil wells insyd for de delta insyd, dem immediately burn, anaa flared, into de air at a rate of approximately 70 million m³ per day.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 4, 2024 |title=A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233298409_A_review_of_the_effects_of_gas_flaring_on_the_Niger_Delta_environment |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref> Dis be equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption den dey form de largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions for de planet top. For 2003 insyd, dem flare about 99% of excess gas for de Niger Delta insyd, <ref>{{cite web |date=Nov 2003 |title=Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115182631/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=UNFCC}}</ref> although dis value fall to 11% for 2010 insyd.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301124210/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html|date=2012-03-01}}, "Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010."</ref> (Make you sanso see [[:en:Gas_flaring#Volume|gas flaring volumes]]). De biggest gas flaring company be de Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture dat be majority-owned by de Nigerian government. For Nigeria insyd, "...despite regulations wey dem introduce 20 years ago to outlaw de practice, dem flare most associated gas, wey e cause local pollution den dey contribute to climate change."<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2004 |title=Gas Flaring in Nigeria |url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225211133/http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=Friends of the Earth}}</ref> De environmental devastation wey dem associate plus de industry den de lack of distribution of oil wealth already be de source den/anaa key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements den inter-ethnic conflicts for de region insyd, wey dey include recent guerrilla activity by MEND. For September 2012 insyd Eland Oil & Gas purchase a 45% interest for OML 40 insyd, plus ein partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from de Shell Group. Dem intend to recommission de existing infrastructure den restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m³) of oil per day plus a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m³) of oil per day within four years. === Oil revenue derivation === Oil revenue allocation already be de subject of much contention well before Nigeria gain ein independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, wey e owe to de First Republic ein high degree of regional autonomy, den as low as 10% during de military dictatorships. {| class="wikitable" |+Oil revenue sharing formula !Year !Federal !State* !Local !Special Projects !Derivation Formula** |- |1958 |40% |60% |0% |0% |50% |- |1968 |80% |20% |0% |0% |10% |- |1977 |75% |22% |3% |0% |10% |- |1982 |55% |32.5% |10% |2.5% |10% |- |1989 |50% |24% |15% |11% |10% |- |1995 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |- |2001 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |} ''* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.'' ''**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state.'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm World Bank Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm|date=2016-09-21}} == Media == De documentary film ''Sweet Crude'', wey dem premier April 2009 at de Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, dey tell de story of Nigeria ein Niger Delta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi |url=http://www.sweetcrudemovie.com/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=www.sweetcrudemovie.com}}</ref> == Environmental issues == De Niger Delta be a region of unparalleled ecological richness, wey ein intricate network of waterways characterize am, lush mangrove forests, den diverse ecosystems. Howeva, dem damage de serene beauty of dis landscape by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Ova de years, de Niger Delta experience a series of devastating oil spills, wey industrial activities wey relate to de extraction den transportation of oil den gas primarily cause am. Sekof dis high amount of spills, dem consider de Niger Delta as one of de most polluted areas for Earth top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anejionu |first1=Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony |last2=Blackburn |first2=George Alan |last3=Whyatt |first3=J. Duncan |date=4 March 2014 |title=Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1900–1925 |bibcode=2014IJRS...35.1900A |doi=10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |s2cid=53705868 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dem spills inflict severe den continuous damage for de delicate balance of de region ein ecosystems top. Dem impact both de environment den de livelihoods of de communities dat dey depend for ein resources top. Two spills for 2008 den 2009 insyd already be de largest den most harmful by far, collectively dey last give almost 150 days den dey cause flora death thruout 393 km². De extensive network of tidal rivers den mangrove swamps dey make am even easier give de oil to spread quickly, den de delta dey becam a sink, wey e trap de oil dat dem no remove am.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal |last1=Obida |first1=Christopher B. |last2=Blackburn |first2=George A. |last3=Whyatt |first3=James D. |last4=Semple |first4=Kirk T. |date=25 June 2021 |title=Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with >1million people in the impact zone |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721009219 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=775 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.775n5854O |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854 |s2cid=233538622 |url-access=subscription |article-number=145854}}</ref> De spills cam from a pipeline wey Shell Petroleum Development Company operate am. For addition to smaller spills insyd dat take place ova de years 2006–2019, dem estimate am dat dem release a total of 92,479,170 liters (anaa 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil into de area wey dem study.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Since then, following spills continue to exacerbate de ecological damage. De exact impact of spills like dem be hard to know sekof traditional field studies dey nearly impossible for dis region. Howeva, techniques such as de normalized difference vegetation index already be successful for measuring de impact of oil spills insyd for de river ein plant health top. Additionally, field samples wey dem independently collect am, dem confirm de presence of hydrocarbon pollutants for high concentrations insyd for de impacted areas insyd.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Oil den gas pollution/spills dey greatly increase de possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil be particularly concerning sekof demma link to de health problems wey exposure cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ugochukwu |first1=Uzochukwu C. |last2=Ochonogor |first2=Alfred |last3=Jidere |first3=Chika M. |last4=Agu |first4=Chizoba |last5=Nkoloagu |first5=Frida |last6=Ewoh |first6=John |last7=Okwu-Delunzu |first7=Virginia U. |date=1 June 2018 |title=Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016041201732158X |journal=Environment International |volume=115 |pages=38–47 |bibcode=2018EnInt.115...38U |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010 |pmid=29547867 |s2cid=3902367 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dis dey include organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene den xylene,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Philibert |first1=Danielle A. |last2=Lyons |first2=Danielle |last3=Philibert |first3=Clara |last4=Tierney |first4=Keith B. |date=10 January 2019 |title=Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718330213 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=647 |pages=1148–1157 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.647.1148P |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052 |pmid=30180323 |s2cid=52156999 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium den cadmium. In fact, according to de Scientific Committee for Health, Environmental den Emerging Risks top, dem fi put more dan 1300 different chemicals into de environment as a result of oil den gas exploration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertollini |first1=Roberto |last2=Teresa |first2=Borges |last3=Pim |first3=deVoogt |last4=Peter |first4=Hoet |date=30 November 2018 |title=OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU |journal=Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER}}</ref> Then, humans cam for contact insyd plus dem harmful substances thru eating contaminated food as well as breathing for de air pollution insyd.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of">{{cite journal |last1=Afshar-Mohajer |first1=Nima |last2=Fox |first2=Mary A. |last3=Koehler |first3=Kirsten |date=1 March 2019 |title=The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718344656 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=654 |pages=924–932 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.654..924A |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110 |pmid=30453262 |s2cid=53946118 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons be especially concerning sekof demma persistence for de environment insyd. Even for low amounts insyd, prolonged exposure fi cause serious health issues such as cancer den oda chronic illnesses.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> For general insyd, de harmful pollutants wey dem emit from oil spills den oda pollution dey include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, den infertility.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> Less deadly, but still serious, health problems dey include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes for face den neck top, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, den diarrhea be common issues wey oil spills cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nriagu |first1=Jerome |last2=Udofia |first2=Emilia A. |last3=Ekong |first3=Ibanga |last4=Ebuk |first4=Godwin |date=March 2016 |title=Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=346 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13030346 |pmc=4809009 |pmid=27007391 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Collectively, more dan 1 million pippoe dey live for de area insyd dat oil/gas pollution already contaminate am. Dis population be especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses sekof demma pre-existing low life expectancy den large ratio of young pippoe.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Additionally, a 2006 report wey de United Nations Development Programme do am dey say "De Niger Delta be a region wey dey suffer from administrative neglect, wey dey crumble social infrastructure den services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth den squalor, den endemic conflict,"<ref>{{cite web |author1=United Nations |date=1 January 2006 |title=Human Development Report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report#:~:text=%22The%20Niger%20Delta%20is%20a,conflict%2C%22%20says%20the%20report. |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>. Dem factors dey make am increasingly harder give de local communities to deal plus de negative effects wey foreign oil exploration cause am. De pippoe wey oil spills affect am for de Niger Delta insyd be diverse communities wey dey reside for de region insyd. Dem intricately connect demma lives to de natural environment. Dem communities, often make up of indigenous groups, dey rely for de Niger Delta ein resources top give demma food, water, livelihoods, den cultural practices. De impact of oil spills for dem communities top be multi-faceted den dey extend beyond health problems. Fishing den agriculture be central to de livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills dey contaminate water sources den farmlands, wey e severely affect fish stocks den crops. Dis disruption fi lead to food shortages den economic hardship give dem dependent for dem activities top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Osuagwu |first1=Eze Simpson |last2=Olaifa |first2=Eseoghene |date=25 October 2018 |title=Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1305114O |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0205114 |pmc=6201865 |pmid=30359365 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0205114}}</ref> Anoda facet of de pippoe ein livelihoods be demma culture. De Niger Delta ein pippoe get strong spiritual den cultural ties to demma environment. De harm inflict for demma land top den waterways wey oil spills cause am dey deeply disrupt sacred sites den dey interfere plus demma cultural practices. De loss of dem cultural elements dey contribute to a sense of displacement den identity crisis among de affected groups/communities.<ref name="soa">{{cite journal |last=Aghalino |first=S.O. |date=February 2011 |title=Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301637735 |journal=Africana |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=15 |access-date=December 14, 2023}}</ref> Additionally, wen communities fight back against de oil industries as an act of protest, violence be often perpetuated. Since de 1990s der already be continuous violence for an effort insyd to give local communities control of de oil for de delta insyd. Dem acts of violence dey include de kidnapping of foreign oil workers den dey hold dem give ransom, vandalization, den even de blowing up of oil installations.<ref name="soa" /> == Notes == <references /> == References == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174150/http://nigerdeltavine.com/ Niger Delta-Archive of News, Interviews, Articles, Analysis from 1999 to Present] * ''Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928–1937''. Edited by Monday Efiong Noah. Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo. * Urhobo Historical Society (4 August 2003). Urhobo Historical Society Responds to Itsekiri Claims on Warri City and Western Niger Delta. * [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/30/oil-spills-nigeria-niger-delta-shell/ "Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it"] == External links == {{Commons}} * [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text National Geographic Magazine: "Curse of the Black Gold, Hope, and betrayal on the Niger Delta"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text |date=2008-08-26 }} — ''February 2007 issue''. * [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, Nigerdeltaforum.com: forum on the Niger Delta and its people] * Niger-Delta Development Commission, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051025160835/http://www.nddconline.org/The_Niger_Delta/ Niger Delta: A Brief History] * American Association for the Advancement of Science, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051119105233/http://www.aaas.org/international/ssd/nigerdelta/ Niger Delta] * [http://www.eraction.org/ Environmental Rights Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/ |date=2005-08-10 }} * [http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta News on the Niger Delta] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Niger River Delta| ]] [[Category:Niger River|*Delta]] [[Category:Gulf of Guinea]] [[Category:River deltas of Africa|Niger]] [[Category:Landforms of Nigeria]] [[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Nigeria]] [[Category:Afrotropical ecoregions]] se3ghxzj9m2gnudd648zhokzd1bjhzb 0 27492 104451 103143 2026-06-22T14:40:43Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104451 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:NRCSIA00041 - Iowa (2285)(NRCS Photo Gallery).jpg|thumb|Example for a nature-based solution insyd de area of [[Water resources|water resource]] management: dis riparian buffer dey protect a creek insyd lowa, United States from de impact of adjacent land uses]] '''Nature-based solutions''' (anaa '''nature-based systems''', den abbreviated as '''NBS''' anaa '''NbS''') describe de development den use of (biodiversity) den natural processes to address diverse socio-environmental issues.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Girardin |first1=Cécile A. J. |last2=Jenkins |first2=Stuart |last3=Seddon |first3=Nathalie |last4=Allen |first4=Myles |last5=Lewis |first5=Simon L. |last6=Wheeler |first6=Charlotte E. |last7=Griscom |first7=Bronson W. |last8=Malhi |first8=Yadvinder |title=Nature-based solutions can help cool the planet — if we act now |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=2021 |volume=593 |issue=7858 |pages=191–194 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-01241-2 |doi-access=free|pmid=33981055 |bibcode=2021Natur.593..191G}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frantzeskaki |first1=Niki |last2=McPhearson |first2=Timon |last3=Collier |first3=Marcus J |last4=Kendal |first4=Dave |last5=Bulkeley |first5=Harriet |last6=Dumitru |first6=Adina |last7=Walsh |first7=Claire |last8=Noble |first8=Kate |last9=van Wyk |first9=Ernita |last10=Ordóñez |first10=Camilo |last11=Oke |first11=Cathy |last12=Pintér |first12=László |title=Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Climate Change Adaptation: Linking Science, Policy, and Practice Communities for Evidence-Based Decision-Making |journal=[[BioScience]] |date=2019 |volume=69 |issue=6 |pages=455–466 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biz042 |doi-access=free|hdl=2183/36896 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Dese issues dey include climate change mitigation den adaptation, human security issues such as water security den food security, den disaster risk reduction.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last1=Debele |first1=S. E. |last2=Leo |first2=L. S. |last3=Kumar |first3=P. |last4=Sahani |first4=J. |last5=Ommer |first5=J. |last6=Bucchignani |first6=E. |last7=Vranić |first7=S. |last8=Kalas |first8=M. |last9=Amirzada |first9=Z. |last10=Pavlova |first10=I. |last11=Shah |first11=M. A. R. |last12=Gonzalez-Ollauri |first12=A. |last13=Di Sabatino |first13=S. |date=2023 |title=Nature-based solutions can help reduce the impact of natural hazards: A global analysis of NBS case studies |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969723044492 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=902 |article-number=165824 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165824|pmid=37527720 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.90265824D |hdl=11585/953217 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> De aim be dat resilient ecosystems (whether natural, managed, anaa newly created) provide solutions for de benefit of both societies den biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe|last1=Eggermont|first1=Hilde|last2=Balian|first2=Estelle|date=2015|journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society|language=en|doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9|last3=Azevedo|first3=José Manuel N.|last4=Beumer|first4=Victor|last5=Brodin|first5=Tomas|last6=Claudet|first6=Joachim|last7=Fady|first7=Bruno|last8=Grube|first8=Martin|last9=Keune|first9=Hans|volume=24|issue=4|pages=243–248|s2cid=53518417 |url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf|access-date=24 May 2020|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> De 2019 UN Climate Action Summit dey highlight nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Environment |first=U. N. |date=2019 |title=Nature-Based Solutions for Climate |url=http://www.unep.org/nature-based-solutions-climate |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> For example, nature-based systems for climate change adaptation fit include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, den providing local cooling.<ref name=":13" />{{rp|310}} De concept of NBS be related to de concept of ecological engineering<ref name=":1" /> den ecosystem-based adaptation.<ref name=":13" />{{rp|284}} NBS sanso be related, conceptually to de practice of ecological restoration. De sustainable management approach be a key aspect of NBS development den implementation. Mangrove restoration efforts along coastlines provide an example of a nature-based solution dat fit achieve multiple goals. Mangroves moderate de impact of waves den wind on coastal settlements anaa cities,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marois|first1=Darryl E.|last2=Mitsch|first2=William J.|date=2 January 2015|title=Coastal protection from tsunamis and cyclones provided by mangrove wetlands – a review|journal=International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management|volume=11|issue=1|pages=71–83|doi=10.1080/21513732.2014.997292|bibcode=2015IJBSE..11...71M |s2cid=86554474|issn=2151-3732}}</ref> wey dem dey sequester carbon.<ref>{{Citation|last=Inoue|first=Tomomi|title=Carbon Sequestration in Mangroves|work=Blue Carbon in Shallow Coastal Ecosystems|year=2019|pages=73–99|place=Singapore|publisher=Springer Singapore|doi=10.1007/978-981-13-1295-3_3|isbn=978-981-13-1294-6|s2cid=133839393}}</ref> Dem sanso provide nursery zones for marine life wich be important for sustaining fisheries. Additionally, mangrove forests fit help to control coastal erosion wey dey result from sea level rise. Green roofs, blue roofs, den green walls (as part of green infrastructure) sanso be nature-based solutions dat fit be implemented insud urban areas. Dem fit reduce de effects of urban heat islands, capture stormwater, abate pollution, den act as carbon sinks. At de same time, dem fi enhance local biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2020 |title=Evaluating the potential of nature-based solutions to reduce ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon dioxide through a multi-type green infrastructure study in Ontario, Canada |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590252020300246 |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2026 |website=ScienceDirect}}</ref> NBS systems den solutions dey form an increasing part of national den international policies on climate change. Dem be included insyd climate change policy, infrastructure investment, den [[climate finance]] mechanisms. De European Commission pay increasing attention to NBS since 2013.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Faivre|first1=Nicolas|last2=Fritz|first2=Marco|last3=Freitas|first3=Tiago|last4=de Boissezon|first4=Birgit|last5=Vandewoestijne|first5=Sofie|date=2017|title=Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges|journal=Environmental Research|volume=159|pages=509–518|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032|pmid=28886502|bibcode=2017ER....159..509F|s2cid=42573101|issn=0013-9351}}</ref> Dis be reflected insyd de majority of global NBS case studies wey Debele et al (2023) review dey locate insyd Europe.<ref name=":16" /> While der be much scope for scaling-up nature-based systems den solutions globally, dem frequently encounter numerous challenges during planning den implementation.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last1=Wamsler |first1=C. |last2=Wickenberg |first2=B. |last3=Hanson |first3=H. |last4=Alkan Olsson |first4=J. |last5=Stålhammar |first5=S. |last6=Björn |first6=H. |last7=Falck |first7=H. |last8=Gerell |first8=D. |last9=Oskarsson |first9=T. |last10=Simonsson |first10=E. |last11=Torffvit |first11=F. |date=2020 |title=Environmental and climate policy integration: Targeted strategies for overcoming barriers to nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=247 |article-number=119154 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119154 |issn=0959-6526 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2020JCPro.24719154W }}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Chausson |first1=Alexandre |last2=Turner |first2=Beth |last3=Seddon |first3=Dan |last4=Chabaneix |first4=Nicole |last5=Girardin |first5=Cécile A. J. |last6=Kapos |first6=Valerie |last7=Key |first7=Isabel |last8=Roe |first8=Dilys |last9=Smith |first9=Alison |last10=Woroniecki |first10=Stephen |last11=Seddon |first11=Nathalie |date=2020-09-09 |title=Mapping the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=6134–6155 |bibcode=2020GCBio..26.6134C |doi=10.1111/gcb.15310 |issn=1354-1013 |pmid=32906226 |s2cid=221621517 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De IPCC dey point out dat de term be "de subject of ongoing debate, plus concerns wey e fi lead to de misunderstanding dat NbS on ein own fi provide a global solution to climate change".<ref name=":12" />{{rp|24}} To clarify dis point further, de IPCC sanso state say "nature-based systems no fi be regarded as an alternative to, anaa a reason to delay, deep cuts insyd GHG emissions".<ref name=":13" />{{rp|203}} == Definition == [[File:ISS047-E-84351 Cape Coral, Florida (annotated).jpg|thumb|Mangroves protect coastlines against erosion (Cape Coral, Florida, United States)]] De International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) dey define NBS as "actions to protect, sustainably manage, den restore natural anaa modified ecosystems, dat address societal challenges effectively den adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being den biodiversity benefits".<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10">Cohen-Shacham, E., G. Walters, C. Janzen, S. Maginnis (eds). 2016. Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Xiii + 97 pp. Downloadable from https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401093813/https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191|date=1 April 2021}}</ref> ''Societal challenges'' of relevance here dey include [[climate change]], food security, disaster risk reduction, water security. Insyd oda words: "Nature-based solutions be interventions dat use de natural functions of healthy ecosystems to protect de environment buh sanso dey provide numerous economic den social benefits."<ref>Dubash, N.K., C.  Mitchell, E.L.  Boasson, M.J.  Borbor-Cordova, S.  Fifita, E.  Haites, M.  Jaccard, F.  Jotzo, S.  Naidoo, P.  Romero-Lankao, M.  Shlapak, W.  Shen, L. Wu, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter13.pdf Chapter 13: National and sub-national policies and institutions]. In IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D.  McCollum, M.  Pathak, S.  Some, P. Vyas, R.  Fradera, M.  Belkacemi, A.  Hasija, G.  Lisboa, S.  Luz, J.  Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.015</ref>{{rp|1403}} Dem be used both insyd de context of climate change mitigation as well as adaptation.<ref>Lecocq, F., H. Winkler, J.P. Daka, S. Fu, J.S. Gerber, S. Kartha, V. Krey, H. Lofgren, T. Masui, R. Mathur, J. Portugal-Pereira, B.  K. Sovacool,  M. V. Vilariño,  N. Zhou, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter04.pdf Chapter 4: Mitigation and development pathways in the near- to mid-term]. In IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van  Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.006</ref>{{rp|469}} De European Commission ein definition of NBS dey state say dese solutions be "inspired den supported by nature, wich be cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social den economic benefits den help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, den more diverse, nature den natural features den processes into cities, landscapes, den seascapes, thru locally adapted, resource-efficient den systemic interventions".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Nature-Based Solutions - European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190923161801/http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs |archive-date=23 September 2019 |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=}}</ref> Insyd 2020, de EC definition be updated to further emphasise dat "Nature-based solutions for benefit biodiversity den support de delivery of a range of ecosystem services."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Wild |first1=Tom |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf |title=Nature-based Solutions - State of the Art in EU-funded Projects |last2=Freitas |first2=Tiago |last3=Vandewoestijne |first3=Sofie |date=2020 |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111152411/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report point out dat de term ''nature-based solutions'' be "widely but not universally used insyd de scientific literature".<ref name=":12">IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf Summary for Policymakers] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.</ref>{{rp|24}} As of 2017, de term NBS was still regarded as "poorly defined den vague".<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017 |title='Nature-based solutions' is the latest green jargon that means more than you might think |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/541133b |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=541 |issue=7636 |pages=133–134 |doi=10.1038/541133b |pmid=28079099 |bibcode=2017Natur.541R.133. |s2cid=4455842 |issn=0028-0836|url-access=subscription }}</ref> De term ''ecosystem-based adaptation'' (EbA) be a subset of nature-based solutions den "aims to maintain den increase de resilience den reduce de vulnerability of ecosystems den people insyd de face of de adverse effects of climate change".<ref name=":13" />{{rp|284}} === History of de term === De term ''nature-based solutions'' was put forward by practitioners insyd de late 2000s. At dat time e was used by international organisations such as de International Union for Conservation of Nature den de World Bank insyd de context of finding new solutions to mitigate den adapt to climate change effects by working plus natural ecosystems rather dan relying purely on engineering interventions.<ref name=":5" /><ref name="MacKinnon11">MacKinnon, K., C. Sobrevila, V. Hickey. 2008. [https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/149141468320661795/biodiversity-climate-change-and-adaptation-nature-based-solutions-from-the-world-bank-portfolio Biodiversity, climate change and adaptation: nature-based solutions from the Word Bank portfolio]. Washington D.C.: World Bank.</ref><ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|3}} Chaw indigenous peoples have recognised de natural environment as playing an important role insyd human well-being as part of their traditional knowledge systems, but dis idea did not enter into modern scientific literature until de 1970's plus de concept of ecosystem services.<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|2}} De IUCN refer to NBS insyd a position paper for de United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.</ref> De term sanso be adopted by European policymakers, insyd particular by de European Commission, insyd a report<ref name="European Commission 2015">European Commission. 2015. Towards an EU Research and Innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. Final Report of the Horizon2020 Expert Group on Nature-Based Solutions and Re-Naturing Cities. Brussels: European Commission.</ref> stressing dat NBS fi offer innovative means to create jobs den growth as part of a green economy. De term start to make appearances insyd de mainstream media around de time of de Global Climate Action Summit insyd California insyd September 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2018 |title=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda |url=http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913112911/http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html |archive-date=13 September 2018 |access-date=13 September 2018 |website=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda}}</ref> == Objectives den framing == [[File:Morro Strand State Beach (1).jpg|thumb|Coastal habitat protection at Morro Strand State Beach insyd San Luis Obispo County, California]]Nature-based solutions stress de sustainable use of nature in solving coupled environmental-social-economic challenges.<ref name=":5" /> NBS go beyond traditional biodiversity conservation den management principles by "re-focusing" de debate on humans den specifically integrating societal factors such as human well-being den poverty reduction, socio-economic development den governance principles. De general objective of NBS be clear, namely de sustainable management den use of Nature for tackling societal challenges.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawaiʻi (https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|date=2019-08-08}}) 17. European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, [[resource efficiency]] & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213072645/http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf|date=13 December 2016}})</ref> However, different stakeholders view NBS from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=":1" /> For instance, de IUCN puts de need for well-managed den restored ecosystems at de heart of NBS, plus de overarching goal of "Supporting de achievement of society's development goals den safeguard human well-being insyd ways dat reflect cultural den societal values den enhance de resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal den de provision of services".<ref name="IUCN16">IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawaiʻi (https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|date=8 August 2019}})</ref> De European Commission underlines dat NBS fi transform environmental den societal challenges into innovation opportunities, by turning natural capital into a source for green growth den sustainable development.<ref name="European Commission 2015" /> Within dis viewpoint, nature-based solutions to societal challenges "bring chaw, den chaw diverse, nature den natural features den processes into cities, landscapes den seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient den systemic interventions".<ref name="ec.europa.eu">European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, resource efficiency & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213072645/http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf|date=13 December 2016}})</ref> As a result, NBS has been suggested as a means of implementing de nature-positive goal to halt den reverse nature loss by 2030, den achieve full nature recovery by 2050.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Milner-Gulland |first1=E.J. |last2=Addison |first2=Prue |last3=Arlidge |first3=William N.S. |last4=Baker |first4=Julia |last5=Booth |first5=Hollie |last6=Brooks |first6=Thomas |last7=Bull |first7=Joseph W. |last8=Burgass |first8=Michael J. |last9=Ekstrom |first9=Jon |last10=zu Ermgassen |first10=Sophus O.S.E. |last11=Fleming |first11=L. Vincent |last12=Grub |first12=Henry M.J. |last13=von Hase |first13=Amrei |last14=Hoffmann |first14=Michael |last15=Hutton |first15=Jonathan |date=2021-01-22 |title=Four steps for the Earth: mainstreaming the post-2020 global biodiversity framework |journal=One Earth |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–87 |doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.011 |bibcode=2021OEart...4...75M |issn=2590-3322}}</ref> == Categories == De IUCN proposes to consider NBS as an umbrella concept.<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" /> Categories den examples of NBS approaches according to de IUCN include:<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" /> {| class="wikitable" !Category of NBS approaches !Examples |- |Ecosystem restoration approaches |Ecological restoration, ecological engineering, forest landscape restoration |- |Issue-specific ecosystem-related approaches |Ecosystem-based adaptation, ecosystem-based mitigation, climate adaptation services, ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction |- |Infrastructure-related approaches |Natural infrastructure, green infrastructure |- |Ecosystem-based management approaches |Integrated coastal zone management, integrated water resources management |- |Ecosystem protection approaches |Area-based conservation approaches wey dey include protected area management |} == Types == [[File:Fig 2 NbS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.46|Schematic presentation of de NBS typology.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Eggermont |first1=Hilde |last2=Balian |first2=Estelle |last3=Azevedo |first3=José Manuel N. |last4=Beumer |first4=Victor |last5=Brodin |first5=Tomas |last6=Claudet |first6=Joachim |last7=Fady |first7=Bruno |last8=Grube |first8=Martin |last9=Keune |first9=Hans |date=2015 |title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe |url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=243–248 |doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9 |s2cid=53518417 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf |archive-date=7 May 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020 |hdl=10400.3/4170}}</ref>]] Scientists propose a typology to characterise NBS along two gradients:<ref name=":1" /> # "How much engineering of biodiversity den ecosystems be involved insyd NBS", den # "How many ecosystem services den stakeholder groups are targeted by a given NBS". De typology highlights dat NBS fi involve very different actions on ecosystems (from protection, to management, anaa even de creation of new ecosystems) den be based on de assumption dat de higher de number of services den stakeholder groups targeted, de lower de capacity to maximise de delivery of each service den simultaneously fulfil de specific needs of all stakeholder groups. As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (hybrid solutions exist along dis gradient both insyd space den time. For instance, at a landscape scale, mixing protected den managed areas could be required to fulfill multi-functionality den sustainability goals): == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Ecology]] [[Category:Social issues]] [[Category:Biodiversity]] [[Category:Climate change adaptation]] [[Category:Ecosystems]] [[Category:AWC2026]] owo3edyd75urtd139t9mucx8riaw0v3 104452 104451 2026-06-22T14:42:15Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104452 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:NRCSIA00041 - Iowa (2285)(NRCS Photo Gallery).jpg|thumb|Example for a nature-based solution insyd de area of [[Water resources|water resource]] management: dis riparian buffer dey protect a creek insyd lowa, United States from de impact of adjacent land uses]] '''Nature-based solutions''' (anaa '''nature-based systems''', den abbreviated as '''NBS''' anaa '''NbS''') describe de development den use of (biodiversity) den natural processes to address diverse socio-environmental issues.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Girardin |first1=Cécile A. J. |last2=Jenkins |first2=Stuart |last3=Seddon |first3=Nathalie |last4=Allen |first4=Myles |last5=Lewis |first5=Simon L. |last6=Wheeler |first6=Charlotte E. |last7=Griscom |first7=Bronson W. |last8=Malhi |first8=Yadvinder |title=Nature-based solutions can help cool the planet — if we act now |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=2021 |volume=593 |issue=7858 |pages=191–194 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-01241-2 |doi-access=free|pmid=33981055 |bibcode=2021Natur.593..191G}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frantzeskaki |first1=Niki |last2=McPhearson |first2=Timon |last3=Collier |first3=Marcus J |last4=Kendal |first4=Dave |last5=Bulkeley |first5=Harriet |last6=Dumitru |first6=Adina |last7=Walsh |first7=Claire |last8=Noble |first8=Kate |last9=van Wyk |first9=Ernita |last10=Ordóñez |first10=Camilo |last11=Oke |first11=Cathy |last12=Pintér |first12=László |title=Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Climate Change Adaptation: Linking Science, Policy, and Practice Communities for Evidence-Based Decision-Making |journal=[[BioScience]] |date=2019 |volume=69 |issue=6 |pages=455–466 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biz042 |doi-access=free|hdl=2183/36896 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Dese issues dey include climate change mitigation den adaptation, human security issues such as water security den food security, den disaster risk reduction.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last1=Debele |first1=S. E. |last2=Leo |first2=L. S. |last3=Kumar |first3=P. |last4=Sahani |first4=J. |last5=Ommer |first5=J. |last6=Bucchignani |first6=E. |last7=Vranić |first7=S. |last8=Kalas |first8=M. |last9=Amirzada |first9=Z. |last10=Pavlova |first10=I. |last11=Shah |first11=M. A. R. |last12=Gonzalez-Ollauri |first12=A. |last13=Di Sabatino |first13=S. |date=2023 |title=Nature-based solutions can help reduce the impact of natural hazards: A global analysis of NBS case studies |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969723044492 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=902 |article-number=165824 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165824|pmid=37527720 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.90265824D |hdl=11585/953217 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> De aim be dat resilient ecosystems (whether natural, managed, anaa newly created) provide solutions for de benefit of both societies den biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe|last1=Eggermont|first1=Hilde|last2=Balian|first2=Estelle|date=2015|journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society|language=en|doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9|last3=Azevedo|first3=José Manuel N.|last4=Beumer|first4=Victor|last5=Brodin|first5=Tomas|last6=Claudet|first6=Joachim|last7=Fady|first7=Bruno|last8=Grube|first8=Martin|last9=Keune|first9=Hans|volume=24|issue=4|pages=243–248|s2cid=53518417 |url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf|access-date=24 May 2020|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> De 2019 UN Climate Action Summit dey highlight nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Environment |first=U. N. |date=2019 |title=Nature-Based Solutions for Climate |url=http://www.unep.org/nature-based-solutions-climate |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> For example, nature-based systems for climate change adaptation fit include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, den providing local cooling.<ref name=":13" />{{rp|310}} De concept of NBS be related to de concept of ecological engineering<ref name=":1" /> den ecosystem-based adaptation.<ref name=":13" />{{rp|284}} NBS sanso be related, conceptually to de practice of ecological restoration. De sustainable management approach be a key aspect of NBS development den implementation. Mangrove restoration efforts along coastlines provide an example of a nature-based solution dat fit achieve multiple goals. Mangroves moderate de impact of waves den wind on coastal settlements anaa cities,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marois|first1=Darryl E.|last2=Mitsch|first2=William J.|date=2 January 2015|title=Coastal protection from tsunamis and cyclones provided by mangrove wetlands – a review|journal=International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management|volume=11|issue=1|pages=71–83|doi=10.1080/21513732.2014.997292|bibcode=2015IJBSE..11...71M |s2cid=86554474|issn=2151-3732}}</ref> wey dem dey sequester carbon.<ref>{{Citation|last=Inoue|first=Tomomi|title=Carbon Sequestration in Mangroves|work=Blue Carbon in Shallow Coastal Ecosystems|year=2019|pages=73–99|place=Singapore|publisher=Springer Singapore|doi=10.1007/978-981-13-1295-3_3|isbn=978-981-13-1294-6|s2cid=133839393}}</ref> Dem sanso provide nursery zones for marine life wich be important for sustaining fisheries. Additionally, mangrove forests fit help to control coastal erosion wey dey result from sea level rise. Green roofs, blue roofs, den green walls (as part of green infrastructure) sanso be nature-based solutions dat fit be implemented insud urban areas. Dem fit reduce de effects of urban heat islands, capture stormwater, abate pollution, den act as carbon sinks. At de same time, dem fi enhance local biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2020 |title=Evaluating the potential of nature-based solutions to reduce ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon dioxide through a multi-type green infrastructure study in Ontario, Canada |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590252020300246 |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2026 |website=ScienceDirect}}</ref> NBS systems den solutions dey form an increasing part of national den international policies on climate change. Dem be included insyd climate change policy, infrastructure investment, den [[climate finance]] mechanisms. De European Commission pay increasing attention to NBS since 2013.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Faivre|first1=Nicolas|last2=Fritz|first2=Marco|last3=Freitas|first3=Tiago|last4=de Boissezon|first4=Birgit|last5=Vandewoestijne|first5=Sofie|date=2017|title=Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges|journal=Environmental Research|volume=159|pages=509–518|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032|pmid=28886502|bibcode=2017ER....159..509F|s2cid=42573101|issn=0013-9351}}</ref> Dis be reflected insyd de majority of global NBS case studies wey Debele et al (2023) review dey locate insyd Europe.<ref name=":16" /> While der be much scope for scaling-up nature-based systems den solutions globally, dem frequently encounter numerous challenges during planning den implementation.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last1=Wamsler |first1=C. |last2=Wickenberg |first2=B. |last3=Hanson |first3=H. |last4=Alkan Olsson |first4=J. |last5=Stålhammar |first5=S. |last6=Björn |first6=H. |last7=Falck |first7=H. |last8=Gerell |first8=D. |last9=Oskarsson |first9=T. |last10=Simonsson |first10=E. |last11=Torffvit |first11=F. |date=2020 |title=Environmental and climate policy integration: Targeted strategies for overcoming barriers to nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=247 |article-number=119154 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119154 |issn=0959-6526 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2020JCPro.24719154W }}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Chausson |first1=Alexandre |last2=Turner |first2=Beth |last3=Seddon |first3=Dan |last4=Chabaneix |first4=Nicole |last5=Girardin |first5=Cécile A. J. |last6=Kapos |first6=Valerie |last7=Key |first7=Isabel |last8=Roe |first8=Dilys |last9=Smith |first9=Alison |last10=Woroniecki |first10=Stephen |last11=Seddon |first11=Nathalie |date=2020-09-09 |title=Mapping the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=6134–6155 |bibcode=2020GCBio..26.6134C |doi=10.1111/gcb.15310 |issn=1354-1013 |pmid=32906226 |s2cid=221621517 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De IPCC dey point out dat de term be "de subject of ongoing debate, plus concerns wey e fi lead to de misunderstanding dat NbS on ein own fi provide a global solution to climate change".<ref name=":12" />{{rp|24}} To clarify dis point further, de IPCC sanso state say "nature-based systems no fi be regarded as an alternative to, anaa a reason to delay, deep cuts insyd GHG emissions".<ref name=":13" />{{rp|203}} == Definition == [[File:ISS047-E-84351 Cape Coral, Florida (annotated).jpg|thumb|Mangroves protect coastlines against erosion (Cape Coral, Florida, United States)]] De International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) dey define NBS as "actions to protect, sustainably manage, den restore natural anaa modified ecosystems, dat address societal challenges effectively den adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being den biodiversity benefits".<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10">Cohen-Shacham, E., G. Walters, C. Janzen, S. Maginnis (eds). 2016. Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Xiii + 97 pp. Downloadable from https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401093813/https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191|date=1 April 2021}}</ref> ''Societal challenges'' of relevance here dey include [[climate change]], food security, disaster risk reduction, water security. Insyd oda words: "Nature-based solutions be interventions dat use de natural functions of healthy ecosystems to protect de environment buh sanso dey provide numerous economic den social benefits."<ref>Dubash, N.K., C.  Mitchell, E.L.  Boasson, M.J.  Borbor-Cordova, S.  Fifita, E.  Haites, M.  Jaccard, F.  Jotzo, S.  Naidoo, P.  Romero-Lankao, M.  Shlapak, W.  Shen, L. Wu, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter13.pdf Chapter 13: National and sub-national policies and institutions]. In IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D.  McCollum, M.  Pathak, S.  Some, P. Vyas, R.  Fradera, M.  Belkacemi, A.  Hasija, G.  Lisboa, S.  Luz, J.  Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.015</ref>{{rp|1403}} Dem be used both insyd de context of climate change mitigation as well as adaptation.<ref>Lecocq, F., H. Winkler, J.P. Daka, S. Fu, J.S. Gerber, S. Kartha, V. Krey, H. Lofgren, T. Masui, R. Mathur, J. Portugal-Pereira, B.  K. Sovacool,  M. V. Vilariño,  N. Zhou, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter04.pdf Chapter 4: Mitigation and development pathways in the near- to mid-term]. In IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van  Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.006</ref>{{rp|469}} De European Commission ein definition of NBS dey state say dese solutions be "inspired den supported by nature, wich be cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social den economic benefits den help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, den more diverse, nature den natural features den processes into cities, landscapes, den seascapes, thru locally adapted, resource-efficient den systemic interventions".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Nature-Based Solutions - European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190923161801/http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs |archive-date=23 September 2019 |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=}}</ref> Insyd 2020, de EC definition be updated to further emphasise dat "Nature-based solutions for benefit biodiversity den support de delivery of a range of ecosystem services."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Wild |first1=Tom |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf |title=Nature-based Solutions - State of the Art in EU-funded Projects |last2=Freitas |first2=Tiago |last3=Vandewoestijne |first3=Sofie |date=2020 |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111152411/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report point out dat de term ''nature-based solutions'' be "widely but not universally used insyd de scientific literature".<ref name=":12">IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf Summary for Policymakers] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.</ref>{{rp|24}} As of 2017, de term NBS was still regarded as "poorly defined den vague".<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017 |title='Nature-based solutions' is the latest green jargon that means more than you might think |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/541133b |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=541 |issue=7636 |pages=133–134 |doi=10.1038/541133b |pmid=28079099 |bibcode=2017Natur.541R.133. |s2cid=4455842 |issn=0028-0836|url-access=subscription }}</ref> De term ''ecosystem-based adaptation'' (EbA) be a subset of nature-based solutions den "aims to maintain den increase de resilience den reduce de vulnerability of ecosystems den people insyd de face of de adverse effects of climate change".<ref name=":13" />{{rp|284}} === History of de term === De term ''nature-based solutions'' was put forward by practitioners insyd de late 2000s. At dat time e was used by international organisations such as de International Union for Conservation of Nature den de World Bank insyd de context of finding new solutions to mitigate den adapt to climate change effects by working plus natural ecosystems rather dan relying purely on engineering interventions.<ref name=":5" /><ref name="MacKinnon11">MacKinnon, K., C. Sobrevila, V. Hickey. 2008. [https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/149141468320661795/biodiversity-climate-change-and-adaptation-nature-based-solutions-from-the-world-bank-portfolio Biodiversity, climate change and adaptation: nature-based solutions from the Word Bank portfolio]. Washington D.C.: World Bank.</ref><ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|3}} Chaw indigenous peoples have recognised de natural environment as playing an important role insyd human well-being as part of their traditional knowledge systems, but dis idea did not enter into modern scientific literature until de 1970's plus de concept of ecosystem services.<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|2}} De IUCN refer to NBS insyd a position paper for de United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.</ref> De term sanso be adopted by European policymakers, insyd particular by de European Commission, insyd a report<ref name="European Commission 2015">European Commission. 2015. Towards an EU Research and Innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. Final Report of the Horizon2020 Expert Group on Nature-Based Solutions and Re-Naturing Cities. Brussels: European Commission.</ref> stressing dat NBS fi offer innovative means to create jobs den growth as part of a green economy. De term start to make appearances insyd de mainstream media around de time of de Global Climate Action Summit insyd California insyd September 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2018 |title=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda |url=http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913112911/http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html |archive-date=13 September 2018 |access-date=13 September 2018 |website=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda}}</ref> == Objectives den framing == [[File:Morro Strand State Beach (1).jpg|thumb|Coastal habitat protection at Morro Strand State Beach insyd San Luis Obispo County, California]]Nature-based solutions stress de sustainable use of nature in solving coupled environmental-social-economic challenges.<ref name=":5" /> NBS go beyond traditional biodiversity conservation den management principles by "re-focusing" de debate on humans den specifically integrating societal factors such as human well-being den poverty reduction, socio-economic development den governance principles. De general objective of NBS be clear, namely de sustainable management den use of Nature for tackling societal challenges.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawaiʻi (https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|date=2019-08-08}}) 17. European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, [[resource efficiency]] & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213072645/http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf|date=13 December 2016}})</ref> However, different stakeholders view NBS from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=":1" /> For instance, de IUCN puts de need for well-managed den restored ecosystems at de heart of NBS, plus de overarching goal of "Supporting de achievement of society's development goals den safeguard human well-being insyd ways dat reflect cultural den societal values den enhance de resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal den de provision of services".<ref name="IUCN16">IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawaiʻi (https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|date=8 August 2019}})</ref> De European Commission underlines dat NBS fi transform environmental den societal challenges into innovation opportunities, by turning natural capital into a source for green growth den sustainable development.<ref name="European Commission 2015" /> Within dis viewpoint, nature-based solutions to societal challenges "bring chaw, den chaw diverse, nature den natural features den processes into cities, landscapes den seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient den systemic interventions".<ref name="ec.europa.eu">European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, resource efficiency & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213072645/http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf|date=13 December 2016}})</ref> As a result, NBS has been suggested as a means of implementing de nature-positive goal to halt den reverse nature loss by 2030, den achieve full nature recovery by 2050.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Milner-Gulland |first1=E.J. |last2=Addison |first2=Prue |last3=Arlidge |first3=William N.S. |last4=Baker |first4=Julia |last5=Booth |first5=Hollie |last6=Brooks |first6=Thomas |last7=Bull |first7=Joseph W. |last8=Burgass |first8=Michael J. |last9=Ekstrom |first9=Jon |last10=zu Ermgassen |first10=Sophus O.S.E. |last11=Fleming |first11=L. Vincent |last12=Grub |first12=Henry M.J. |last13=von Hase |first13=Amrei |last14=Hoffmann |first14=Michael |last15=Hutton |first15=Jonathan |date=2021-01-22 |title=Four steps for the Earth: mainstreaming the post-2020 global biodiversity framework |journal=One Earth |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–87 |doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.011 |bibcode=2021OEart...4...75M |issn=2590-3322}}</ref> == Categories == De IUCN proposes to consider NBS as an umbrella concept.<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" /> Categories den examples of NBS approaches according to de IUCN include:<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" /> {| class="wikitable" !Category of NBS approaches !Examples |- |Ecosystem restoration approaches |Ecological restoration, ecological engineering, forest landscape restoration |- |Issue-specific ecosystem-related approaches |Ecosystem-based adaptation, ecosystem-based mitigation, climate adaptation services, ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction |- |Infrastructure-related approaches |Natural infrastructure, green infrastructure |- |Ecosystem-based management approaches |Integrated coastal zone management, integrated water resources management |- |Ecosystem protection approaches |Area-based conservation approaches wey dey include protected area management |} == Types == [[File:Fig 2 NbS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.46|Schematic presentation of de NBS typology.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Eggermont |first1=Hilde |last2=Balian |first2=Estelle |last3=Azevedo |first3=José Manuel N. |last4=Beumer |first4=Victor |last5=Brodin |first5=Tomas |last6=Claudet |first6=Joachim |last7=Fady |first7=Bruno |last8=Grube |first8=Martin |last9=Keune |first9=Hans |date=2015 |title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe |url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=243–248 |doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9 |s2cid=53518417 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf |archive-date=7 May 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020 |hdl=10400.3/4170}}</ref>]] Scientists propose a typology to characterise NBS along two gradients:<ref name=":1" /> # "How much engineering of biodiversity den ecosystems be involved insyd NBS", den # "How many ecosystem services den stakeholder groups are targeted by a given NBS". De typology highlights dat NBS fi involve very different actions on ecosystems (from protection, to management, anaa even de creation of new ecosystems) den be based on de assumption dat de higher de number of services den stakeholder groups targeted, de lower de capacity to maximise de delivery of each service den simultaneously fulfil de specific needs of all stakeholder groups. As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (hybrid solutions exist along dis gradient both insyd space den time. For instance, at a landscape scale, mixing protected den managed areas could be required to fulfill multi-functionality den sustainability goals): == References == <references /> == External links == '''Nature-based solutions insyd de context of climate change:''' *[http://www.naturebasedsolutionsinitiative.org/ Nature-based Solutions Initiative] - interdisciplinary programme of research, education and policy advice based in the Departments of Biology and Geography at the University of Oxford * [https://weadapt.org/knowledge-base/nature-based-solutions/an-introduction-to-nature-based-solutions/ An Introduction to Nature-based Solutions (by weADAPT)] *Shortfilm by Greta Thunberg and George Monbiot: ''[https://www.conservation.org/video/nature-now-video-with-greta-thunberg Nature Now]'' 2020 *[https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-can-nature-based-solutions-help-address-climate-change Q&A: Can 'nature-based solutions' help address climate change?] by CarbonBrief. 2021. '''Nature-based solutions insyd oda contexts:''' * Sustainable cities: Nature-based solutions in urban design (The Nature Conservancy): https://vimeo.com/155849692 * Video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e8YxZATAiDE Think Nature: A guide to using nature-based solutions (IUCN)] [[Category:Ecosystems]] [[Category:Social issues]] [[Category:Biodiversity]] [[Category:Ecology]] [[Category:Climate change adaptation]] 9o8rly7cubixn5afb3a4j9n5tyxmb2m 104465 104452 2026-06-22T14:58:09Z DaSupremo 9 Fix reference 104465 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:NRCSIA00041 - Iowa (2285)(NRCS Photo Gallery).jpg|thumb|Example for a nature-based solution insyd de area of [[Water resources|water resource]] management: dis riparian buffer dey protect a creek insyd lowa, United States from de impact of adjacent land uses]] '''Nature-based solutions''' (anaa '''nature-based systems''', den abbreviated as '''NBS''' anaa '''NbS''') describe de development den use of (biodiversity) den natural processes to address diverse socio-environmental issues.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Girardin |first1=Cécile A. J. |last2=Jenkins |first2=Stuart |last3=Seddon |first3=Nathalie |last4=Allen |first4=Myles |last5=Lewis |first5=Simon L. |last6=Wheeler |first6=Charlotte E. |last7=Griscom |first7=Bronson W. |last8=Malhi |first8=Yadvinder |title=Nature-based solutions can help cool the planet — if we act now |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=2021 |volume=593 |issue=7858 |pages=191–194 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-01241-2 |doi-access=free|pmid=33981055 |bibcode=2021Natur.593..191G}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frantzeskaki |first1=Niki |last2=McPhearson |first2=Timon |last3=Collier |first3=Marcus J |last4=Kendal |first4=Dave |last5=Bulkeley |first5=Harriet |last6=Dumitru |first6=Adina |last7=Walsh |first7=Claire |last8=Noble |first8=Kate |last9=van Wyk |first9=Ernita |last10=Ordóñez |first10=Camilo |last11=Oke |first11=Cathy |last12=Pintér |first12=László |title=Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Climate Change Adaptation: Linking Science, Policy, and Practice Communities for Evidence-Based Decision-Making |journal=[[BioScience]] |date=2019 |volume=69 |issue=6 |pages=455–466 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biz042 |doi-access=free|hdl=2183/36896 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Dese issues dey include climate change mitigation den adaptation, human security issues such as water security den food security, den disaster risk reduction.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last1=Debele |first1=S. E. |last2=Leo |first2=L. S. |last3=Kumar |first3=P. |last4=Sahani |first4=J. |last5=Ommer |first5=J. |last6=Bucchignani |first6=E. |last7=Vranić |first7=S. |last8=Kalas |first8=M. |last9=Amirzada |first9=Z. |last10=Pavlova |first10=I. |last11=Shah |first11=M. A. R. |last12=Gonzalez-Ollauri |first12=A. |last13=Di Sabatino |first13=S. |date=2023 |title=Nature-based solutions can help reduce the impact of natural hazards: A global analysis of NBS case studies |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969723044492 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=902 |article-number=165824 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165824|pmid=37527720 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.90265824D |hdl=11585/953217 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> De aim be dat resilient ecosystems (whether natural, managed, anaa newly created) provide solutions for de benefit of both societies den biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe|last1=Eggermont|first1=Hilde|last2=Balian|first2=Estelle|date=2015|journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society|language=en|doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9|last3=Azevedo|first3=José Manuel N.|last4=Beumer|first4=Victor|last5=Brodin|first5=Tomas|last6=Claudet|first6=Joachim|last7=Fady|first7=Bruno|last8=Grube|first8=Martin|last9=Keune|first9=Hans|volume=24|issue=4|pages=243–248|s2cid=53518417 |url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf|access-date=24 May 2020|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> De 2019 UN Climate Action Summit dey highlight nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Environment |first=U. N. |date=2019 |title=Nature-Based Solutions for Climate |url=http://www.unep.org/nature-based-solutions-climate |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> For example, nature-based systems for climate change adaptation fit include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, den providing local cooling.<ref name="Chausson2020">{{cite journal |last1=Chausson |first1=Alexandre |last2=Turner |first2=Beth |last3=Seddon |first3=Dan |last4=Chabaneix |first4=Nicole |last5=Girardin |first5=Cécile A. J. |last6=Kapos |first6=Valerie |last7=Key |first7=Isabel |last8=Roe |first8=Dilys |last9=Smith |first9=Alison |last10=Woroniecki |first10=Stephen |last11=Seddon |first11=Nathalie |date=2020-09-09 |title=Mapping the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation |journal=[[Global Change Biology]] |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=6134–6155 |bibcode=2020GCBio..26.6134C |doi=10.1111/gcb.15310 |issn=1354-1013 |pmid=32906226 |s2cid=221621517}}</ref>{{rp|310}} De concept of NBS be related to de concept of ecological engineering<ref name=":1" /> den ecosystem-based adaptation.<ref name="Chausson2020" />{{rp|284}} NBS sanso be related, conceptually to de practice of ecological restoration. De sustainable management approach be a key aspect of NBS development den implementation. Mangrove restoration efforts along coastlines provide an example of a nature-based solution dat fit achieve multiple goals. Mangroves moderate de impact of waves den wind on coastal settlements anaa cities,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marois|first1=Darryl E.|last2=Mitsch|first2=William J.|date=2 January 2015|title=Coastal protection from tsunamis and cyclones provided by mangrove wetlands – a review|journal=International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management|volume=11|issue=1|pages=71–83|doi=10.1080/21513732.2014.997292|bibcode=2015IJBSE..11...71M |s2cid=86554474|issn=2151-3732}}</ref> wey dem dey sequester carbon.<ref>{{Citation|last=Inoue|first=Tomomi|title=Carbon Sequestration in Mangroves|work=Blue Carbon in Shallow Coastal Ecosystems|year=2019|pages=73–99|place=Singapore|publisher=Springer Singapore|doi=10.1007/978-981-13-1295-3_3|isbn=978-981-13-1294-6|s2cid=133839393}}</ref> Dem sanso provide nursery zones for marine life wich be important for sustaining fisheries. Additionally, mangrove forests fit help to control coastal erosion wey dey result from sea level rise. Green roofs, blue roofs, den green walls (as part of green infrastructure) sanso be nature-based solutions dat fit be implemented insud urban areas. Dem fit reduce de effects of urban heat islands, capture stormwater, abate pollution, den act as carbon sinks. At de same time, dem fi enhance local biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2020 |title=Evaluating the potential of nature-based solutions to reduce ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon dioxide through a multi-type green infrastructure study in Ontario, Canada |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590252020300246 |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2026 |website=ScienceDirect}}</ref> NBS systems den solutions dey form an increasing part of national den international policies on climate change. Dem be included insyd climate change policy, infrastructure investment, den [[climate finance]] mechanisms. De European Commission pay increasing attention to NBS since 2013.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Faivre|first1=Nicolas|last2=Fritz|first2=Marco|last3=Freitas|first3=Tiago|last4=de Boissezon|first4=Birgit|last5=Vandewoestijne|first5=Sofie|date=2017|title=Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges|journal=Environmental Research|volume=159|pages=509–518|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032|pmid=28886502|bibcode=2017ER....159..509F|s2cid=42573101|issn=0013-9351}}</ref> Dis be reflected insyd de majority of global NBS case studies wey Debele et al (2023) review dey locate insyd Europe.<ref name=":16" /> While der be much scope for scaling-up nature-based systems den solutions globally, dem frequently encounter numerous challenges during planning den implementation.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last1=Wamsler |first1=C. |last2=Wickenberg |first2=B. |last3=Hanson |first3=H. |last4=Alkan Olsson |first4=J. |last5=Stålhammar |first5=S. |last6=Björn |first6=H. |last7=Falck |first7=H. |last8=Gerell |first8=D. |last9=Oskarsson |first9=T. |last10=Simonsson |first10=E. |last11=Torffvit |first11=F. |date=2020 |title=Environmental and climate policy integration: Targeted strategies for overcoming barriers to nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=247 |article-number=119154 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119154 |issn=0959-6526 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2020JCPro.24719154W }}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Chausson |first1=Alexandre |last2=Turner |first2=Beth |last3=Seddon |first3=Dan |last4=Chabaneix |first4=Nicole |last5=Girardin |first5=Cécile A. J. |last6=Kapos |first6=Valerie |last7=Key |first7=Isabel |last8=Roe |first8=Dilys |last9=Smith |first9=Alison |last10=Woroniecki |first10=Stephen |last11=Seddon |first11=Nathalie |date=2020-09-09 |title=Mapping the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=6134–6155 |bibcode=2020GCBio..26.6134C |doi=10.1111/gcb.15310 |issn=1354-1013 |pmid=32906226 |s2cid=221621517 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De IPCC dey point out dat de term be "de subject of ongoing debate, plus concerns wey e fi lead to de misunderstanding dat NbS on ein own fi provide a global solution to climate change".<ref name=":12" />{{rp|24}} To clarify dis point further, de IPCC sanso state say "nature-based systems no fi be regarded as an alternative to, anaa a reason to delay, deep cuts insyd GHG emissions".<ref name="Chausson2020" />{{rp|203}} == Definition == [[File:ISS047-E-84351 Cape Coral, Florida (annotated).jpg|thumb|Mangroves protect coastlines against erosion (Cape Coral, Florida, United States)]] De International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) dey define NBS as "actions to protect, sustainably manage, den restore natural anaa modified ecosystems, dat address societal challenges effectively den adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being den biodiversity benefits".<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10">Cohen-Shacham, E., G. Walters, C. Janzen, S. Maginnis (eds). 2016. Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Xiii + 97 pp. Downloadable from https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401093813/https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191|date=1 April 2021}}</ref> ''Societal challenges'' of relevance here dey include [[climate change]], food security, disaster risk reduction, water security. Insyd oda words: "Nature-based solutions be interventions dat use de natural functions of healthy ecosystems to protect de environment buh sanso dey provide numerous economic den social benefits."<ref>Dubash, N.K., C.  Mitchell, E.L.  Boasson, M.J.  Borbor-Cordova, S.  Fifita, E.  Haites, M.  Jaccard, F.  Jotzo, S.  Naidoo, P.  Romero-Lankao, M.  Shlapak, W.  Shen, L. Wu, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter13.pdf Chapter 13: National and sub-national policies and institutions]. In IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D.  McCollum, M.  Pathak, S.  Some, P. Vyas, R.  Fradera, M.  Belkacemi, A.  Hasija, G.  Lisboa, S.  Luz, J.  Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.015</ref>{{rp|1403}} Dem be used both insyd de context of climate change mitigation as well as adaptation.<ref>Lecocq, F., H. Winkler, J.P. Daka, S. Fu, J.S. Gerber, S. Kartha, V. Krey, H. Lofgren, T. Masui, R. Mathur, J. Portugal-Pereira, B.  K. Sovacool,  M. V. Vilariño,  N. Zhou, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter04.pdf Chapter 4: Mitigation and development pathways in the near- to mid-term]. In IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van  Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.006</ref>{{rp|469}} De European Commission ein definition of NBS dey state say dese solutions be "inspired den supported by nature, wich be cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social den economic benefits den help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, den more diverse, nature den natural features den processes into cities, landscapes, den seascapes, thru locally adapted, resource-efficient den systemic interventions".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Nature-Based Solutions - European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190923161801/http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs |archive-date=23 September 2019 |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=}}</ref> Insyd 2020, de EC definition be updated to further emphasise dat "Nature-based solutions for benefit biodiversity den support de delivery of a range of ecosystem services."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Wild |first1=Tom |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf |title=Nature-based Solutions - State of the Art in EU-funded Projects |last2=Freitas |first2=Tiago |last3=Vandewoestijne |first3=Sofie |date=2020 |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111152411/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report point out dat de term ''nature-based solutions'' be "widely but not universally used insyd de scientific literature".<ref name=":12">IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf Summary for Policymakers] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.</ref>{{rp|24}} As of 2017, de term NBS was still regarded as "poorly defined den vague".<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017 |title='Nature-based solutions' is the latest green jargon that means more than you might think |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/541133b |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=541 |issue=7636 |pages=133–134 |doi=10.1038/541133b |pmid=28079099 |bibcode=2017Natur.541R.133. |s2cid=4455842 |issn=0028-0836|url-access=subscription }}</ref> De term ''ecosystem-based adaptation'' (EbA) be a subset of nature-based solutions den "aims to maintain den increase de resilience den reduce de vulnerability of ecosystems den people insyd de face of de adverse effects of climate change".<ref name="Chausson2020" />{{rp|284}} === History of de term === De term ''nature-based solutions'' was put forward by practitioners insyd de late 2000s. At dat time e was used by international organisations such as de International Union for Conservation of Nature den de World Bank insyd de context of finding new solutions to mitigate den adapt to climate change effects by working plus natural ecosystems rather dan relying purely on engineering interventions.<ref name=":5" /><ref name="MacKinnon11">MacKinnon, K., C. Sobrevila, V. Hickey. 2008. [https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/149141468320661795/biodiversity-climate-change-and-adaptation-nature-based-solutions-from-the-world-bank-portfolio Biodiversity, climate change and adaptation: nature-based solutions from the Word Bank portfolio]. Washington D.C.: World Bank.</ref><ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|3}} Chaw indigenous peoples have recognised de natural environment as playing an important role insyd human well-being as part of their traditional knowledge systems, but dis idea did not enter into modern scientific literature until de 1970's plus de concept of ecosystem services.<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|2}} De IUCN refer to NBS insyd a position paper for de United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.</ref> De term sanso be adopted by European policymakers, insyd particular by de European Commission, insyd a report<ref name="European Commission 2015">European Commission. 2015. Towards an EU Research and Innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. Final Report of the Horizon2020 Expert Group on Nature-Based Solutions and Re-Naturing Cities. Brussels: European Commission.</ref> stressing dat NBS fi offer innovative means to create jobs den growth as part of a green economy. De term start to make appearances insyd de mainstream media around de time of de Global Climate Action Summit insyd California insyd September 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2018 |title=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda |url=http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913112911/http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html |archive-date=13 September 2018 |access-date=13 September 2018 |website=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda}}</ref> == Objectives den framing == [[File:Morro Strand State Beach (1).jpg|thumb|Coastal habitat protection at Morro Strand State Beach insyd San Luis Obispo County, California]]Nature-based solutions stress de sustainable use of nature in solving coupled environmental-social-economic challenges.<ref name=":5" /> NBS go beyond traditional biodiversity conservation den management principles by "re-focusing" de debate on humans den specifically integrating societal factors such as human well-being den poverty reduction, socio-economic development den governance principles. De general objective of NBS be clear, namely de sustainable management den use of Nature for tackling societal challenges.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawaiʻi (https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|date=2019-08-08}}) 17. European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, [[resource efficiency]] & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213072645/http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf|date=13 December 2016}})</ref> However, different stakeholders view NBS from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=":1" /> For instance, de IUCN puts de need for well-managed den restored ecosystems at de heart of NBS, plus de overarching goal of "Supporting de achievement of society's development goals den safeguard human well-being insyd ways dat reflect cultural den societal values den enhance de resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal den de provision of services".<ref name="IUCN16">IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawaiʻi (https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|date=8 August 2019}})</ref> De European Commission underlines dat NBS fi transform environmental den societal challenges into innovation opportunities, by turning natural capital into a source for green growth den sustainable development.<ref name="European Commission 2015" /> Within dis viewpoint, nature-based solutions to societal challenges "bring chaw, den chaw diverse, nature den natural features den processes into cities, landscapes den seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient den systemic interventions".<ref name="ec.europa.eu">European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, resource efficiency & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213072645/http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf|date=13 December 2016}})</ref> As a result, NBS has been suggested as a means of implementing de nature-positive goal to halt den reverse nature loss by 2030, den achieve full nature recovery by 2050.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Milner-Gulland |first1=E.J. |last2=Addison |first2=Prue |last3=Arlidge |first3=William N.S. |last4=Baker |first4=Julia |last5=Booth |first5=Hollie |last6=Brooks |first6=Thomas |last7=Bull |first7=Joseph W. |last8=Burgass |first8=Michael J. |last9=Ekstrom |first9=Jon |last10=zu Ermgassen |first10=Sophus O.S.E. |last11=Fleming |first11=L. Vincent |last12=Grub |first12=Henry M.J. |last13=von Hase |first13=Amrei |last14=Hoffmann |first14=Michael |last15=Hutton |first15=Jonathan |date=2021-01-22 |title=Four steps for the Earth: mainstreaming the post-2020 global biodiversity framework |journal=One Earth |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–87 |doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.011 |bibcode=2021OEart...4...75M |issn=2590-3322}}</ref> == Categories == De IUCN proposes to consider NBS as an umbrella concept.<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" /> Categories den examples of NBS approaches according to de IUCN include:<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" /> {| class="wikitable" !Category of NBS approaches !Examples |- |Ecosystem restoration approaches |Ecological restoration, ecological engineering, forest landscape restoration |- |Issue-specific ecosystem-related approaches |Ecosystem-based adaptation, ecosystem-based mitigation, climate adaptation services, ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction |- |Infrastructure-related approaches |Natural infrastructure, green infrastructure |- |Ecosystem-based management approaches |Integrated coastal zone management, integrated water resources management |- |Ecosystem protection approaches |Area-based conservation approaches wey dey include protected area management |} == Types == [[File:Fig 2 NbS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.46|Schematic presentation of de NBS typology.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Eggermont |first1=Hilde |last2=Balian |first2=Estelle |last3=Azevedo |first3=José Manuel N. |last4=Beumer |first4=Victor |last5=Brodin |first5=Tomas |last6=Claudet |first6=Joachim |last7=Fady |first7=Bruno |last8=Grube |first8=Martin |last9=Keune |first9=Hans |date=2015 |title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe |url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=243–248 |doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9 |s2cid=53518417 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf |archive-date=7 May 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020 |hdl=10400.3/4170}}</ref>]] Scientists propose a typology to characterise NBS along two gradients:<ref name=":1" /> # "How much engineering of biodiversity den ecosystems be involved insyd NBS", den # "How many ecosystem services den stakeholder groups are targeted by a given NBS". De typology highlights dat NBS fi involve very different actions on ecosystems (from protection, to management, anaa even de creation of new ecosystems) den be based on de assumption dat de higher de number of services den stakeholder groups targeted, de lower de capacity to maximise de delivery of each service den simultaneously fulfil de specific needs of all stakeholder groups. As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (hybrid solutions exist along dis gradient both insyd space den time. For instance, at a landscape scale, mixing protected den managed areas could be required to fulfill multi-functionality den sustainability goals): == References == <references /> == External links == '''Nature-based solutions insyd de context of climate change:''' *[http://www.naturebasedsolutionsinitiative.org/ Nature-based Solutions Initiative] - interdisciplinary programme of research, education and policy advice based in the Departments of Biology and Geography at the University of Oxford * [https://weadapt.org/knowledge-base/nature-based-solutions/an-introduction-to-nature-based-solutions/ An Introduction to Nature-based Solutions (by weADAPT)] *Shortfilm by Greta Thunberg and George Monbiot: ''[https://www.conservation.org/video/nature-now-video-with-greta-thunberg Nature Now]'' 2020 *[https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-can-nature-based-solutions-help-address-climate-change Q&A: Can 'nature-based solutions' help address climate change?] by CarbonBrief. 2021. '''Nature-based solutions insyd oda contexts:''' * Sustainable cities: Nature-based solutions in urban design (The Nature Conservancy): https://vimeo.com/155849692 * Video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e8YxZATAiDE Think Nature: A guide to using nature-based solutions (IUCN)] [[Category:Ecosystems]] [[Category:Social issues]] [[Category:Biodiversity]] [[Category:Ecology]] [[Category:Climate change adaptation]] nkx8mqar9fjh7b5phjcxbc5imz0641y 0 27499 104467 102096 2026-06-22T15:05:40Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104467 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Bafing River''' (Manding for "black river", French: ''Rivière Bafing'')<ref name="CamaraO'Toole2013">{{cite book |author1=Mohamed Saliou Camara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfcKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |title=Historical Dictionary of Guinea |author2=Thomas O'Toole |author3=Janice E. Baker |date=7 November 2013 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7969-0 |page=38}}</ref> be de upper course den largest tributary of de [[Senegal River]] wey dey run dey pass [[Guinea]] den [[Mali]] wey e be about {{convert|350|miles}} long. ==Course== De Fonta Djallon insyd Guinea be de source of de Bafing River,<ref name="KnaapNations1994">{{cite book|author1=M. van der Knaap|author2=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|title=Status of Fish Stocks and Fisheries of Thirteen Medium-sized African Reservoirs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wl4nd5K52FIC&pg=RA1-PA19|year=1994|publisher=Food & Agriculture Org.|isbn=978-92-5-103581-8|page=19}}</ref> {{convert|30|miles}} north of Mamou.<ref name="CamaraO'Toole2013"/> E dey flow for about {{convert|350|miles}}<ref name="Company1980">{{cite book|author=Rand McNally and Company|title=Rand McNally Encyclopedia of World Rivers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vZWAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Rand McNally|page=9}}</ref> den dey converge plus de Bakoy River to join de [[Senegal River]] insyd western Africa.<ref name=omvs>{{citation | title=Caractéristiques physiques du fleuve Sénégal | url=http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php | publisher=Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal | language=French | accessdate=2 June 2012 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130716144235/http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php | archivedate=16 July 2013 }}.</ref><ref>{{citation | last= Maïga | first= Mahamadou | title=Le bassin du fleuve Sénégal: de la Traite négrière au développement sous-régional autocentré | publisher= L'Harmattan | year=1995 | language=French | page=14 footnotes 4, 5 }}.</ref> De Bafing River be de largest tributary of de Senegal River, den dey contribute almost half of ein total water volume.<ref>{{cite book|title=Development Anthropology Network: Bulletin of the Institute for Development Anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzA9AAAAYAAJ|year=1982|publisher=The Institute for Development Anthropology|page=10}}</ref> De Bafing dey form part of de international border between Guinea den Mali.<ref name="Brownlie, I. ">{{Cite book|title=African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopedia|last=Brownlie|first=Ian|author-link=Ian Brownlie|publisher=Institute for International Affairs, Hurst and Co.|year=1979|pages= 310–13}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == 4i408p3qzlb0f2ztsjqbrcgl83gzvfv 104471 104467 2026-06-22T15:15:27Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104471 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Bafing River''' (Manding for "black river", French: ''Rivière Bafing'')<ref name="CamaraO'Toole2013">{{cite book |author1=Mohamed Saliou Camara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfcKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |title=Historical Dictionary of Guinea |author2=Thomas O'Toole |author3=Janice E. Baker |date=7 November 2013 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7969-0 |page=38}}</ref> be de upper course den largest tributary of de [[Senegal River]] wey dey run dey pass [[Guinea]] den [[Mali]] wey e be about {{convert|350|miles}} long. ==Course== De Fonta Djallon insyd Guinea be de source of de Bafing River,<ref name="KnaapNations1994">{{cite book|author1=M. van der Knaap|author2=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|title=Status of Fish Stocks and Fisheries of Thirteen Medium-sized African Reservoirs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wl4nd5K52FIC&pg=RA1-PA19|year=1994|publisher=Food & Agriculture Org.|isbn=978-92-5-103581-8|page=19}}</ref> {{convert|30|miles}} north of Mamou.<ref name="CamaraO'Toole2013"/> E dey flow for about {{convert|350|miles}}<ref name="Company1980">{{cite book|author=Rand McNally and Company|title=Rand McNally Encyclopedia of World Rivers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vZWAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Rand McNally|page=9}}</ref> den dey converge plus de Bakoy River to join de [[Senegal River]] insyd western Africa.<ref name=omvs>{{citation | title=Caractéristiques physiques du fleuve Sénégal | url=http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php | publisher=Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal | language=French | accessdate=2 June 2012 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130716144235/http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php | archivedate=16 July 2013 }}.</ref><ref>{{citation | last= Maïga | first= Mahamadou | title=Le bassin du fleuve Sénégal: de la Traite négrière au développement sous-régional autocentré | publisher= L'Harmattan | year=1995 | language=French | page=14 footnotes 4, 5 }}.</ref> De Bafing River be de largest tributary of de Senegal River, den dey contribute almost half of ein total water volume.<ref>{{cite book|title=Development Anthropology Network: Bulletin of the Institute for Development Anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzA9AAAAYAAJ|year=1982|publisher=The Institute for Development Anthropology|page=10}}</ref> De Bafing dey form part of de international border between Guinea den Mali.<ref name="Brownlie, I. ">{{Cite book|title=African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopedia|last=Brownlie|first=Ian|author-link=Ian Brownlie|publisher=Institute for International Affairs, Hurst and Co.|year=1979|pages= 310–13}}</ref> == Ecology == Der fi be a significant chimpanzee population insyd de area east of de Bafing River.<ref name="Kormos2003">{{cite book |author=Rebecca Kormos |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2003-059.pdf |title=West African Chimpanzees: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan |publisher=IUCN |year=2003 |page=48}}</ref> De blue-headed bee-eater (''merops muelleri'') sanso be sighted at de forest on de river south of de Manding Mountains.<ref name="Fry2010">{{cite book |author=C. Hilary Fry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoQ9aIbU48MC&pg=PA47 |title=The Bee-Eaters |date=30 September 2010 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4081-3687-4 |page=47}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == da9059130j50havfb2cnrjhh926o430 104473 104471 2026-06-22T15:20:54Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104473 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Bafing River''' (Manding for "black river", French: ''Rivière Bafing'')<ref name="CamaraO'Toole2013">{{cite book |author1=Mohamed Saliou Camara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfcKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |title=Historical Dictionary of Guinea |author2=Thomas O'Toole |author3=Janice E. Baker |date=7 November 2013 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7969-0 |page=38}}</ref> be de upper course den largest tributary of de [[Senegal River]] wey dey run dey pass [[Guinea]] den [[Mali]] wey e be about {{convert|350|miles}} long. ==Course== De Fonta Djallon insyd Guinea be de source of de Bafing River,<ref name="KnaapNations1994">{{cite book|author1=M. van der Knaap|author2=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|title=Status of Fish Stocks and Fisheries of Thirteen Medium-sized African Reservoirs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wl4nd5K52FIC&pg=RA1-PA19|year=1994|publisher=Food & Agriculture Org.|isbn=978-92-5-103581-8|page=19}}</ref> {{convert|30|miles}} north of Mamou.<ref name="CamaraO'Toole2013"/> E dey flow for about {{convert|350|miles}}<ref name="Company1980">{{cite book|author=Rand McNally and Company|title=Rand McNally Encyclopedia of World Rivers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vZWAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Rand McNally|page=9}}</ref> den dey converge plus de Bakoy River to join de [[Senegal River]] insyd western Africa.<ref name=omvs>{{citation | title=Caractéristiques physiques du fleuve Sénégal | url=http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php | publisher=Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal | language=French | accessdate=2 June 2012 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130716144235/http://www.omvs.org/fr/fleuve/physique.php | archivedate=16 July 2013 }}.</ref><ref>{{citation | last= Maïga | first= Mahamadou | title=Le bassin du fleuve Sénégal: de la Traite négrière au développement sous-régional autocentré | publisher= L'Harmattan | year=1995 | language=French | page=14 footnotes 4, 5 }}.</ref> De Bafing River be de largest tributary of de Senegal River, den dey contribute almost half of ein total water volume.<ref>{{cite book|title=Development Anthropology Network: Bulletin of the Institute for Development Anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzA9AAAAYAAJ|year=1982|publisher=The Institute for Development Anthropology|page=10}}</ref> De Bafing dey form part of de international border between Guinea den Mali.<ref name="Brownlie, I. ">{{Cite book|title=African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopedia|last=Brownlie|first=Ian|author-link=Ian Brownlie|publisher=Institute for International Affairs, Hurst and Co.|year=1979|pages= 310–13}}</ref> == Ecology == Der fi be a significant chimpanzee population insyd de area east of de Bafing River.<ref name="Kormos2003">{{cite book |author=Rebecca Kormos |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2003-059.pdf |title=West African Chimpanzees: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan |publisher=IUCN |year=2003 |page=48}}</ref> De blue-headed bee-eater (''merops muelleri'') sanso be sighted at de forest on de river south of de Manding Mountains.<ref name="Fry2010">{{cite book |author=C. Hilary Fry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoQ9aIbU48MC&pg=PA47 |title=The Bee-Eaters |date=30 September 2010 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4081-3687-4 |page=47}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:10.34748W 13.10430N.png|thumb|Lake Manantali plus de Manantali Dam den de Bafing River File:PARK(1800) p317 Die hängende Brücke über den Bafing.jpg|thumbnail|A hanging bridge over de Bafing (dem publish 1800) </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Rivers of Guinea]] [[Category:French West Africa]] [[Category:Senegal River]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Guinea–Mali border]] s0xhdmujpo8o7m279jkz2z7f38qd505 0 27507 104475 102247 2026-06-22T15:23:33Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104475 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Betsiboka River''' be a 525-kilometre (326 mi) long river insyd central-north [[Madagascar]]. E dey flow northwestward den dey empty to Bombetoka Bay, wey dey form a large delta. E dey originate to de east of Antananarivo. De river be surrounded insyd mangroves.<ref name="Bradt2011">{{Cite book |last=Bradt |first=Hilary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTRPnMlOcwgC&pg=PA82 |title=Madagascar: The Bradt Travel Guide |date=17 May 2011 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-341-2 |page=82 |access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref> De river be distinctive for ein red-coloured water, wich be caused by river sediments. De river dey carry an enormous amount of reddish-orange silt to de sea. Much of dis silt be deposited at de mouth of de river anaa insyd de bay. E be dramatic evidence of de catastrophic erosion of northwestern Madagascar. Removal of de native forest for cultivation den pastureland during de past 50 years lead to massive annual soil losses wey dey approach 250 metric tonnes per hectare (112 tons per acre) insyd sam regions of de island, de largest amount dem record anywer insyd de world. Several fish species be endemic to de river basin, wey dey include de three cichlids ''Paretroplus petiti'', ''P. tsimoly'' den ''P. maculatus''. De Betsiboka ein largest tributary, de Ikopa River, dey drain de capital city of Antananarivo.<gallery> File:Betsiboka_estuary.jpg|Betsiboka River estuary dem see from space File:Betsiboka_River_September_22,_2003.jpg|De Betsiboka River insyd normal conditions File:Betsiboka_River_January_30,_2009.jpg|De Betsiboka River wen e flood </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/shownh.php3?img_id=14135 Floods in Madagascar]  at NASA Earth Observatory * [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/geology/sgeo/slide_23.html Sediment Laden Drainages] at Lunar and Planetary Institute, USRA * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061010195238/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/EFS/photoinfo.pl?PHOTO=STS007-3-58 NASA: Earth from Space] jjtabz275fs5uphnyg0jsq1i5tbo6nq 104477 104475 2026-06-22T15:24:53Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104477 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Betsiboka River''' be a 525-kilometre (326 mi) long river insyd central-north [[Madagascar]]. E dey flow northwestward den dey empty to Bombetoka Bay, wey dey form a large delta. E dey originate to de east of Antananarivo. De river be surrounded insyd mangroves.<ref name="Bradt2011">{{Cite book |last=Bradt |first=Hilary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTRPnMlOcwgC&pg=PA82 |title=Madagascar: The Bradt Travel Guide |date=17 May 2011 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-341-2 |page=82 |access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref> De river be distinctive for ein red-coloured water, wich be caused by river sediments. De river dey carry an enormous amount of reddish-orange silt to de sea. Much of dis silt be deposited at de mouth of de river anaa insyd de bay. E be dramatic evidence of de catastrophic erosion of northwestern Madagascar. Removal of de native forest for cultivation den pastureland during de past 50 years lead to massive annual soil losses wey dey approach 250 metric tonnes per hectare (112 tons per acre) insyd sam regions of de island, de largest amount dem record anywer insyd de world. Several fish species be endemic to de river basin, wey dey include de three cichlids ''Paretroplus petiti'', ''P. tsimoly'' den ''P. maculatus''. De Betsiboka ein largest tributary, de Ikopa River, dey drain de capital city of Antananarivo.<gallery> File:Betsiboka_estuary.jpg|Betsiboka River estuary dem see from space File:Betsiboka_River_September_22,_2003.jpg|De Betsiboka River insyd normal conditions File:Betsiboka_River_January_30,_2009.jpg|De Betsiboka River wen e flood </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/shownh.php3?img_id=14135 Floods in Madagascar] at NASA Earth Observatory * [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/geology/sgeo/slide_23.html Sediment Laden Drainages] at Lunar and Planetary Institute, USRA * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061010195238/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/EFS/photoinfo.pl?PHOTO=STS007-3-58 NASA: Earth from Space] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Madagascar]] [[Category:Mozambique Channel]] gx5e5x0i2wgexos9djjxnuau0i518rg 0 27509 104523 102286 2026-06-22T16:16:22Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104523 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q10992985}} De '''Olifants River''' (Afrikaans: ''Olifantsrivier'') be river insy de Klein Karoo area of de Western Cape, [[South Africa]]. == Ein Course == E get ein origins insyd de Traka den Kalkwal Rivers north of de Swartberg, den eturn de Olifants River after e flow through de Toorwaterpoort, wey e dey flow go west through Oudtshoorn den join de Gamka River make dem form de Gourits River, den after dat e head go south to ein mouth for Gouritsmond insyd de southern coast of de Western Cape.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA16Gouritz.jpg Gouritz WMA 16]</ref> De northern tributaries of de Olifants River rise insyd de Great Karoo to de north of de Swartberg Mountains, while de Olifants River itself rise for de east den dey flow go west between de Swartberg den Kammanassie mountains to ein confluence plus de Gamka River. De southern slopes of de Swartberg Mountains dey drained by de perennial [[Groot River (Western Cape)|Groot River]], Kango River, Grobbelaars River, Wynands River, Kansa River den Vlei River tributaries, wey dem dey flow enter de Olifants River. De Kammanassie River dey rise insyd de Outeniqua den Kammanassie mountains near Uniondale den join de Olifants River upstream of Oudtshoorn. == Dams wey dey insyd de Olifants River == * Stompdrift Dam (capacity {{convert|55300000|m3}}), * Kammanassie Dam (capacity {{convert|35800000|m3}}), * Koos Raubenheimer (capacity {{convert|9200000|m3}}), * Melville Dam (capacity {{convert|400000|m3}}). == References == <references /> {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] o9f6l5uh1yp5q41tboxjpmx1x25ed0t 0 27510 104527 102330 2026-06-22T16:21:48Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104527 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''White Kei River''' anaa '''Wit-Kei River''' be river for Eastern Cape, [[South Africa]]. E originate north of Queenstown, E dey start ein course as de Grootvleispruit river den eventually join de Black Kei River, to form de [[Great Kei River]]..<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA12MzimvubuKeiskamma.jpg Mizimbuvu to Keiskamma WMA 12]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stanford |first=W. E. |date=January 1910 |title=Statement of Silayi, with Reference to His Life Among the Bushmen |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00359191009520056 |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=435–440 |bibcode=1910TRSSA...1..435S |doi=10.1080/00359191009520056 |issn=0035-919X}}</ref> De Xonxa Dam dey locate insyd de White Kei River. Rydee dis river be part of de Mzimvubu to Keiskama Water Management Area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Farai |first=Kapfudzaruwa |last2=Merle |first2=Sowman |date=October 2009 |title=Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime? |url=https://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502009000500018 |journal=Water SA |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |issn=1816-7950 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260310131135/https://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502009000500018 |archive-date=2026-03-10}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == 9x7eww1g39rtys95ilp3zqjxv637can 104533 104527 2026-06-22T16:24:04Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104533 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''White Kei River''' anaa '''Wit-Kei River''' be river for Eastern Cape, [[South Africa]]. E originate north of Queenstown, E dey start ein course as de Grootvleispruit river den eventually join de Black Kei River, to form de [[Great Kei River]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA12MzimvubuKeiskamma.jpg Mizimbuvu to Keiskamma WMA 12]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stanford |first=W. E. |date=January 1910 |title=Statement of Silayi, with Reference to His Life Among the Bushmen |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00359191009520056 |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=435–440 |bibcode=1910TRSSA...1..435S |doi=10.1080/00359191009520056 |issn=0035-919X}}</ref> De Xonxa Dam dey locate insyd de White Kei River. Rydee dis river be part of de Mzimvubu to Keiskama Water Management Area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Farai |first=Kapfudzaruwa |last2=Merle |first2=Sowman |date=October 2009 |title=Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime? |url=https://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502009000500018 |journal=Water SA |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |issn=1816-7950 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260310131135/https://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1816-79502009000500018 |archive-date=2026-03-10}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070928050034/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/greatkei.html SA Estuarine Land-cover: Great Kei Catchment] *[http://www.wildcoast.co.za/node/112 Towns of historical interest in the 'kei] [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] 5wu4qzexi51z3utan2l91h4ffx80ffx 0 27511 104547 102331 2026-06-22T16:31:31Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104547 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Ihosy River''' be river for Fianarantsoa Province insyd central [[Madagascar]]. E dey run down from de hills of Bekisopa, thru de town of Ihosy (at 22.4°S 46.1166667°E), wich dey provide de name of de river.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cowan |first=William Deans |date=September 1882 |title=Geographical Excursions in South Central Madagasear |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2414753 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=521–537 |doi=10.2307/1800170 |issn=0266-626X |jstor=1800170}}</ref> Oda passage points be Ambodiala de Ionadria. E dey empty for de Zomandao River. == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of Madagascar]] [[Category:Rivers of Ihorombe]] 5wtna66o538shooj41f8lyqmptg5jhr 0 27512 104566 102338 2026-06-22T16:45:36Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104566 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Black Kei River''', dey originate southwest of Queenstown, den eventually dey join de [[White Kei River]], to become de [[Great Kei River]]. Several villages be situated on ein banks, wey dey include McBride Village, Qabi, Ntabelanga, Thornhill, Loudon, Mitford, Basoto, Baccle's Farm den Tentergate.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=South Africa (Republic) - Animals & Animal Welfare|doi=10.1163/2213-2996_flg_com_172012}}</ref> De Thrift Dam be ein only significant reservoir. Presently dis river be part of de Mzimvubu to Keiskamma Water Management Area.<ref>[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502009000500018&script=sci_arttext Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime?]</ref> Ein upper reaches form de western boundary of de Tsolwana Nature Reserve, den during de mid-1800s, de Black Kei den ein Klipplaat tributary form de northern boundary of British Kaffraria. De Klaas Smits den Klipplaat rivers be ein main tributaries.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA12MzimvubuKeiskamma.jpg Mizimbuvu to Keiskamma WMA 12]</ref> == Sanso spy == * [[Great Kei River]] == References == <references /> ==External links== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20041227041011/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/greatkei.html SA Estuarine Land-cover: Great Kei Catchment] *[http://www.wildcoast.co.za/node/112 Towns of historical interest in the 'kei] [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] m1l9xdci02cpmqh2nrpu5g9hcg5ur4o 104575 104566 2026-06-22T16:50:27Z DaSupremo 9 Fix reference 104575 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Black Kei River''', dey originate southwest of Queenstown, den eventually dey join de [[White Kei River]], to become de [[Great Kei River]]. Several villages be situated on ein banks, wey dey include McBride Village, Qabi, Ntabelanga, Thornhill, Loudon, Mitford, Basoto, Baccle's Farm den Tentergate.<ref>{{Citation |title=South Africa (Republic) - Animals & Animal Welfare |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/doi/10.1163/2213-2996_flg_COM_172012 |access-date=2026-06-22 |language=en |doi=10.1163/2213-2996_flg_COM_172012}}</ref> De Thrift Dam be ein only significant reservoir. Presently dis river be part of de Mzimvubu to Keiskamma Water Management Area.<ref>[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502009000500018&script=sci_arttext Is there a role for traditional governance systems in South Africa's new water management regime?]</ref> Ein upper reaches form de western boundary of de Tsolwana Nature Reserve, den during de mid-1800s, de Black Kei den ein Klipplaat tributary form de northern boundary of British Kaffraria. De Klaas Smits den Klipplaat rivers be ein main tributaries.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA12MzimvubuKeiskamma.jpg Mizimbuvu to Keiskamma WMA 12]</ref> == Sanso spy == * [[Great Kei River]] == References == <references /> ==External links== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20041227041011/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/greatkei.html SA Estuarine Land-cover: Great Kei Catchment] *[http://www.wildcoast.co.za/node/112 Towns of historical interest in the 'kei] [[Category:Rivers of de Eastern Cape]] 53ycm1p6zgu9xrustx1d743n5gwbnpb 0 27513 104588 102339 2026-06-22T16:57:43Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104588 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Tudor Creek''' be one of de two main water bodies wey dey separate Mombasa Island den de city of Mombasa from de Kenya mainland. De oda water body be Kilindini Harbour. Before de estuary dey enter de Indian Ocean, de tidal creek dey pass under Nyali Bridge, den Makupa Causeway dey de west side of am. De river wey later cam be de creek start from near Mariakani town, wey dey about 20 miles (32 km) north-west of Mombasa. == External links == {{commons}} [[Category:Geography of Mombasa]] [[Category:Mombasa County]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] 6hucblkirrabyzes866e2tzivfjjn3a 0 27514 104594 102360 2026-06-22T17:17:47Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104594 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Lualaba River''' (French: ''Rivière Lualaba'', Kongo: ''Nzâdi Luâlâmba'', Swahili: ''Mto Lualamba'') be a river within de [[Congo River]] watershed wey dey flow entirely within de eastern part of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. Although de Chambeshi River be recognized as de source of de Congo, de Lualaba dey provide de greatest streamflow to de Congo. De Lualaba be {{convert|1800|km|mi}} long. Ein headwaters dey insyd de country ein far southeastern corner near Musofi den Lubumbashi insyd Katanga Province, next to de [[Zambia]]n Copperbelt. ==Course== De source of de Lualaba River be on de Katanga plateau, at an elevation of {{convert|1400|m|ft}} above sea level. De river dey flow northward to end near Kisangani, where de name [[Congo River]] officially dey begin. From de Katanga plateau e dey drop, plus waterfalls den rapids wey dey mark de descent, to de Manika plateau. As e dey descend thru de upper Upemba Depression (Kamalondo Trough), {{convert|457|m|ft}} insyd {{convert|72|km|mi}}. Near Nzilo Falls e be dammed for hydroelectric power at de Nzilo Dam. 0a0z865w8sgwwnc0frwso9m4snvo60d 104595 104594 2026-06-22T17:28:32Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104595 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Lualaba River''' (French: ''Rivière Lualaba'', Kongo: ''Nzâdi Luâlâmba'', Swahili: ''Mto Lualamba'') be a river within de [[Congo River]] watershed wey dey flow entirely within de eastern part of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. Although de Chambeshi River be recognized as de source of de Congo, de Lualaba dey provide de greatest streamflow to de Congo. De Lualaba be {{convert|1800|km|mi}} long. Ein headwaters dey insyd de country ein far southeastern corner near Musofi den Lubumbashi insyd Katanga Province, next to de [[Zambia]]n Copperbelt. ==Course== De source of de Lualaba River be on de Katanga plateau, at an elevation of {{convert|1400|m|ft}} above sea level. De river dey flow northward to end near Kisangani, where de name [[Congo River]] officially dey begin. From de Katanga plateau e dey drop, plus waterfalls den rapids wey dey mark de descent, to de Manika plateau. As e dey descend thru de upper Upemba Depression (Kamalondo Trough), {{convert|457|m|ft}} insyd {{convert|72|km|mi}}. Near Nzilo Falls e be dammed for hydroelectric power at de Nzilo Dam. At Bukama insyd Haut-Lomami District de river cam be navigable for about {{convert|640|km|mi}} thru a series of marshy lakes insyd de lower Upemba Depression, wey dey include Lake Upemba den Lake Kisale. Ankoro dey lie on de west bank of de Lualaba River, opposite ein confluence plus de Luvua River from de east. Sam geographers call de combined river below dis point de "Upper Congo".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Day |first1=Trevor |title=Lakes and rivers |last2=Garratt |first2=Richard |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=0-8160-5328-6 |chapter=Congo (Zaire) River |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IUwrHulGQmYC&pg=PA61}}</ref> === Tributaries === De largest tributaries of de Lualaba River be: * Ulindi River * Luama River * Lukuga River — ''drains [[Lake Tanganyika]]''. * Lufira River * Lubudi River * Luvua River * Elila River * Lowa * Kilungutwe River === Cities den towns === [[File:Stanley's_Congo.jpg|thumb|De black line dey indicate Stanley's route.]] Cities den towns along den near de Lualaba River dey include: * Ankoro —''on west bank, opposite confluence plus Luvua River''. * Bukama * Kabalo * Kasongo * Kongolo * Kisangani — ''near de seventh cataract of Boyoma Falls''. * Ubundu — ''just above first cataract of Boyoma Falls''. == References == l9a0p62naeq7knsd46tx5zn4vwl0xrr 104597 104595 2026-06-22T17:35:46Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104597 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Lualaba River''' (French: ''Rivière Lualaba'', Kongo: ''Nzâdi Luâlâmba'', Swahili: ''Mto Lualamba'') be a river within de [[Congo River]] watershed wey dey flow entirely within de eastern part of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. Although de Chambeshi River be recognized as de source of de Congo, de Lualaba dey provide de greatest streamflow to de Congo. De Lualaba be {{convert|1800|km|mi}} long. Ein headwaters dey insyd de country ein far southeastern corner near Musofi den Lubumbashi insyd Katanga Province, next to de [[Zambia]]n Copperbelt. ==Course== De source of de Lualaba River be on de Katanga plateau, at an elevation of {{convert|1400|m|ft}} above sea level. De river dey flow northward to end near Kisangani, where de name [[Congo River]] officially dey begin. From de Katanga plateau e dey drop, plus waterfalls den rapids wey dey mark de descent, to de Manika plateau. As e dey descend thru de upper Upemba Depression (Kamalondo Trough), {{convert|457|m|ft}} insyd {{convert|72|km|mi}}. Near Nzilo Falls e be dammed for hydroelectric power at de Nzilo Dam. At Bukama insyd Haut-Lomami District de river cam be navigable for about {{convert|640|km|mi}} thru a series of marshy lakes insyd de lower Upemba Depression, wey dey include Lake Upemba den Lake Kisale. Ankoro dey lie on de west bank of de Lualaba River, opposite ein confluence plus de Luvua River from de east. Sam geographers call de combined river below dis point de "Upper Congo".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Day |first1=Trevor |title=Lakes and rivers |last2=Garratt |first2=Richard |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=0-8160-5328-6 |chapter=Congo (Zaire) River |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IUwrHulGQmYC&pg=PA61}}</ref> === Tributaries === De largest tributaries of de Lualaba River be: * Ulindi River * Luama River * Lukuga River — ''drains [[Lake Tanganyika]]''. * Lufira River * Lubudi River * Luvua River * Elila River * Lowa * Kilungutwe River === Cities den towns === [[File:Stanley's_Congo.jpg|thumb|De black line dey indicate Stanley's route.]] Cities den towns along den near de Lualaba River dey include: * Ankoro —''on west bank, opposite confluence plus Luvua River''. * Bukama * Kabalo * Kasongo * Kongolo * Kisangani — ''near de seventh cataract of Boyoma Falls''. * Ubundu — ''just above first cataract of Boyoma Falls''. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *Maria Petringa, ''Brazza, A Life for Africa''. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2006. {{ISBN|978-1-4259-1198-0}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Lualaba River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Congo River]] [[Category:Lake Tanganyika]] [[Category:Haut-Lomami]] [[Category:Lualaba Province]] [[Category:Tanganyika Province]] 9l109w52lrt697lyizfkypswwv1vuo8 0 27515 104600 102616 2026-06-22T17:43:52Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104600 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Naro Moru River''' dey start on Mount Kenya den dey flow down to de west, thru Nyeri County, [[Kenya]], into de [[Ewaso Ng'iro]] River. De North den South Naro Moru Rivers be fed by de Teleki Tarn, Lewis Glacier, Tyndall Tarn den Glacier, Hut Tarn den Darwin Glacier at de peaks of Mount Kenya. Dem dey join at 2,810 m (9,200&nbsp;ft) above sea level. De Naro Moru River dey flow for around {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on}}, thru Naro Moru town, til e reach de Ewaso Ngiro River. De catchment area of de Naro Moru River be around 83&nbsp;km².<ref name="NaroMoruRiver"> {{cite journal | last = Mathooko | first = J.M. |author2=K.M. Mavuti | title = Composition and seasonality of benthic invertebrates, and drift in the Naro Moru River, Kenya | journal = Hydrobiologia | volume = 232 | issue = | pages = 47–56 | publisher = Kluwer Academic Publishers | year = 1992 | url = | doi =10.1007/BF00014611 | s2cid = 41036257 | accessdate = }} </ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:Mount Kenya]] [[Category:Nyeri County]] fue5u4gvwrevn7p9x1m4ivnpdyma8y5 0 27516 104602 102594 2026-06-22T17:58:24Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104602 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} De '''Southern Ewaso Ng'iro''' (Brown River) be a river insyd de Great Rift Valley insyd [[Kenya]]. E dey play an important role insyd de ecology of [[Lake Natron]], de main regular breeding site for near-threatened lesser flamingos. Changes to land use insyd de river ein headwaters anaa insyd de marshes before de river dey enter de lake fi get a serious impact on dis species. [[File:The view from inside the river..jpg|thumb|The River in Kenya's Shompole reserve.]] == Course == [[File:Flamingos lake natron.jpg|thumb|Lesser flamingos over Lake Natron]] Di Ewaso Ng'iro dey rise for [[:en:Mau_Escarpment|Mau Escarpment]], na there e dey drain di south part of [[:en:Mau_Forest|Mau Forest]]<ref>"[http://www.maurestoration.go.ke/index.php/faqs/42-importance-of-the-mau/50-why-is-the-mau-important-for-our-environment Why is the Mau important for our environment?]". Mau – ICS. Retrieved 10 April 2012</ref>. Di forest dey very important because e dey regulate and filter di water wey dey enter di river, but e dey under threat from logging and people wey dey clear land for farming. If dem destroy am, e go make di river carry plenty sand (sediment) and e go cause bigger seasonal change for di water volume<ref>E.J. Gereta, E. Wolanski and E.A.T. Chiombola (January 2003). "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237137494 Assessment of the environmental, social and economic impacts on the Serengeti ecosystem of the developments in the Mara river catchment in Kenya]". Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref>. Di river dey flow go south through di rift valley, east of [[:en:Nguruman_Escarpment|Nguruman Escarpment]]. From there e cross enter [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]], where e dey empty inside [[:en:Lake_Natron|Lake Natron]]. Dis river dey run all year round, and na di main inflow wey dey supply water to di lake.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070725/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6994 TZ031 Lake Natron and Engaruka basin]". ''BirdLife International''. Archived from [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6994 the origina]l on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref> Before, di river dey flow direct enter di lake, but for geologic recent time e don jam [[:en:Horst_(geology)|horst]] wey dey near [[:en:Shompole|Shompole]] volcano. Na dis one make di water spread enter di Engare Ng'iro swamp wey dey expand steady steady, and na there di river dey drop im sediment. Di water wey no get sediment again go seep enter di brine lake<ref>Warren, John K. (2006). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ihny39BvVhIC&pg=PA257 Evaporites: Sediments, Resources And Hydrocarbons]''. Birkhäuser. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/3540260110|3540260110]]</bdi>.</ref>. Di permanent swamp cover about 4,000 hectares (9,900 acres). South of am, seasonal floodplain wey cover about 8,000 hectares (20,000 acres) dey stretch go Lake Natron and along di eastern shore. == Possible changes == Di Lake Natron basin don get designation as Wetlands of International Importance under di [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Convention]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070725/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6994 "TZ031 Lake Natron and Engaruka basin]". ''BirdLife International''. Archived from [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6994 the original] on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref>. But before, dem don get plan to dam di Ewaso Ng'iro make e generate hydroelectric power and also use am irrigate di marshlands wey dey north of di lake. Dem even wan divert water from other rivers to increase di flow. Di plan still include make dem create one freshwater lagoon wey go dey change size, about 50 square kilometres (19 square miles). If dem carry out di plan, e fit spoil di lake ecology well-well. If salinity reduce and agri-chemical pollution enter, e fit kill di blue-green algae wey dey provide food for di [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingo]]. Na dis lake be di main breeding ground for dis near-threatened species. As of 2007, di dam project look like e dey on hold.<ref>[http://africanconservation.org/in-focus/tnrf-lake-natron-a-summary-of-the-major-discussion-points-2 "TNRF: Lake Natron: A summary of the major discussion points]". African Conservation Foundation. 6 November 2007. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref> == References == smlqutxu7rz9eeyitr4m45lxnecyinv 104603 104602 2026-06-22T18:54:22Z DaSupremo 9 /* Course */ Make sum corrections 104603 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} De '''Southern Ewaso Ng'iro''' (Brown River) be a river insyd de Great Rift Valley insyd [[Kenya]]. E dey play an important role insyd de ecology of [[Lake Natron]], de main regular breeding site for near-threatened lesser flamingos. Changes to land use insyd de river ein headwaters anaa insyd de marshes before de river dey enter de lake fi get a serious impact on dis species. [[File:The view from inside the river..jpg|thumb|De River insyd Kenya ein Shompole reserve.]] == Course == [[File:Flamingos lake natron.jpg|thumb|Lesser flamingos over Lake Natron]] De Ewaso Ng'iro dey rise on de Mau Escarpment, wer e dey drain de south part of de Mau Forest. De forest, wich dey play an important role in regulating den filtering de inflow to de river, be under threat from logging den land clearance for farming. Destruction go increase sediment loads insyd de river den cause greater seasonal variance insyd de volume of water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237137494 |title=Assessment of the environmental, social and economic impacts on the Serengeti ecosystem of the developments in the Mara river catchment in Kenya |author=E.J. Gereta, E. Wolanski and E.A.T. Chiombola |date=January 2003 |accessdate=2012-04-10}}</ref> De river dey flow south thru de rift valley to de east of de Nguruman Escarpment. E dey cross de border into [[Tanzania]], wer e dey empty into [[Lake Natron]]. De river, wich dey run all year round, be de main inflow to de lake. De river once flow directly into de lake, buh insyd geologically recent times e be dammed by a horst beside de Shompole volcano. Dis cause de waters to spread out into de steadily expanding Engare Ng'iro swamp, wer de river dey deposit ein sediment. De sediment-free river water then dey seep into de brine lake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=John K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihny39BvVhIC&pg=PA257 |title=Evaporites: Sediments, Resources And Hydrocarbons |publisher=Birkhäuser |year=2006 |isbn=3540260110}}</ref> De permanent swamp dey cover about {{convert|4000|ha|acre}}. South of dis a seasonal floodplain of about {{convert|8000|ha|acre}} stretches down to Lake Natron den along ein eastern shore.<ref>{{cite book |author=R. H. Hughes, J. S. Hughes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PA254 |title=A Directory of African Wetlands |publisher=IUCN |year=1992 |isbn=2880329493 |page=254}}</ref> == Possible changes == Di Lake Natron basin don get designation as Wetlands of International Importance under di [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Convention]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070725/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6994 "TZ031 Lake Natron and Engaruka basin]". ''BirdLife International''. Archived from [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6994 the original] on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref>. But before, dem don get plan to dam di Ewaso Ng'iro make e generate hydroelectric power and also use am irrigate di marshlands wey dey north of di lake. Dem even wan divert water from other rivers to increase di flow. Di plan still include make dem create one freshwater lagoon wey go dey change size, about 50 square kilometres (19 square miles). If dem carry out di plan, e fit spoil di lake ecology well-well. If salinity reduce and agri-chemical pollution enter, e fit kill di blue-green algae wey dey provide food for di [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingo]]. Na dis lake be di main breeding ground for dis near-threatened species. As of 2007, di dam project look like e dey on hold.<ref>[http://africanconservation.org/in-focus/tnrf-lake-natron-a-summary-of-the-major-discussion-points-2 "TNRF: Lake Natron: A summary of the major discussion points]". African Conservation Foundation. 6 November 2007. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref> == References == ei6qlopnz4k3fc3mh8lg2xcutcs08w3 104604 104603 2026-06-22T19:02:43Z DaSupremo 9 /* Possible changes */ Make sum corrections 104604 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} De '''Southern Ewaso Ng'iro''' (Brown River) be a river insyd de Great Rift Valley insyd [[Kenya]]. E dey play an important role insyd de ecology of [[Lake Natron]], de main regular breeding site for near-threatened lesser flamingos. Changes to land use insyd de river ein headwaters anaa insyd de marshes before de river dey enter de lake fi get a serious impact on dis species. [[File:The view from inside the river..jpg|thumb|De River insyd Kenya ein Shompole reserve.]] == Course == [[File:Flamingos lake natron.jpg|thumb|Lesser flamingos over Lake Natron]] De Ewaso Ng'iro dey rise on de Mau Escarpment, wer e dey drain de south part of de Mau Forest. De forest, wich dey play an important role in regulating den filtering de inflow to de river, be under threat from logging den land clearance for farming. Destruction go increase sediment loads insyd de river den cause greater seasonal variance insyd de volume of water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237137494 |title=Assessment of the environmental, social and economic impacts on the Serengeti ecosystem of the developments in the Mara river catchment in Kenya |author=E.J. Gereta, E. Wolanski and E.A.T. Chiombola |date=January 2003 |accessdate=2012-04-10}}</ref> De river dey flow south thru de rift valley to de east of de Nguruman Escarpment. E dey cross de border into [[Tanzania]], wer e dey empty into [[Lake Natron]]. De river, wich dey run all year round, be de main inflow to de lake. De river once flow directly into de lake, buh insyd geologically recent times e be dammed by a horst beside de Shompole volcano. Dis cause de waters to spread out into de steadily expanding Engare Ng'iro swamp, wer de river dey deposit ein sediment. De sediment-free river water then dey seep into de brine lake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=John K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihny39BvVhIC&pg=PA257 |title=Evaporites: Sediments, Resources And Hydrocarbons |publisher=Birkhäuser |year=2006 |isbn=3540260110}}</ref> De permanent swamp dey cover about {{convert|4000|ha|acre}}. South of dis a seasonal floodplain of about {{convert|8000|ha|acre}} stretches down to Lake Natron den along ein eastern shore.<ref>{{cite book |author=R. H. Hughes, J. S. Hughes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PA254 |title=A Directory of African Wetlands |publisher=IUCN |year=1992 |isbn=2880329493 |page=254}}</ref> == Possible changes == De Lake Natron basin be designated a Wetlands of International Importance under de Ramsar Convention. However, insyd de past der be plans to dam de Ewaso Ng'iro for hydroelectric power generation den for irrigation of de marshlands north of de lake, wey dey divert water from oda rivers to increase de flow. De plans go sanso dey include creating a variable freshwater lagoon plus an area of about {{convert|50|km2|sqmi}}. If dem implement, de impact on de lake ein ecology fi be drastic. Reduced salinity den pollution plus agri-chemicals fi wipe out de blue-green algae wey dey provide chow give de lesser flamingo. De lake be de main breeding ground give dis near-threatened species. As of 2007 de dam project appear to be on hold. == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] bdokdj762lvm6zigta9fn9w7zngu062 0 27517 104607 102581 2026-06-22T19:22:13Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104607 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Luapula River''' be a north-flowing river of central Africa, within de [[Congo River]] watershed. E dey rise insyd de wetlands of [[Lake Bangweulu]] ([[Zambia]]), wich be fed by de Chambeshi River. De Luapula dey flow west then north, wey dey mark de border between Zambia den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] before emptying into [[Lake Mweru]]. De river dey give ein name to Zambia ein Luapula Province.<ref name="ITM">Terracarta/International Travel Maps, Vancouver Canada: "Zambia, 2nd edition", 2000</ref> == Source den upper Luapula == De Luapula dey drain [[Lake Bangweulu]] den ein swamps into wich dey flow de Chambeshi River, de source of de Congo. Der be no single clear channel wey dey connect de two rivers den de lake, buh a mass of shifting channels, lagoons den swamps, as de explorer [[David Livingstone]] find to ein cost. (He die exploring de area, den one of ein last acts be to question Chief Chitambo about de course of de Luapula.)<ref name="Blaikie">Blaikie, William Garden (1880): ''The Personal Life Of David Livingstone''. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13262 Project Gutenberg Ebook #13262], release date: August 23, 2004.</ref><ref name="DL">[[David Livingstone]] and [[Horace Waller (activist)|Horace Waller]] (ed.): ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to his Death''. Two volumes, John Murray, 1874.</ref> De channel dem boldly mark as de 'Luapula' wey dem confidently show on chaw maps wey dey flow south out of Lake Bangweulu at 11°25'S 29°49'E fi be seen on satellite images such as Google Earth to actually peter out into green vegetation around 11°46'S 29°48'E.<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 2007.</ref> == References == 7p1ws49i8zk5fi7qf96hq2absznps8n 104609 104607 2026-06-22T19:44:52Z DaSupremo 9 /* Valley */ Improve article 104609 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Luapula River''' be a north-flowing river of central Africa, within de [[Congo River]] watershed. E dey rise insyd de wetlands of [[Lake Bangweulu]] ([[Zambia]]), wich be fed by de Chambeshi River. De Luapula dey flow west then north, wey dey mark de border between Zambia den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] before emptying into [[Lake Mweru]]. De river dey give ein name to Zambia ein Luapula Province.<ref name="ITM">Terracarta/International Travel Maps, Vancouver Canada: "Zambia, 2nd edition", 2000</ref> == Source den upper Luapula == De Luapula dey drain [[Lake Bangweulu]] den ein swamps into wich dey flow de Chambeshi River, de source of de Congo. Der be no single clear channel wey dey connect de two rivers den de lake, buh a mass of shifting channels, lagoons den swamps, as de explorer [[David Livingstone]] find to ein cost. (He die exploring de area, den one of ein last acts be to question Chief Chitambo about de course of de Luapula.)<ref name="Blaikie">Blaikie, William Garden (1880): ''The Personal Life Of David Livingstone''. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13262 Project Gutenberg Ebook #13262], release date: August 23, 2004.</ref><ref name="DL">[[David Livingstone]] and [[Horace Waller (activist)|Horace Waller]] (ed.): ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to his Death''. Two volumes, John Murray, 1874.</ref> De channel dem boldly mark as de 'Luapula' wey dem confidently show on chaw maps wey dey flow south out of Lake Bangweulu at 11°25'S 29°49'E fi be seen on satellite images such as Google Earth to actually peter out into green vegetation around 11°46'S 29°48'E.<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 2007.</ref> == Valley == From de Chembe Bridge to Lake Mweru, de {{convert|300|km}} long Luapula Valley get a higher rural population dan de plateau thru wich e dey cut to a depth of up to {{convert|500|m}}. De river be known for dis valley den for ein long thin delta wey dey enter Lake Mweru, dem usually refer to as de Luapula Swamps. De well-populated part of de valley dey start north from Mambilima Falls, den along de rest of ein length be nicknamed 'Mwapoleni Road', after de Chibemba greeting dem call out as people pass each oda. Overlying de edge of de rift valley {{convert|60|km}} west of de Luapula Swamps be de Luizi structure, a {{convert|12.6|km}} wide series of concentric rings. E be recently confirmed as a meteoritic impact crater (an astrobleme) formed less dan 600 million years ago.<ref name="Master"> [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/metsoc2001/pdf/5182.pdf P Master, P. Dumont and H. Ladmirant: "Age Constraints On The Luizi Structure"]. ''64th Annual Meteoritical Society Meeting''. (2001). Accessed 30 March 2007. The Luizi structure can be seen on Google Earth at decimal latitude/longitude 10.16 S, 28.00 E.</ref> == References == oirlti88ydp012807qxc43zlfiq1lx9 104610 104609 2026-06-22T19:50:13Z DaSupremo 9 /* Swamps */ Improve article 104610 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Luapula River''' be a north-flowing river of central Africa, within de [[Congo River]] watershed. E dey rise insyd de wetlands of [[Lake Bangweulu]] ([[Zambia]]), wich be fed by de Chambeshi River. De Luapula dey flow west then north, wey dey mark de border between Zambia den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] before emptying into [[Lake Mweru]]. De river dey give ein name to Zambia ein Luapula Province.<ref name="ITM">Terracarta/International Travel Maps, Vancouver Canada: "Zambia, 2nd edition", 2000</ref> == Source den upper Luapula == De Luapula dey drain [[Lake Bangweulu]] den ein swamps into wich dey flow de Chambeshi River, de source of de Congo. Der be no single clear channel wey dey connect de two rivers den de lake, buh a mass of shifting channels, lagoons den swamps, as de explorer [[David Livingstone]] find to ein cost. (He die exploring de area, den one of ein last acts be to question Chief Chitambo about de course of de Luapula.)<ref name="Blaikie">Blaikie, William Garden (1880): ''The Personal Life Of David Livingstone''. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13262 Project Gutenberg Ebook #13262], release date: August 23, 2004.</ref><ref name="DL">[[David Livingstone]] and [[Horace Waller (activist)|Horace Waller]] (ed.): ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to his Death''. Two volumes, John Murray, 1874.</ref> De channel dem boldly mark as de 'Luapula' wey dem confidently show on chaw maps wey dey flow south out of Lake Bangweulu at 11°25'S 29°49'E fi be seen on satellite images such as Google Earth to actually peter out into green vegetation around 11°46'S 29°48'E.<ref name="Google">{{Cite web |date=2026 |title=Luapula River |url=https://earth.google.com/web/ |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=earth.google.com}}</ref> == Valley == From de Chembe Bridge to Lake Mweru, de {{convert|300|km}} long Luapula Valley get a higher rural population dan de plateau thru wich e dey cut to a depth of up to {{convert|500|m}}. De river be known for dis valley den for ein long thin delta wey dey enter Lake Mweru, dem usually refer to as de Luapula Swamps. De well-populated part of de valley dey start north from Mambilima Falls, den along de rest of ein length be nicknamed 'Mwapoleni Road', after de Chibemba greeting dem call out as people pass each oda. Overlying de edge of de rift valley {{convert|60|km}} west of de Luapula Swamps be de Luizi structure, a {{convert|12.6|km}} wide series of concentric rings. E be recently confirmed as a meteoritic impact crater (an astrobleme) formed less dan 600 million years ago.<ref name="Master"> [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/metsoc2001/pdf/5182.pdf P Master, P. Dumont and H. Ladmirant: "Age Constraints On The Luizi Structure"]. ''64th Annual Meteoritical Society Meeting''. (2001). Accessed 30 March 2007. The Luizi structure can be seen on Google Earth at decimal latitude/longitude 10.16 S, 28.00 E.</ref> == Swamps == De swamps stretch along de last {{convert|100|km}} of de river before e reach de lake, den for much of dat, dem be {{convert|30|km}} wide, wey dey cover an area of about {{convert|2500|km2}}. Der be four inhabited islands insyd de DR Congo part of de delta, wey dey include de largest insyd de system, wich be accessible overland during de dry season. Zambia get three inhabited islands insyd de delta wey dey include Chisenga Island. Der sanso be chaw lagoons, de largest of wich be Mofwe Lagoon on de Zambian side.<ref name="Google" /> == References == <references /> == External links == d8dx9hal9ylf6b5ghiukn623bv3eqio 104611 104610 2026-06-22T19:51:32Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104611 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Luapula River''' be a north-flowing river of central Africa, within de [[Congo River]] watershed. E dey rise insyd de wetlands of [[Lake Bangweulu]] ([[Zambia]]), wich be fed by de Chambeshi River. De Luapula dey flow west then north, wey dey mark de border between Zambia den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] before emptying into [[Lake Mweru]]. De river dey give ein name to Zambia ein Luapula Province.<ref name="ITM">Terracarta/International Travel Maps, Vancouver Canada: "Zambia, 2nd edition", 2000</ref> == Source den upper Luapula == De Luapula dey drain [[Lake Bangweulu]] den ein swamps into wich dey flow de Chambeshi River, de source of de Congo. Der be no single clear channel wey dey connect de two rivers den de lake, buh a mass of shifting channels, lagoons den swamps, as de explorer [[David Livingstone]] find to ein cost. (He die exploring de area, den one of ein last acts be to question Chief Chitambo about de course of de Luapula.)<ref name="Blaikie">Blaikie, William Garden (1880): ''The Personal Life Of David Livingstone''. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13262 Project Gutenberg Ebook #13262], release date: August 23, 2004.</ref><ref name="DL">[[David Livingstone]] and [[Horace Waller (activist)|Horace Waller]] (ed.): ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to his Death''. Two volumes, John Murray, 1874.</ref> De channel dem boldly mark as de 'Luapula' wey dem confidently show on chaw maps wey dey flow south out of Lake Bangweulu at 11°25'S 29°49'E fi be seen on satellite images such as Google Earth to actually peter out into green vegetation around 11°46'S 29°48'E.<ref name="Google">{{Cite web |date=2026 |title=Luapula River |url=https://earth.google.com/web/ |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=earth.google.com}}</ref> == Valley == From de Chembe Bridge to Lake Mweru, de {{convert|300|km}} long Luapula Valley get a higher rural population dan de plateau thru wich e dey cut to a depth of up to {{convert|500|m}}. De river be known for dis valley den for ein long thin delta wey dey enter Lake Mweru, dem usually refer to as de Luapula Swamps. De well-populated part of de valley dey start north from Mambilima Falls, den along de rest of ein length be nicknamed 'Mwapoleni Road', after de Chibemba greeting dem call out as people pass each oda. Overlying de edge of de rift valley {{convert|60|km}} west of de Luapula Swamps be de Luizi structure, a {{convert|12.6|km}} wide series of concentric rings. E be recently confirmed as a meteoritic impact crater (an astrobleme) formed less dan 600 million years ago.<ref name="Master"> [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/metsoc2001/pdf/5182.pdf P Master, P. Dumont and H. Ladmirant: "Age Constraints On The Luizi Structure"]. ''64th Annual Meteoritical Society Meeting''. (2001). Accessed 30 March 2007. The Luizi structure can be seen on Google Earth at decimal latitude/longitude 10.16 S, 28.00 E.</ref> == Swamps == De swamps stretch along de last {{convert|100|km}} of de river before e reach de lake, den for much of dat, dem be {{convert|30|km}} wide, wey dey cover an area of about {{convert|2500|km2}}. Der be four inhabited islands insyd de DR Congo part of de delta, wey dey include de largest insyd de system, wich be accessible overland during de dry season. Zambia get three inhabited islands insyd de delta wey dey include Chisenga Island. Der sanso be chaw lagoons, de largest of wich be Mofwe Lagoon on de Zambian side.<ref name="Google" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * Camerapix: "Spectrum Guide to Zambia." Camerapix International Publishing, Nairobi, 1996. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Luapula River| ]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Rivers of Zambia]] [[Category:Lake Bangweulu]] [[Category:Lake Mweru]] [[Category:Miombo]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Zambia border]] [[Category:Rivers of Africa]] stqnzq6dfopmv79pyn0ry163o3itpmg 0 27518 104614 103159 2026-06-22T22:36:46Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 104614 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Osogbo-Oni (3) THE WATER SIDE OF OSUN.jpg|thumb|The Water Side of Osun]] [[File:Osun Oshogbo Sacred groove river.jpg|thumb|Omi Osun]] [[File:OSUN GODDESS.jpg|thumb|Osun goddess]] '''Omi-Ọs&#x323;un''', literally dey mean "Ọs&#x323;un [[Water|waters]]", be de northernmost source tributary of de [[Osun River |Ọs&#x323;un River]] insyd southwestern [[Nigeria]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Omi Osun Joni L. Jones's research works {{!}} University of Texas at Austin, TX (UT) and other places |url=https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Omi-Osun-Joni-L-Jones-2050144370 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230703105408/https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Omi-Osun-Joni-L-Jones-2050144370 |archive-date=2023-07-03 |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De Omi-Ọs&#x323;un tributary dey rise from de eastern sector of de Yoruba hills den dey flow westwards into de Òyì River wich subsequently dey flow southward along two deep gorges within de Oke-Ila quartzite ridges, (adjacent to Oke-Ila Orangun), before ein confluence plus oda rivers to form de main Osun.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Omi Osun River Water — owa afrikan market |url=https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230703221328/https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-date=2023-07-03 |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=owa afrikan market |language=en-US}}</ref> [[File:Worshippers at the Osun-Oshogbo river.jpg|thumb|Worshippers at Omi Osun]] Ruins of an ancient settlement dem call Omi-Ọs&#x323;un sanso dey exist along de Omi-Ọs&#x323;un river. Dis settlement be a former location of de Oke-Ila Orangun kingdom during de migrations of earlier centuries dey follow de departure of de Oke-Ila den Ila factions from dema ancient kingdom den mother city of Ila-Yara.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Omi Osun River Water — owa afrikan market |url=https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230703221328/https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-date=2023-07-03 |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=owa afrikan market |language=en-US}}</ref> == Pollution == For recent years, di river wey dey pass five states before e enter Gulf of Guinea don spoil because of mining work from di nearby communities. But nobody sabi who exactly spoil di water. For Nigeria, na artisanal mining wey common pass. Artisans dey use light tools like shovel, and dem dey focus on alluvial deposits. But some other people wey small companies dey back dem, dey use heavy machines like excavator. For Osun, residents talk say Chinese backers dey operate secretly, plus dem carry armed security men follow dem. Along di river and e tributaries, plenty mining sites dey. But Osun get di only big commercial gold mine for Nigeria. Even though government for state and federal level don announce say dem go investigate, experts talk say no matter who cause am, di long-term effect go still dey for people wey depend on di water for their livelihood and faith. Water sample test show say arsenic and mercury levels - wey WHO and Nigerian Industrial Standards (NIS) call priority chemical contaminants - dey 850 percent and over 2,000 percent above di level wey dem allow.<ref>[https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2022/9/2/photos-the-pollution-of-nigerias-sacred-osun-river "Photos: The pollution of Nigeria's sacred Osun River".] www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2023-08-23.</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Rivers of Yorubaland]] 2lw416vchqhjpzcec50agoq4mrw1pya 104615 104614 2026-06-22T22:54:43Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104615 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Omi-Ọs&#x323;un''', literally dey mean "Ọs&#x323;un [[Water|waters]]", be de northernmost source tributary of de [[Osun River |Ọs&#x323;un River]] insyd southwestern [[Nigeria]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Omi Osun Joni L. Jones's research works {{!}} University of Texas at Austin, TX (UT) and other places |url=https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Omi-Osun-Joni-L-Jones-2050144370 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230703105408/https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Omi-Osun-Joni-L-Jones-2050144370 |archive-date=2023-07-03 |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De Omi-Ọs&#x323;un tributary dey rise from de eastern sector of de Yoruba hills den dey flow westwards into de Òyì River wich subsequently dey flow southward along two deep gorges within de Oke-Ila quartzite ridges, (adjacent to Oke-Ila Orangun), before ein confluence plus oda rivers to form de main Osun.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Omi Osun River Water — owa afrikan market |url=https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230703221328/https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-date=2023-07-03 |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=owa afrikan market |language=en-US}}</ref> Ruins of an ancient settlement dem call Omi-Ọs&#x323;un sanso dey exist along de Omi-Ọs&#x323;un river. Dis settlement be a former location of de Oke-Ila Orangun kingdom during de migrations of earlier centuries dey follow de departure of de Oke-Ila den Ila factions from dema ancient kingdom den mother city of Ila-Yara.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Omi Osun River Water — owa afrikan market |url=https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230703221328/https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-date=2023-07-03 |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=owa afrikan market |language=en-US}}</ref> De name Omi-Ọs&#x323;un be attributed to de realization say de tributary dey feed de Ọṣun River, as well as ein subsequent dedication insyd ancient times to Ọs&#x323;un worship. == Pollution == Insyd recent years, de river, wich dey flow across five states insyd de region before entering de [[Gulf of Guinea]], be polluted by mining activity from surrounding communities. Buh no bro be sure who, exactly, pollute de water. Insyd Nigeria, artisanal mining be more common. Artisans dey use light equipment like shovels den focus on alluvial deposits buh odas, backed by smaller companies, dey use heavier equipment, wey dey include excavators. Insyd Osun, residents point out Chinese backers wey operate under an atmosphere of secrecy wey dem employ armed security operatives. Across de course of de river den ein tributaries, der be several mining sites. Buh Osun sanso be home to de only large-scale commercial gold mine insyd Nigeria. While de Nigerian government at state den federal levels announce investigations, experts say dat regardless of who be responsible, der go be long-term effects on those wey dey depend on de water for dema livelihood den dema faith. Water sample tests reveal levels of arsenic den mercury – priority chemical contaminants, according to de World Health Organization (WHO) den Nigerian Industrial Standards (NIS) – be 850 percent den more dan 2,000 percent respectively above permissible levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Photos: The pollution of Nigeria’s sacred Osun River |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2022/9/2/photos-the-pollution-of-nigerias-sacred-osun-river |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Osogbo-Oni (3) THE WATER SIDE OF OSUN.jpg|thumb|De Water Side of Osun File:Osun Oshogbo Sacred groove river.jpg|thumb|Omi Osun File:OSUN GODDESS.jpg|thumb|Osun goddess File:Worshippers at the Osun-Oshogbo river.jpg|thumb|Worshippers at Omi Osun </gallery> == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Rivers of Yorubaland]] bpk37d736d2cafglo12zn04x1et5kwk 104616 104615 2026-06-22T22:55:34Z DaSupremo 9 Add category 104616 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Omi-Ọs&#x323;un''', literally dey mean "Ọs&#x323;un [[Water|waters]]", be de northernmost source tributary of de [[Osun River |Ọs&#x323;un River]] insyd southwestern [[Nigeria]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Omi Osun Joni L. Jones's research works {{!}} University of Texas at Austin, TX (UT) and other places |url=https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Omi-Osun-Joni-L-Jones-2050144370 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230703105408/https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Omi-Osun-Joni-L-Jones-2050144370 |archive-date=2023-07-03 |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De Omi-Ọs&#x323;un tributary dey rise from de eastern sector of de Yoruba hills den dey flow westwards into de Òyì River wich subsequently dey flow southward along two deep gorges within de Oke-Ila quartzite ridges, (adjacent to Oke-Ila Orangun), before ein confluence plus oda rivers to form de main Osun.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Omi Osun River Water — owa afrikan market |url=https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230703221328/https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-date=2023-07-03 |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=owa afrikan market |language=en-US}}</ref> Ruins of an ancient settlement dem call Omi-Ọs&#x323;un sanso dey exist along de Omi-Ọs&#x323;un river. Dis settlement be a former location of de Oke-Ila Orangun kingdom during de migrations of earlier centuries dey follow de departure of de Oke-Ila den Ila factions from dema ancient kingdom den mother city of Ila-Yara.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Omi Osun River Water — owa afrikan market |url=https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230703221328/https://www.owamarket.com/ifa-orisha-items-1/omi-osun-river-water |archive-date=2023-07-03 |access-date=2026-06-22 |website=owa afrikan market |language=en-US}}</ref> De name Omi-Ọs&#x323;un be attributed to de realization say de tributary dey feed de Ọṣun River, as well as ein subsequent dedication insyd ancient times to Ọs&#x323;un worship. == Pollution == Insyd recent years, de river, wich dey flow across five states insyd de region before entering de [[Gulf of Guinea]], be polluted by mining activity from surrounding communities. Buh no bro be sure who, exactly, pollute de water. Insyd Nigeria, artisanal mining be more common. Artisans dey use light equipment like shovels den focus on alluvial deposits buh odas, backed by smaller companies, dey use heavier equipment, wey dey include excavators. Insyd Osun, residents point out Chinese backers wey operate under an atmosphere of secrecy wey dem employ armed security operatives. Across de course of de river den ein tributaries, der be several mining sites. Buh Osun sanso be home to de only large-scale commercial gold mine insyd Nigeria. While de Nigerian government at state den federal levels announce investigations, experts say dat regardless of who be responsible, der go be long-term effects on those wey dey depend on de water for dema livelihood den dema faith. Water sample tests reveal levels of arsenic den mercury – priority chemical contaminants, according to de World Health Organization (WHO) den Nigerian Industrial Standards (NIS) – be 850 percent den more dan 2,000 percent respectively above permissible levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Photos: The pollution of Nigeria’s sacred Osun River |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2022/9/2/photos-the-pollution-of-nigerias-sacred-osun-river |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Osogbo-Oni (3) THE WATER SIDE OF OSUN.jpg|thumb|De Water Side of Osun File:Osun Oshogbo Sacred groove river.jpg|thumb|Omi Osun File:OSUN GODDESS.jpg|thumb|Osun goddess File:Worshippers at the Osun-Oshogbo river.jpg|thumb|Worshippers at Omi Osun </gallery> == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Rivers of Yorubaland]] [[Category:Rivers of Nigeria]] pfaklrxdm4fve0joiygwkevr3y38egp 0 27519 104633 102607 2026-06-23T10:10:20Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104633 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Ruzizi''' (dem sanso sometimes spell '''Rusizi''', French; ''Rivière Ruzizi''; Dutch: ''Ruzizi Rivier'') be a river, {{convert|117|km|mi}} long,<ref name="Paleolimnological">{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.04.003|title = Paleolimnological Evidence for the Onset and Termination of Glacial Aridity from Lake Tanganyika, Tropical East Africa|year = 2007|author = Felton, Anna A.|journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=252|page=405|last2=Russell|first2=James M.|last3=Cohen|first3=Andrew S.|last4=Baker|first4=Mark E. |last5=Chesley|first5=John T.|last6=Lezzar|first6=Kiram E.|last7=McGlue|first7=Michael M.|last8=Pigati|first8=Jeffrey S.|last9=Quade|first9=Jay|last10 = Curt Stager|first10 = J.|last11 = Tiercelin|first11 = Jean Jacques|issue=3–4|bibcode = 2007PPP...252..405F}}</ref> wey dey flow from [[Lake Kivu]] to [[Lake Tanganyika]] insyd [[Central Africa]], wey dey descend from about {{convert|1500|m|ft}} to about {{convert|770|m|ft}} above sea level over ein length.<ref name="Google maps">{{cite web|title=Google Maps|year=2013|url=https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-3.364167,29.267778&spn=0.1,0.1&t=m&q=-3.364167,29.267778|publisher=Google Maps|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> De steepest gradients occur over de first {{convert|40|km|mi}}, wer dem build hydroelectric dams. Further downstream, de Ruzizi Plain, de floor of de Western Rift Valley, get gentle hills,<ref name="Ramsar">{{cite web|title=Burundi Wetlands|publisher=Ramsar|url=http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Portals/15/BURUNDI.pdf|pages=2–4|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> wey de river dey flow into Lake Tanganyika thru a delta, plus one anaa two small channels wey dey split off from de main channel.<ref name="Google maps"/> De Ruzizi be a young river, dem form about 10,000 years ago wen volcanism associate plus continental rifting create de Virunga Mountains. De mountains block Lake Kivu ein former outlet to de drainage basin of de [[Nile]] den instead force de lake overflow south down de Ruzizi den de drainage basin of de [[Congo River|Congo]]. == References == <references /> == External links == c1no9jnab5soxa6vuaz099i6pnsxo4w 104634 104633 2026-06-23T10:19:55Z DaSupremo 9 /* Course */ Improve article 104634 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Ruzizi''' (dem sanso sometimes spell '''Rusizi''', French; ''Rivière Ruzizi''; Dutch: ''Ruzizi Rivier'') be a river, {{convert|117|km|mi}} long,<ref name="Paleolimnological">{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.04.003|title = Paleolimnological Evidence for the Onset and Termination of Glacial Aridity from Lake Tanganyika, Tropical East Africa|year = 2007|author = Felton, Anna A.|journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=252|page=405|last2=Russell|first2=James M.|last3=Cohen|first3=Andrew S.|last4=Baker|first4=Mark E. |last5=Chesley|first5=John T.|last6=Lezzar|first6=Kiram E.|last7=McGlue|first7=Michael M.|last8=Pigati|first8=Jeffrey S.|last9=Quade|first9=Jay|last10 = Curt Stager|first10 = J.|last11 = Tiercelin|first11 = Jean Jacques|issue=3–4|bibcode = 2007PPP...252..405F}}</ref> wey dey flow from [[Lake Kivu]] to [[Lake Tanganyika]] insyd [[Central Africa]], wey dey descend from about {{convert|1500|m|ft}} to about {{convert|770|m|ft}} above sea level over ein length.<ref name="Google maps">{{cite web|title=Google Maps|year=2013|url=https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-3.364167,29.267778&spn=0.1,0.1&t=m&q=-3.364167,29.267778|publisher=Google Maps|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> De steepest gradients occur over de first {{convert|40|km|mi}}, wer dem build hydroelectric dams. Further downstream, de Ruzizi Plain, de floor of de Western Rift Valley, get gentle hills,<ref name="Ramsar">{{cite web|title=Burundi Wetlands|publisher=Ramsar|url=http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Portals/15/BURUNDI.pdf|pages=2–4|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> wey de river dey flow into Lake Tanganyika thru a delta, plus one anaa two small channels wey dey split off from de main channel.<ref name="Google maps"/> De Ruzizi be a young river, dem form about 10,000 years ago wen volcanism associate plus continental rifting create de Virunga Mountains. De mountains block Lake Kivu ein former outlet to de drainage basin of de [[Nile]] den instead force de lake overflow south down de Ruzizi den de drainage basin of de [[Congo River|Congo]]. ==Course== [[File:Etreinte des Eaux, Le Lac Tanganyika et la Rivière Rusizi.jpg|thumb|Ruzizi River dey flow into Lake Tanganyika]] Along ein upstream reaches, de river dey form part of de border between [[Rwanda]] on de east plus de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC) on de west.<ref name="Google maps"/> Further downstream, e dey form part of de border between de DRC den [[Burundi]], den ein lowermost reach dey lie entirely within Burundi.<ref name="Google maps"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mokoso |first=Jean De Dieu Mangambu |last2=Kavusa |first2=Kambale |last3=Sefu |first3=Aruna |last4=Milenge |first4=Ladislas Witanene |last5=Kiswele |first5=Prince Kaleme |date=31 March 2022 |title=Hippopotamus amphibius Linnaeus 1758 at Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika (Territory of Uvira, South Kivu, DR Congo): population census and conservation implications |url=https://m.elewa.org/Journals/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/3.Mokoso.pdf |access-date=23 November 2024 |website=Elewa.org/Journals |publisher=ELEWA |page=3 |issn=1997-5902}}</ref> To de west, de Fizi Baraka mountains tower over de river.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doyle|first=Mark|title=Retracing Che Guevara's Congo Footsteps|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4036605.stm|work=BBC News|date=25 November 2004|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> De Bridge of Concord, Burundi ein longest bridge, dey cross de river near ein mouth.<ref>{{cite book|title=Africa South of the Sahara|editor=Murison, Katharine|publisher=Europa Publications|page=147|edition=32nd|isbn=978-1-85743-131-5}}</ref> Tributaries of de Ruzizi River dey include de Nyamagana, Muhira, Kaburantwa, Kagunuzi, Rubyiro den Ruhwa, among odas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Acme Mapper (terrain)|publisher=Acme Labs|url=http://mapper.acme.com/?ll=-3.364167,29.267778&z=12&t=R&marker0=-3.364167,29.267778,Ruzizi%20River|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> De Ruzizi River, wey dey flow south into Lake Tanganyika, be part of de upper watershed of de Congo River. Nineteenth-century British explorers such as Richard Francis Burton den John Hanning Speke, uncertain of de direction of flow of de Ruzizi, think say e fi flow north out of de lake toward de [[White Nile]]. Dema research den follow-up explorations by [[David Livingstone]] den Henry Morton Stanley establish say na dis no be de case. De Ruzizi dey flow into Lake Tanganyika, wich dey overflow into de Lukuga River about {{convert|120|km|mi}} south of Ujiji. De Lukuga dey flow west into de [[Lualaba River]], a major tributary of de Congo.<ref name="Ondaatje">{{cite book|last=Ondaatje|first=Christoper|title=Journey to the Source of the Nile|page=[https://archive.org/details/journeytosourceo00onda/page/166 166]|publisher=Harper Collins|location=Toronto|year=1998|isbn=978-0-00-200019-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/journeytosourceo00onda/page/166}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == g7yykxyeof8lhmecb6jrn59awbx47yx 104635 104634 2026-06-23T10:21:34Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 104635 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Ruzizi''' (dem sanso sometimes spell '''Rusizi''', French; ''Rivière Ruzizi''; Dutch: ''Ruzizi Rivier'') be a river, {{convert|117|km|mi}} long,<ref name="Paleolimnological">{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.04.003|title = Paleolimnological Evidence for the Onset and Termination of Glacial Aridity from Lake Tanganyika, Tropical East Africa|year = 2007|author = Felton, Anna A.|journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=252|page=405|last2=Russell|first2=James M.|last3=Cohen|first3=Andrew S.|last4=Baker|first4=Mark E. |last5=Chesley|first5=John T.|last6=Lezzar|first6=Kiram E.|last7=McGlue|first7=Michael M.|last8=Pigati|first8=Jeffrey S.|last9=Quade|first9=Jay|last10 = Curt Stager|first10 = J.|last11 = Tiercelin|first11 = Jean Jacques|issue=3–4|bibcode = 2007PPP...252..405F}}</ref> wey dey flow from [[Lake Kivu]] to [[Lake Tanganyika]] insyd [[Central Africa]], wey dey descend from about {{convert|1500|m|ft}} to about {{convert|770|m|ft}} above sea level over ein length.<ref name="Google maps">{{cite web|title=Google Maps|year=2013|url=https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-3.364167,29.267778&spn=0.1,0.1&t=m&q=-3.364167,29.267778|publisher=Google Maps|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> De steepest gradients occur over de first {{convert|40|km|mi}}, wer dem build hydroelectric dams. Further downstream, de Ruzizi Plain, de floor of de Western Rift Valley, get gentle hills,<ref name="Ramsar">{{cite web|title=Burundi Wetlands|publisher=Ramsar|url=http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Portals/15/BURUNDI.pdf|pages=2–4|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> wey de river dey flow into Lake Tanganyika thru a delta, plus one anaa two small channels wey dey split off from de main channel.<ref name="Google maps"/> De Ruzizi be a young river, dem form about 10,000 years ago wen volcanism associate plus continental rifting create de Virunga Mountains. De mountains block Lake Kivu ein former outlet to de drainage basin of de [[Nile]] den instead force de lake overflow south down de Ruzizi den de drainage basin of de [[Congo River|Congo]]. ==Course== [[File:Etreinte des Eaux, Le Lac Tanganyika et la Rivière Rusizi.jpg|thumb|Ruzizi River dey flow into Lake Tanganyika]] Along ein upstream reaches, de river dey form part of de border between [[Rwanda]] on de east plus de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC) on de west.<ref name="Google maps"/> Further downstream, e dey form part of de border between de DRC den [[Burundi]], den ein lowermost reach dey lie entirely within Burundi.<ref name="Google maps"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mokoso |first=Jean De Dieu Mangambu |last2=Kavusa |first2=Kambale |last3=Sefu |first3=Aruna |last4=Milenge |first4=Ladislas Witanene |last5=Kiswele |first5=Prince Kaleme |date=31 March 2022 |title=Hippopotamus amphibius Linnaeus 1758 at Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika (Territory of Uvira, South Kivu, DR Congo): population census and conservation implications |url=https://m.elewa.org/Journals/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/3.Mokoso.pdf |access-date=23 November 2024 |website=Elewa.org/Journals |publisher=ELEWA |page=3 |issn=1997-5902}}</ref> To de west, de Fizi Baraka mountains tower over de river.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doyle|first=Mark|title=Retracing Che Guevara's Congo Footsteps|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4036605.stm|work=BBC News|date=25 November 2004|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> De Bridge of Concord, Burundi ein longest bridge, dey cross de river near ein mouth.<ref>{{cite book|title=Africa South of the Sahara|editor=Murison, Katharine|publisher=Europa Publications|page=147|edition=32nd|isbn=978-1-85743-131-5}}</ref> Tributaries of de Ruzizi River dey include de Nyamagana, Muhira, Kaburantwa, Kagunuzi, Rubyiro den Ruhwa, among odas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Acme Mapper (terrain)|publisher=Acme Labs|url=http://mapper.acme.com/?ll=-3.364167,29.267778&z=12&t=R&marker0=-3.364167,29.267778,Ruzizi%20River|access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> De Ruzizi River, wey dey flow south into Lake Tanganyika, be part of de upper watershed of de Congo River. Nineteenth-century British explorers such as Richard Francis Burton den John Hanning Speke, uncertain of de direction of flow of de Ruzizi, think say e fi flow north out of de lake toward de [[White Nile]]. Dema research den follow-up explorations by [[David Livingstone]] den Henry Morton Stanley establish say na dis no be de case. De Ruzizi dey flow into Lake Tanganyika, wich dey overflow into de Lukuga River about {{convert|120|km|mi}} south of Ujiji. De Lukuga dey flow west into de [[Lualaba River]], a major tributary of de Congo.<ref name="Ondaatje">{{cite book|last=Ondaatje|first=Christoper|title=Journey to the Source of the Nile|page=[https://archive.org/details/journeytosourceo00onda/page/166 166]|publisher=Harper Collins|location=Toronto|year=1998|isbn=978-0-00-200019-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/journeytosourceo00onda/page/166}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Ruzizi River| ]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Congo River]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Rivers of Burundi]] [[Category:Rivers of Rwanda]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Burundi–Democratic Republic of the Congo border]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda border]] [[Category:Lake Kivu]] [[Category:Tributaries of Lake Tanganyika]] [[Category:Rusizi District]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Burundi]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] 7h6kna3aw2trixg8il3gxt5pthlwexq 0 27612 104479 104398 2026-06-22T15:26:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104479 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. == References == 5hmsmie1ybaofcchgsv1pirfkpwnc8o 104480 104479 2026-06-22T15:26:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104480 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. == References == 2rdueejs9m0uva3mx4r29521lxny7az 104481 104480 2026-06-22T15:27:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104481 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality. == References == ojciyg4bl7sjnzp6nlu5z67ojrr0jla 104482 104481 2026-06-22T15:28:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104482 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> == References == j50970eklnhm0r50ti2gwppsh7tk4dr 104483 104482 2026-06-22T15:29:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104483 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. == References == ciufpzfhhyzfwm60yle3kczqnjquhbl 104485 104483 2026-06-22T15:31:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104485 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. == References == kytwjx2lgy1tust0evpxxe84n7g2jzg 104487 104485 2026-06-22T15:32:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104487 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households. == References == 6gyfnopggl8y44movp4ba5tfgdaabc5 104488 104487 2026-06-22T15:34:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104488 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> == References == fo0gn7377k0r41xtcahzx0ku3rnm5rt 104491 104488 2026-06-22T15:38:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104491 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). == References == 0vluopdxdehfk5cqhqiil3536pct9cv 104495 104491 2026-06-22T15:42:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104495 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. == References == 6mkxxou44eoxt0jb7jkmgapi1pay892 104497 104495 2026-06-22T15:44:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104497 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year. == References == h7y6f1axd41jq9z9hhq6sgr8un1k8t7 104498 104497 2026-06-22T15:44:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104498 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> == References == 5m5hhc12jyihck30q3e2e7edmscewxc 104499 104498 2026-06-22T15:46:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104499 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. == References == mgbol7erwcf752a4ua7t5jq9ac8psb2 104500 104499 2026-06-22T15:47:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104500 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. == References == eefq8js4q9cwni4qver6o2fet7pye1b 104502 104500 2026-06-22T15:49:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program. == References == 6uhp1hyk832o19e08b7tfab1tp94c12 104503 104502 2026-06-22T15:51:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104503 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> == References == ii1zzshau5gopeqhkmk8d5oa8y4qys4 104504 104503 2026-06-22T15:54:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104504 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. == References == grx5tj8ko6wy6a1rcdgbzop6ddgutf9 104505 104504 2026-06-22T15:55:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104505 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users. == References == 7nozh3pcvex0uk72xokj5o6dv4jpvmp 104506 104505 2026-06-22T15:55:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104506 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> == References == 4xkp9631ai4sd9cagpld6wdf01w9b3n 104507 104506 2026-06-22T15:56:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104507 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: == References == 9reqn7ijj18ctce03u8hkagy5609tka 104508 104507 2026-06-22T15:57:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104508 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. == References == jid7nvpqfdc2biv9lq32fwq7t2tou6w 104512 104508 2026-06-22T16:05:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104512 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. == References == msievp2jz4hiffl3fdj2j5mm28edoea 104514 104512 2026-06-22T16:09:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104514 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd. == References == arr8rz8o2cpfz0irei2hgtnfatdndee 104516 104514 2026-06-22T16:10:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104516 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin2">{{cite web|last=Mary Galvin|title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy|url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/|access-date=26 February 2014|date=6 June 2012}}</ref> == References == tc0g9e8z62xduprqt2arf5yad9wqu9v 104519 104516 2026-06-22T16:12:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104519 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. == References == o39f0gfkfnde0mverg77yc9lq4rl5r0 104521 104519 2026-06-22T16:12:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104521 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. == References == bquq0o80dddv42knvn9a1xit77shm9l 104522 104521 2026-06-22T16:15:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104522 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. == References == 8jgcpym5wmt8xwpqtqch5jxomhbkn0j 104524 104522 2026-06-22T16:19:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104524 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month, de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. == References == nibmx06g3d64n9lbfjxe9b1abu64shf 104526 104524 2026-06-22T16:21:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104526 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. == References == 9fhf3i86q3bb4f11rza0pr80mshpc35 104528 104526 2026-06-22T16:21:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104528 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household, for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. == References == duh8pnp62di9d4zpht8nrhx0bz16wep 104530 104528 2026-06-22T16:22:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104530 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. == References == 7waa26j5xwehte26hg6cczxc7wg6prs 104531 104530 2026-06-22T16:23:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104531 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. == References == cnfszcm7j5dd5zin0hjdt6n22pgal16 104534 104531 2026-06-22T16:24:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104534 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. == References == jvn89ng15znw31axzl73k65ptuyud3v 104535 104534 2026-06-22T16:24:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104535 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). == References == 9cluquj12o4qfgfc55ykjknqy1s222l 104537 104535 2026-06-22T16:25:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104537 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. == References == p9pet6kvg88s0pr36w0x63aw1r9vq2b 104539 104537 2026-06-22T16:26:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104539 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd. == References == 91qim201cwuagpgxl21nbvhj5oqlcsk 104540 104539 2026-06-22T16:27:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104540 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> == References == 9ntah4cjuj3774jz1uthl4tug4hxlgr 104541 104540 2026-06-22T16:27:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104541 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. == References == 1mtl0wu1jz64ift2akv60pkn12seihp 104543 104541 2026-06-22T16:28:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government. == References == 2852xb78s6y4gbzjiqrf4qn6owilk5e 104544 104543 2026-06-22T16:29:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104544 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> == References == 1ex3ouc7vgp5pna4vhn9yi8ebnjcpjr 104545 104544 2026-06-22T16:30:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104545 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: == References == bzfacf5qtk9meu9mygcqiuc55z7e4um 104546 104545 2026-06-22T16:30:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104546 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities == References == b7uqy4wicrvl0njj9yqyxycedtd6wb3 104548 104546 2026-06-22T16:31:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104548 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities == References == a1gw117zbcl9yxh4nohfd503ia847ie 104549 104548 2026-06-22T16:32:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104549 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards == References == hzrxlp0qfx0a28kf41u2pckwrvzp1sp 104550 104549 2026-06-22T16:32:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104550 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF == References == 5htc1svklvhl92fbwtsnto31nvn5ldq 104552 104550 2026-06-22T16:33:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104552 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) == References == 8umym096s373vjlsr2hnu5l7p2fdbys 104553 104552 2026-06-22T16:34:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104553 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> == References == ch5leoc3g4rr7adlocnimethxikd4vd 104554 104553 2026-06-22T16:34:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104554 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand. == References == t8grzkf7s2ja12r8t2eyjkf1846m3lb 104555 104554 2026-06-22T16:35:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104555 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> == References == sx39jsacmofl1vkngazzunwwb6se5lj 104556 104555 2026-06-22T16:36:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104556 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. == References == lt45yy4wc2e8refqwvz1m64665ghryq 104557 104556 2026-06-22T16:37:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104557 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. == References == nvh9co2mukzcvfeqkq6rkw7n9r22474 104558 104557 2026-06-22T16:37:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104558 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses. == References == j9mfdzvd6kdmcv9h6cd2f0sdrhlgiye 104559 104558 2026-06-22T16:38:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104559 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> == References == s7gm7lot329va19usw76gtrh90xdzl5 104560 104559 2026-06-22T16:39:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104560 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: == References == sxx8s0aq3qp8zkfrmj2o70xpk1gdufu 104561 104560 2026-06-22T16:40:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104561 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; == References == qwi9sr07qmykujh8yebrj5iqy8domza 104562 104561 2026-06-22T16:41:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104562 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den == References == so9rmwrslh7s1te06vouaewfp3nhppc 104563 104562 2026-06-22T16:42:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104563 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation. == References == om396u3zqu6vwtzwire1fysq1nsj80f 104564 104563 2026-06-22T16:43:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104564 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> == References == k99s7w5is6je62ff34muls9dkzpzhsx 104565 104564 2026-06-22T16:44:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104565 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. == References == i7jjcbqqm28oc7zle10wh8fvtziywtk 104567 104565 2026-06-22T16:45:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104567 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. == References == oqflkihw3b3xwtv92y46ysz30mn7jo0 104568 104567 2026-06-22T16:46:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104568 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". == References == b2xxux99suzkfwaz1flw3av9g0hx2b5 104569 104568 2026-06-22T16:47:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104569 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. == References == jjbiikbd787ff7gshhuokskaa9i9n4w 104570 104569 2026-06-22T16:48:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104570 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. == References == l8kw0yb7f25z050h9mr1y7l3m6kqihs 104571 104570 2026-06-22T16:48:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104571 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. == References == jsxil98tlda7fo1czxy38ptsoxm7irl 104572 104571 2026-06-22T16:49:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104572 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty. == References == cj55xni8h841dud68eqakyk8q4hec0z 104573 104572 2026-06-22T16:49:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104573 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty. For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). == References == 9s5tmgqrcj0ab6596bm5e4ljybsghph 104574 104573 2026-06-22T16:50:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104574 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty. For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). == References == 23xt7v6d6fiq9uk6ebnosumn76qtkgl 104576 104574 2026-06-22T16:50:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104576 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty. For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. == References == tg6e1rbmn6ygy2rg4r1jjmzeppn1164 104577 104576 2026-06-22T16:51:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104577 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty. For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). == References == 3xe9zrt0dg3w93fu178fczequw7us2d 104578 104577 2026-06-22T16:51:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104578 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty. For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. == References == iew2yd3c0m160jivkfhc3jss0z2zcuf 104579 104578 2026-06-22T16:51:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104579 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty. For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government). == References == aok0hf1ucgbx6ecrehb91f97gbx9akg 104580 104579 2026-06-22T16:52:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104580 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty. For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == References == p4dtb42onirkkuxt3ivrp5bxu0qowam 104581 104580 2026-06-22T16:52:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104581 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == References == 5ws6e9oellodyzky6fqi32f077httf8 104582 104581 2026-06-22T16:53:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104582 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|List of water supply]] [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|den sanitation by country]] == References == louw0ln25vgggghzbkkgoe8i1lwdcw6 104583 104582 2026-06-22T16:54:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104583 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|List of water supply]] [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|den sanitation by country]] * [[:en:Sanitation_worker|Sanitation worker]] == References == 5e6hk2eiaby80q8ocv7qeevycbzioch 104584 104583 2026-06-22T16:55:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104584 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|List of water supply]] [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|den sanitation by country]] * [[:en:Sanitation_worker|Sanitation worker]] * [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|Water supply]] [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|den sanitation for Sub-Saharan Africa insyd]] == References == gx6bterqln3fgr3z05q7zrtij4klo8e 104585 104584 2026-06-22T16:55:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104585 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|List of water supply]] [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|den sanitation by country]] * [[:en:Sanitation_worker|Sanitation worker]] * [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|Water supply]] [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|den sanitation for Sub-Saharan Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|Water pollution]] [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|for Southern Africa insyd]] == References == 60i37gqlv3xwe4w9a1q2smhkfdgyd80 104586 104585 2026-06-22T16:56:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104586 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|List of water supply]] [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|den sanitation by country]] * [[:en:Sanitation_worker|Sanitation worker]] * [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|Water supply]] [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|den sanitation for Sub-Saharan Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|Water pollution]] [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|for Southern Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Western_Cape_Water_Supply_System|Western Cape Water Supply System]] == References == 2l05zphh216wk8lbih8x4n9o87ulj07 104587 104586 2026-06-22T16:57:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104587 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|List of water supply]] [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|den sanitation by country]] * [[:en:Sanitation_worker|Sanitation worker]] * [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|Water supply]] [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|den sanitation for Sub-Saharan Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|Water pollution]] [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|for Southern Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Western_Cape_Water_Supply_System|Western Cape Water Supply System]] == References == <references /> == External links == nv0vosxsl439rzo3f02ppvld6q3ogn2 104590 104587 2026-06-22T16:58:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104590 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|List of water supply]] [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|den sanitation by country]] * [[:en:Sanitation_worker|Sanitation worker]] * [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|Water supply]] [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|den sanitation for Sub-Saharan Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|Water pollution]] [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|for Southern Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Western_Cape_Water_Supply_System|Western Cape Water Supply System]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust] rgaxzckhmsn0m7t2ugeag2226x3ydlh 104592 104590 2026-06-22T16:59:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104592 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|List of water supply]] [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|den sanitation by country]] * [[:en:Sanitation_worker|Sanitation worker]] * [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|Water supply]] [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|den sanitation for Sub-Saharan Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|Water pollution]] [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|for Southern Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Western_Cape_Water_Supply_System|Western Cape Water Supply System]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust] * [http://www.waterdialogues.org/south-africa/index.htm De Water Dialogues – South Africa] ejaw90nydcgb0y6fyzhrvchvr7dfszb 104617 104592 2026-06-22T23:13:07Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104617 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == Human resources == South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.<ref>Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157</ref> One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]], dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}</ref> == History den recent developments == [[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.<ref name=":2">[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}</ref> Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.<ref name=":2" /> === Transition === For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|Department of Water Affairs]] [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs_and_Forestry_(South_Africa)|den Forestry]] de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get "equitable access to water supply den sanitation". To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.<ref name=":1" /> De passing of de [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution of]] [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|de Republic of South Africa]] for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.<ref name=":1" /> De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.<ref name=":1" /> === Water Services Act of 1997 === For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first [[:en:White_Paper|White Paper]] for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.<ref name="WSA" /> De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many [[:en:Township_(South_Africa)|Townships]] insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher [[:en:Water_tariff|water tariffs]] den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of "tricklers" dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.<ref>2002 White Paper</ref> Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly. === Municipal Systems Act of 2000 === De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. === Free Basic Water Policy === Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.<ref name="Galvin">{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}</ref> After [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de [[:en:African_National_Congress|African National Congress]] promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 "kilolitres" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality. === Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters === '''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for [[:en:Johannesburg|Johannesburg]] insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de [[:en:Joint_Venture|Joint Venture]] Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd. '''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for [[:en:Soweto|Soweto]] insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.<ref name="Pacific Institute">[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008</ref> For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water "is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle." Further, de judge state dat "25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri", den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.<ref name="Pacific Institute" /> For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.</ref> De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&#x20;m³ per month to 10 anaa even 15&#x20;m³ per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of "emergency water" four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus "solution": A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}</ref> === History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd === Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers. For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions. === Basic Sanitation White Paper === In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]</ref> E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms. E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd. === Decentralisation === Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]</ref> For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.<ref>[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004</ref> De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd. === National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy === For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]]. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a [[:en:Sewage_treatment_plant|sewage treatment plant]]. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by [[:en:Flush_toilet|flush toilets]] anaa Ventilated Improved [[:en:Pit_latrine|Pit Latrines]] wey water no dey readily available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref> Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.<ref>{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="SERI">{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}</ref> For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, "de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation". A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be "deliberately vague" sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.<ref name="SERI" /> === Partnerships === South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]],<ref name="sydafrika">{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}</ref> de [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]],<ref name="dws">{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}</ref> den [[:en:Israel|Israel]],<ref name="sajr">{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}</ref> to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.<ref name="sydafrika" /> E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.<ref name="dws" /> Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for [[:en:Arid|arid]] environments insyd<ref name="sajr" /> === List of ministers for charge of water insyd === Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry * Dr. [[:en:Kader_Asmal|Kader Asmal]] (1994–1999) * [[:en:Ronnie_Kasrils|Ronnie Kasrils]] (1999–2004) * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2004–2006) * [[:en:Lindiwe_Hendricks|Lindiwe Hendricks]] (2006–2009) Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs: * [[:en:Buyelwa_Sonjica|Buyelwa Sonjica]] (2009–2010) * [[:en:Edna_Molewa|Edna Molewa]] (2010-2014) Ministers of Water den Sanitation: * [[:en:Nomvula_Mokonyane|Nomvula Mokonyane]] (2014-2018) * [[:en:Gugile_Nkwinti|Gugile Nkwinti]] (2018-2019) Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation * [[:en:Lindiwe_Sisulu|Lindiwe Sisulu]] (since 2019) == Efficiency == One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of [[:en:Non-revenue_water|non-revenue water]]. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.<ref>International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == Final aspects == === Tariff level === Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users. '''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, [[:en:Rand_Water|Rand Water]], charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.<ref>{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> '''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter. For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&sid=91&pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> Poor households get to register demselves as "indigent" (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.<ref>{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}</ref> For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> '''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give "formal" housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.<ref>{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> === Free basic water === South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}</ref> Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.</ref> Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of [[:en:GDP|GDP]] for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.<ref name="WRC Rural">{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of "Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)"}}</ref> Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}</ref> De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.<ref name="GWI">The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31</ref> As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.<ref name="Galvin" /> === Affordability === Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,<ref>{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail & Guardian}}</ref> de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,<ref name="WRC Rural" /> for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line. === Cost recovery === For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de "equitable share" transfers from national government.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}</ref> === Investment === According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|DBSA]] publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows: * 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities * 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards * 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF * 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)<ref name="Barometer Financing">{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.<ref>White Paper 2002, p. 2</ref> For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de [[:en:De_Hoop_Dam|De Hoop Dam]] wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.<ref>Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25</ref> === Financing === Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd: * 51% thru inter-governmental grants; * 19% thru borrowing; den * 30% thru internal cash generation.<ref name="Barometer Financing" /> De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am "equitable share". One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.<ref name="WRC Rural" /> For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).<ref>{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|List of water supply]] [[:en:List_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country|den sanitation by country]] * [[:en:Sanitation_worker|Sanitation worker]] * [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|Water supply]] [[:en:Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa|den sanitation for Sub-Saharan Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|Water pollution]] [[:en:Water_pollution_in_Southern_Africa|for Southern Africa insyd]] * [[:en:Western_Cape_Water_Supply_System|Western Cape Water Supply System]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust] * [http://www.waterdialogues.org/south-africa/index.htm De Water Dialogues – South Africa] lm1tif0tufmbfjw00caurtrmjcpazj2 0 27644 104612 103608 2026-06-22T20:01:03Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1327042516|Tsiribihina River]]" 104612 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox river|name=Tsiribihina|native_name=|native_name_lang=|name_other=|name_etymology=<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->|image=File:Tsiribihina 03.jpg|image_size=|image_caption=|map=Carte Sakay.svg|map_size=|map_caption=The basin of the Tsiribihina|pushpin_map=|pushpin_map_size=|pushpin_map_caption=<!---------------------- LOCATION -->|subdivision_type1=Country|subdivision_name1=[[Madagascar]]|subdivision_type2=|subdivision_name2=|subdivision_type3=Region|subdivision_name3=[[Bongolava]], [[Menabe]], [[Melaky]]|subdivision_type4=|subdivision_name4=|subdivision_type5=|subdivision_name5=<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->|length={{cvt|150|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="Madagascar">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=159&catid=322&Itemid=179|title=Madagascar}}</ref>|width_min=|width_avg=|width_max=|depth_min=|depth_avg=|depth_max=|discharge1_location=Tsiribihina Delta|discharge1_min=|discharge1_avg=(Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|1,027.2|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Madagascar">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=159&catid=322&Itemid=179|title=Madagascar}}</ref>|discharge1_max=<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->|source1=|source1_location=Confluence of [[Mahajilo River|Mahajilo]] and [[Mania River|Mania]]|source1_coordinates=|source1_elevation={{cvt|49|m|abbr=on}}|mouth=[[Belon'i Tsiribihina]], [[Indian Ocean]]|mouth_coordinates={{coord|19|42|S|44|33|E|region:MG|display=inline}}|mouth_elevation={{convert|0|m|abbr=on}}|progression=|river_system=Tsiribihina River|basin_size={{cvt|49,800|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}|tributaries_left=[[Mahajilo River|Mahajilo]], Andranomeno|tributaries_right=[[Mania River|Mania]]|custom_label=|custom_data=|extra=}}<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Tsiribihina |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Tsiribihina_03.jpg|frameless]] |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Carte_Sakay.svg|250x250px]]<div class="infobox-caption">The basin of the Tsiribihina</div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Location |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Madagascar]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Region | class="infobox-data" |[[Bongolava]], [[Menabe]], [[Melaky]] |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Physical&nbsp;characteristics |- class="infobox-hiddenrow" style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Source | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Confluence of Mahajilo and Mania |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</span> | class="infobox-data" |49&nbsp;m (161&nbsp;ft) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Mouth | class="infobox-data" |Belon'i Tsiribihina, Indian Ocean |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</div> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tsiribihina_River&params=19_42_S_44_33_E_region:MG_type:river <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">19°42′S</span> <span class="longitude">44°33′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">19.700°S 44.550°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-19.700; 44.550</span></span></span>]</span></span> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</div> | class="infobox-data" |0&nbsp;m (0&nbsp;ft) |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Length | class="infobox-data" |150&nbsp;km (93&nbsp;mi) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; ">Basin size</div> | class="infobox-data" |49,800&nbsp;km² (19,200&nbsp;mi²) |- class="infobox-hiddenrow" style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Discharge | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Tsiribihina Delta |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;average</span> | class="infobox-data" |(Period: 1971–2000)1,027.2&nbsp;m³/s (36,280&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft/s) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Basin&nbsp;features |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span class="nowrap">River system</span> | class="infobox-data" |Tsiribihina River |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Tributaries | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;left</span> | class="infobox-data" |Mahajilo, Andranomeno |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;right</span> | class="infobox-data" |Mania |} De '''Tsiribihina'''<ref name="AndrewBlond2008">{{Cite book |last=Andrew |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMq-2xYmCwQC&pg=PA149 |title=Madagascar & Comoros 6 |last2=Blond |first2=Becca |last3=Parkinson |first3=Tom |last4=Anderson, Aaron |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-74104-608-3 |page=149 |access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref> ebe river wey dey western [[Madagascar]]. De main tributaries are de Mahajilo, [[Manandaza River|Manandaza]], Mania, den Sakeny rivers. Its basin has an area of 49,800 km². 7,025 km² is ein de basin of de Sakeny River, 14,500 km² in det of de Mahajilo River, den 18,565 km² ein den of de Mania River. De headwaters wey Dey Madagascar's Central Highlands. De tributary streams wey flow generally westwards except for de Sakeny, wey flows northwards. As dey leave de highlands den enter de north–south running Betsiriry Plain, de tributary rivers converge to form de Tsiribihina - de Mahajilo den Manandaza from de north, den de Mania den Sakeny from de south. There are extensive seasonal wetlands den shallow lakes where de rivers converge on de plain. de rich alluvial soils of de Betsiriry Plain make it one of de most suitable regions for agriculture ein western Madgagascar. De plain's wetlands den lakes are important habitat for waterbirds. De Tsiribihina sanaa go flow westward, wey ego cut a steep den winding gorge wey dey comot through de Bemaraha Plateau, a limestone formation wey dey extend north den south along the western edge of de Betsiriry Plain. As de river go comot from de Bemaraha Plateau ego gbele den meander.<ref name="Aldegheri" /> Bunch shallow lakes dey de lower course inside, including Lake Kimanomby wey Dey gbenke Ambohibary den Lake Masoarivo wey Dey gbenke Masoarivo. De river delta big pass, wey e sanaa dey boot go 35 km north to south. E get bunch coastal beaches den dunes, mudflats, salt flats, mangroves, den freshwater marshes. De mangroves be generally 2–4 meters high, wey de trees wey bunch for inside be de species of ''Avicennia, Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera'', den de ''Sonneratia''. More times de saltflats dey flood as the rainy season dey go on. De freshwater marshes den de lakes of de lower Tsiribihina get bunch sedges ''Cyperus'' spp, de reed ''Phragmites'', den non-native water-hyacinth ''Eichhornia''. De river ein mouth dey gbenkeis near Belon'i Tsiribihina, where it empties into de Mozambique Channel.<ref name="Bradt2011">{{Cite book |last=Bradt |first=Hilary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTRPnMlOcwgC&pg=PA82 |title=Madagascar: The Bradt Travel Guide |date=17 May 2011 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-341-2 |page=82 |access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref> 82 species of birds have been recorded from de Tsiribihina River den its delta, 22 of which are endemic to Madagascar. Bernier's teal (''Anas bernieri'') breeds ein de mangroves. De Madagascar pratincole (''Glareola ocularis'') congregates ein large numbers on de banks of de river, and one of Madagascar's largest congregations of de Madagascar subspecies of white-backed duck (''Thalassornis leuconotus insularis'') occurs at Lake Masoarivo. A few pairs of Madagascar fish eagle (''Haliaeetus vociferoides'') live along de river. De Menabe Antimena protected area covers de south bank of de lower Tsiribihina along with de delta den mangroves. Tsiribihina Delta wey designated a wetland of international importance under de Ramsar Convention, den de Tsiribihina River den its delta are designated an Important Bird Area by Birdlife International. [[Category:Short description matches Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] pmh9bb1ohqgla03auc76qncqt5tq2es 1 27749 104412 104180 2026-06-22T12:26:48Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 /* Translations */ Reply 104412 wikitext text/x-wiki == Translations == Hello @[[User:Achiri Bitamsimli|Achiri Bitamsimli]], thanks for translating this article to the Ghanaian Pidgin. We really appreciate your contributions. Please I would like to draw your attention to certain words used. Words like ''<nowiki/>'don'<nowiki/>'' and ''<nowiki/>'na''' sounds more of Nigeria Pidgin than Ghanaian Pidgin. Also we use 'den' in place of 'and', 'de' in place of 'the'. Kindly take note and make the necessary changes. I have corrected some and it would be appreciated if you correct the rest. Thanks again [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 17:54, 20 June 2026 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], thank you very much for your guidance and for improving the article. I really appreciate your corrections. :Please, could you kindly clarify a bit more on the differences between Nigerian Pidgin and Ghanaian Pidgin for me? I want to fully understand the correct usage so I can avoid these mistakes in my future articles. :Your help will really guide me to improve my translations. Thanks once again for your support [[User:Achiri Bitamsimli|Achiri Bitamsimli]] ([[User talk:Achiri Bitamsimli|talk]]) 12:26, 22 June 2026 (GMT) g66ap63xa53gtrcar246hazwn0g36vb 104421 104412 2026-06-22T13:27:47Z DaSupremo 9 /* Translations */ Reply 104421 wikitext text/x-wiki == Translations == Hello @[[User:Achiri Bitamsimli|Achiri Bitamsimli]], thanks for translating this article to the Ghanaian Pidgin. We really appreciate your contributions. Please I would like to draw your attention to certain words used. Words like ''<nowiki/>'don'<nowiki/>'' and ''<nowiki/>'na''' sounds more of Nigeria Pidgin than Ghanaian Pidgin. Also we use 'den' in place of 'and', 'de' in place of 'the'. Kindly take note and make the necessary changes. I have corrected some and it would be appreciated if you correct the rest. Thanks again [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 17:54, 20 June 2026 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], thank you very much for your guidance and for improving the article. I really appreciate your corrections. :Please, could you kindly clarify a bit more on the differences between Nigerian Pidgin and Ghanaian Pidgin for me? I want to fully understand the correct usage so I can avoid these mistakes in my future articles. :Your help will really guide me to improve my translations. Thanks once again for your support [[User:Achiri Bitamsimli|Achiri Bitamsimli]] ([[User talk:Achiri Bitamsimli|talk]]) 12:26, 22 June 2026 (GMT) ::Hello @[[User:Achiri Bitamsimli|Achiri Bitamsimli]]...there is a difference between the two Pidgins in terms of spellings. We are also trying to differentiate between them. Common words are 'de' in place of 'the' not 'di'; 'den' in place of 'and', 'be' in place of 'is/are'. We do not use 'don', 'sabi', 'pikin' in Ghanaian Pidgin as they are Nigerian Pidgin terms. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 13:27, 22 June 2026 (GMT) 75ei3szgonamxrk9axjwiox2o3h6ets 14 27780 104409 2026-06-22T12:04:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104409 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27781 104410 2026-06-22T12:05:06Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104410 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27782 104413 2026-06-22T13:03:02Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 Created page with "Lake Sulunga wey people sabi as Bahi Swamp na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of Dodoma and Singida region for Tanzania. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of Dodoma capital inside one endorheic basin wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey a..." 104413 wikitext text/x-wiki Lake Sulunga wey people sabi as Bahi Swamp na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of Dodoma and Singida region for Tanzania. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of Dodoma capital inside one endorheic basin wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. 1wm4z5k4ak9avlmnicp4sqgbsffghnk 104414 104413 2026-06-22T13:04:40Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104414 wikitext text/x-wiki Lake Sulunga wey people sabi as Bahi Swamp na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of Dodoma and Singida region for Tanzania. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of Dodoma capital inside one endorheic basin wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing. But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds. 27knlha018akq9k2a1w5u17h11qgvxg 104415 104414 2026-06-22T13:05:35Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104415 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as Bahi Swamp na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and Singida region for Tanzania. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of Dodoma capital inside one endorheic basin wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing. But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds. 29gnsai32vwofo04u496fcqxcjq72lk 104416 104415 2026-06-22T13:07:09Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104416 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as '''Bahi''' '''Swamp''' na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and [[:en:Singida_region|Singida region]] for Tanzania. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of Dodoma capital inside one endorheic basin wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing. But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds. 92ws9w3acafbyge9gx7kyx9dnur23z4 104417 104416 2026-06-22T13:07:48Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104417 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as '''Bahi''' '''Swamp''' na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and [[:en:Singida_region|Singida region]] for [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of Dodoma capital inside one endorheic basin wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing. But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds. k2swa6i23t0ifbha96rcl9r7ny6vkv5 104418 104417 2026-06-22T13:09:07Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104418 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as '''Bahi''' '''Swamp''' na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and [[:en:Singida_region|Singida region]] for [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of [[:en:Dodoma|Dodoma]] capital inside one [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing. But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds. 9i1dnxxzvq1z6smz852180yqgm4r4q5 104419 104418 2026-06-22T13:10:46Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104419 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as '''Bahi''' '''Swamp''' na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and [[:en:Singida_region|Singida region]] for [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of [[:en:Dodoma|Dodoma]] capital inside one [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing. But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110224134230/http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 Bahi North]". Archived from [http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 the original] on 2011-02-24. Retrieved 2020-09-20.</ref> rgs68msb86g3biqlnyooqrspihckqev 104420 104419 2026-06-22T13:11:32Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104420 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as '''Bahi''' '''Swamp''' na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and [[:en:Singida_region|Singida region]] for [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of [[:en:Dodoma|Dodoma]] capital inside one [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing. But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110224134230/http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 Bahi North]". Archived from [http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 the original] on 2011-02-24. Retrieved 2020-09-20.</ref> == Reference == iaoremndl1vhr9f4or4swaek7vkmzcr 104427 104420 2026-06-22T13:54:44Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104427 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as '''Bahi''' '''Swamp''' na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and [[:en:Singida_region|Singida region]] for [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of [[:en:Dodoma|Dodoma]] capital inside one [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20151205223726/http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040528.pdf Hydrology of the Bahi wetland, Tanzania"] (PDF). Archived from [http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040528.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2015-12-05. Retrieved 2018-10-01.</ref> But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110224134230/http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 Bahi North]". Archived from [http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 the original] on 2011-02-24. Retrieved 2020-09-20.</ref> == References == p07gbk52oq99ezakxmslh63k7qypvpy 104428 104427 2026-06-22T13:57:07Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104428 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Sulunga-See.png|thumb|Drainage basin of Lake Sulunga (green)]] '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as '''Bahi''' '''Swamp''' na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and [[:en:Singida_region|Singida region]] for [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of [[:en:Dodoma|Dodoma]] capital inside one [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20151205223726/http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040528.pdf Hydrology of the Bahi wetland, Tanzania"] (PDF). Archived from [http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040528.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2015-12-05. Retrieved 2018-10-01.</ref> But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110224134230/http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 Bahi North]". Archived from [http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 the original] on 2011-02-24. Retrieved 2020-09-20.</ref> == References == auo13kfvg7nah93tjn7deqpmwiklvju 104429 104428 2026-06-22T13:59:47Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104429 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Sulunga-See.png|thumb|Drainage basin of Lake Sulunga (green)]] '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as '''Bahi''' '''Swamp''' na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and [[:en:Singida_region|Singida region]] for [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of [[:en:Dodoma|Dodoma]] capital inside one [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20151205223726/http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040528.pdf Hydrology of the Bahi wetland, Tanzania"] (PDF). Archived from [http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040528.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2015-12-05. Retrieved 2018-10-01.</ref> But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110224134230/http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 Bahi North]". Archived from [http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 the original] on 2011-02-24. Retrieved 2020-09-20.</ref> == References == 8p5tk3swpl9v7nsqptk6k0by7pt4jut 104430 104429 2026-06-22T14:00:37Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104430 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Sulunga-See.png|thumb|Drainage basin of Lake Sulunga (green)|310x310px]] '''Lake Sulunga''' wey people sabi as '''Bahi''' '''Swamp''' na one shallow seasonal lake wey dey for border of [[:en:Dodoma_Region|Dodoma]] and [[:en:Singida_region|Singida region]] for [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Na di biggest water body for both region during rainy season. E dey about 45 km west of [[:en:Dodoma|Dodoma]] capital inside one [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] wey dem dey call Bahi depression. E dey for altitude of 830 metres (2,720 ft) and e fit spread reach 974 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Di catchment area na 23,447 square kilometres (9,053 sq mi). Di lake dey about 42 kilometres (26 mi) long and 26 kilometres (16 mi) wide, but e fit vanish completely for dry season. Di main rivers wey dey feed am na Bubu and Mponde. Di lake dey surrounded by plenty settlements and e dey play big role for local fishing and animal rearing.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20151205223726/http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040528.pdf Hydrology of the Bahi wetland, Tanzania"] (PDF). Archived from [http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040528.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2015-12-05. Retrieved 2018-10-01.</ref> But di lake fit get serious wahala for future because mining fit affect am well‑well. Di area get uranium, gold and e fit even get diamonds.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110224134230/http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 Bahi North]". Archived from [http://mantraresources.com.au/?id=221 the original] on 2011-02-24. Retrieved 2020-09-20.</ref> == References == onfon17r3py4a2ovgo2gyt9hob7p5jp 14 27783 104423 2026-06-22T13:39:26Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104423 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27784 104424 2026-06-22T13:40:34Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104424 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27785 104433 2026-06-22T14:04:00Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104433 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27786 104434 2026-06-22T14:04:11Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104434 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27787 104435 2026-06-22T14:05:04Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 Created page with "Lake Rukwa na one endorheic lake wey dey inside Rukwa Valley for Rukwa Region, Songwe Region and Katavi Region wey dey southwest Tanzania. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country." 104435 wikitext text/x-wiki Lake Rukwa na one endorheic lake wey dey inside Rukwa Valley for Rukwa Region, Songwe Region and Katavi Region wey dey southwest Tanzania. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. tc7rpx7om5mmzlqe8bjsg7lofgwt9du 104436 104435 2026-06-22T14:08:09Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104436 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. 48rsb8fhkeubp0ajc9jzed0jssmh0vq 104437 104436 2026-06-22T14:10:06Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104437 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi, for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside Uwanda Game Reserve. 3k5dtga6fiigc0zzm125fkjc9js8yjc 104438 104437 2026-06-22T14:11:37Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104438 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]]. tjzbtqjvqtpjm6odo8gaizivdt5z87o 104439 104438 2026-06-22T14:12:58Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104439 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> buue18sbaf6ya7jisr9z2ntdbb386v2 104440 104439 2026-06-22T14:13:29Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104440 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Reference == 62lt39t2ni66kra6uu9mv4jqq8jspo4 104441 104440 2026-06-22T14:16:36Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104441 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²). For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide. During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present. For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high. (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) == Reference == 00dugt9xlqfmw9u9nzrt89ye0x261v2 104442 104441 2026-06-22T14:18:33Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104442 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²). For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide. During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present. For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high. (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) Heavy metals like zinc, mercury, copper, lead, chromium and nickel don gather for sediment, water and even inside di muscle of Clarias gariepinus (African catfish) and Oreochromis esculentus (Singida tilapia) wey dey Lake Rukwa. == Reference == 6ow6uj89e0z28pq3boh4fvpyjay5isi 104443 104442 2026-06-22T14:21:10Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104443 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²). For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide. During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present. For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high. (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) [[:en:Heavy_metals|Heavy metals]] like zinc, mercury, copper, lead, chromium and nickel don gather for sediment, water and even inside di muscle of [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|Clarias gariepinus (African catfish)]] and [[:en:Oreochromis_esculentus|Oreochromis esculentus (Singida tilapia)]] wey dey Lake Rukwa. == Reference == q5cq09m8nu4e0v0yetex5duve1n5diz 104444 104443 2026-06-22T14:23:48Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104444 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²). For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide. During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present. For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high. (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) [[:en:Heavy_metals|Heavy metals]] like zinc, mercury, copper, lead, chromium and nickel don gather for sediment, water and even inside di muscle of [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|Clarias gariepinus (African catfish)]] and [[:en:Oreochromis_esculentus|Oreochromis esculentus (Singida tilapia)]] wey dey Lake Rukwa<ref>Mapenzi, Levinus Leonard; Shimba, Moses Joel; Moto, Edward Angelo; Maghembe, Reuben Silas; Mmochi, Aviti John (January 2020). "Heavy metals bio-accumulation in tilapia and catfish species in Lake Rukwa ecosystem Tanzania". ''Journal of Geochemical Exploration''. '''208''' 106413. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413|10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0375-6742 0375-6742]</ref>. == Reference == dhpht2cwn7pttfkaaf7ahvw1pnbrlxv 104445 104444 2026-06-22T14:29:11Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104445 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²).<ref>Google Earth accessed 6 February 2007</ref> For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/512554/Lake Encyclopædia Britannica Online/Lake Rukwa]</ref> During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present.<ref>Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. [[:en:Cambridge_University_Press|Cambridge University Press]]. p. 110.</ref> For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high.<ref>Google Maps</ref> (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) [[:en:Heavy_metals|Heavy metals]] like zinc, mercury, copper, lead, chromium and nickel don gather for sediment, water and even inside di muscle of [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|Clarias gariepinus (African catfish)]] and [[:en:Oreochromis_esculentus|Oreochromis esculentus (Singida tilapia)]] wey dey Lake Rukwa<ref>Mapenzi, Levinus Leonard; Shimba, Moses Joel; Moto, Edward Angelo; Maghembe, Reuben Silas; Mmochi, Aviti John (January 2020). "Heavy metals bio-accumulation in tilapia and catfish species in Lake Rukwa ecosystem Tanzania". ''Journal of Geochemical Exploration''. '''208''' 106413. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413|10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0375-6742 0375-6742]</ref>. == Reference == 5q0wn9mj9h4g0vc7szdgmf5lcp86muu 104446 104445 2026-06-22T14:32:13Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104446 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²).<ref>Google Earth accessed 6 February 2007</ref> For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/512554/Lake Encyclopædia Britannica Online/Lake Rukwa]</ref> During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present.<ref>Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. [[:en:Cambridge_University_Press|Cambridge University Press]]. p. 110.</ref> For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high.<ref>Google Maps</ref> (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) [[:en:Heavy_metals|Heavy metals]] like zinc, mercury, copper, lead, chromium and nickel don gather for sediment, water and even inside di muscle of [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|Clarias gariepinus (African catfish)]] and [[:en:Oreochromis_esculentus|Oreochromis esculentus (Singida tilapia)]] wey dey Lake Rukwa<ref>Mapenzi, Levinus Leonard; Shimba, Moses Joel; Moto, Edward Angelo; Maghembe, Reuben Silas; Mmochi, Aviti John (January 2020). "Heavy metals bio-accumulation in tilapia and catfish species in Lake Rukwa ecosystem Tanzania". ''Journal of Geochemical Exploration''. '''208''' 106413. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413|10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0375-6742 0375-6742]</ref>. == Helium discovery == For 2016, dem discover about 1.53 billion cubic meters (54.2 billion standard cubic feet) of helium gas for Lake Rukwa, wey value reach $3.5 billion. == Reference == ry6pc4koq62v3klb8d9zjnnrn53mvef 104447 104446 2026-06-22T14:32:51Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104447 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²).<ref>Google Earth accessed 6 February 2007</ref> For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/512554/Lake Encyclopædia Britannica Online/Lake Rukwa]</ref> During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present.<ref>Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. [[:en:Cambridge_University_Press|Cambridge University Press]]. p. 110.</ref> For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high.<ref>Google Maps</ref> (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) [[:en:Heavy_metals|Heavy metals]] like zinc, mercury, copper, lead, chromium and nickel don gather for sediment, water and even inside di muscle of [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|Clarias gariepinus (African catfish)]] and [[:en:Oreochromis_esculentus|Oreochromis esculentus (Singida tilapia)]] wey dey Lake Rukwa<ref>Mapenzi, Levinus Leonard; Shimba, Moses Joel; Moto, Edward Angelo; Maghembe, Reuben Silas; Mmochi, Aviti John (January 2020). "Heavy metals bio-accumulation in tilapia and catfish species in Lake Rukwa ecosystem Tanzania". ''Journal of Geochemical Exploration''. '''208''' 106413. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413|10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0375-6742 0375-6742]</ref>. == Helium discovery == For 2016, dem discover about 1.53 billion cubic meters (54.2 billion standard cubic feet) of [[:en:Helium|helium]] gas for Lake Rukwa, wey value reach $3.5 billion. == Reference == stz1n768gj12c3yavpj9vb06horuq76 104448 104447 2026-06-22T14:34:15Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104448 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²).<ref>Google Earth accessed 6 February 2007</ref> For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/512554/Lake Encyclopædia Britannica Online/Lake Rukwa]</ref> During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present.<ref>Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. [[:en:Cambridge_University_Press|Cambridge University Press]]. p. 110.</ref> For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high.<ref>Google Maps</ref> (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) [[:en:Heavy_metals|Heavy metals]] like zinc, mercury, copper, lead, chromium and nickel don gather for sediment, water and even inside di muscle of [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|Clarias gariepinus (African catfish)]] and [[:en:Oreochromis_esculentus|Oreochromis esculentus (Singida tilapia)]] wey dey Lake Rukwa<ref>Mapenzi, Levinus Leonard; Shimba, Moses Joel; Moto, Edward Angelo; Maghembe, Reuben Silas; Mmochi, Aviti John (January 2020). "Heavy metals bio-accumulation in tilapia and catfish species in Lake Rukwa ecosystem Tanzania". ''Journal of Geochemical Exploration''. '''208''' 106413. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413|10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0375-6742 0375-6742]</ref>. == Helium discovery == For 2016, dem discover about 1.53 billion cubic meters (54.2 billion standard cubic feet) of [[:en:Helium|helium]] gas for Lake Rukwa, wey value reach $3.5 billion.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20160828202951/http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Helium--could-earn-Tanzania--3-5bn-/-/1840340/3284646/-/awfffj/-/index.html Helium 'could earn Tanzania $3.5bn]'". ''www.thecitizen.co.tz''. July 8, 2016. Archived from [http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Helium--could-earn-Tanzania--3-5bn-/-/1840340/3284646/-/awfffj/-/index.html the original] on August 28, 2016. Retrieved July 10, 2016</ref> == Reference == fh2g9cl943b5119gno5crxe2ffmjkne 104449 104448 2026-06-22T14:35:38Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104449 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Lake Rukwa.png|thumb|Lake Rukwa, as seen from space]] '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²).<ref>Google Earth accessed 6 February 2007</ref> For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/512554/Lake Encyclopædia Britannica Online/Lake Rukwa]</ref> During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present.<ref>Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. [[:en:Cambridge_University_Press|Cambridge University Press]]. p. 110.</ref> For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high.<ref>Google Maps</ref> (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) [[:en:Heavy_metals|Heavy metals]] like zinc, mercury, copper, lead, chromium and nickel don gather for sediment, water and even inside di muscle of [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|Clarias gariepinus (African catfish)]] and [[:en:Oreochromis_esculentus|Oreochromis esculentus (Singida tilapia)]] wey dey Lake Rukwa<ref>Mapenzi, Levinus Leonard; Shimba, Moses Joel; Moto, Edward Angelo; Maghembe, Reuben Silas; Mmochi, Aviti John (January 2020). "Heavy metals bio-accumulation in tilapia and catfish species in Lake Rukwa ecosystem Tanzania". ''Journal of Geochemical Exploration''. '''208''' 106413. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413|10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0375-6742 0375-6742]</ref>. == Helium discovery == For 2016, dem discover about 1.53 billion cubic meters (54.2 billion standard cubic feet) of [[:en:Helium|helium]] gas for Lake Rukwa, wey value reach $3.5 billion.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20160828202951/http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Helium--could-earn-Tanzania--3-5bn-/-/1840340/3284646/-/awfffj/-/index.html Helium 'could earn Tanzania $3.5bn]'". ''www.thecitizen.co.tz''. July 8, 2016. Archived from [http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Helium--could-earn-Tanzania--3-5bn-/-/1840340/3284646/-/awfffj/-/index.html the original] on August 28, 2016. Retrieved July 10, 2016</ref> == Reference == 7nclsqi89yomhcvf2p23l8srjrn958h 104450 104449 2026-06-22T14:38:14Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104450 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Lake Rukwa.png|thumb|Lake Rukwa, as seen from space]] '''Lake Rukwa''' na one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] lake wey dey inside [[:en:Rukwa_Valley|Rukwa Valley]] for [[:en:Rukwa_Region|Rukwa Region]], [[:en:Songwe_Region|Songwe Region]] and [[:en:Katavi_Region|Katavi Region]] wey dey southwest [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di lake na di third biggest inland water body for di country. == Geography == Di alkaline Lake Rukwa dey between [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]] and [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]], for elevation wey be about 800 metres (2,600 ft), inside one parallel branch of di rift system. Almost half of di lake dey inside [[:en:Uwanda_Game_Reserve|Uwanda Game Reserve]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111122200601/http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm "Rukwa Uwanda Game Reserve"]. Utalii Travel and Safari. Archived from [http://www.utalii.com/Rukwa/Uwanda_Game_Reserve.htm the original] on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2010.</ref> == Hydrology == Di lake don dey change size plenty times over di years, because di streams wey dey enter am dey vary. Right now e dey about 180 kilometres (110 mi) long and e average about 32 kilometres (20 mi) wide, so e size na about 5,760 square kilometres (2,220 mi²).<ref>Google Earth accessed 6 February 2007</ref> For 1929 e be only about 48 kilometres (30 mi) long, but by 1939 e don reach about 128 kilometres (80 mi) long and 40 kilometres (25 mi) wide.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/512554/Lake Encyclopædia Britannica Online/Lake Rukwa]</ref> During di early rifting for dis part of Africa, di basin of Lake Rukwa fit sometimes join bigger basin wey include Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. Old shoreline show say di last time e overflow enter Lake Tanganyika na around 33,000 years Before Present.<ref>Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. [[:en:Cambridge_University_Press|Cambridge University Press]]. p. 110.</ref> For overflow to happen again, di lake elevation suppose pass 900 metres. Overflow enter Lake Malawi no fit happen now, because di pass between di two basin dey over 2000 metres high.<ref>Google Maps</ref> (Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi no fit overflow enter Lake Rukwa because dem already dey overflow enter Atlantic and Indian Ocean respectively.) [[:en:Heavy_metals|Heavy metals]] like zinc, mercury, copper, lead, chromium and nickel don gather for sediment, water and even inside di muscle of [[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|Clarias gariepinus (African catfish)]] and [[:en:Oreochromis_esculentus|Oreochromis esculentus (Singida tilapia)]] wey dey Lake Rukwa<ref>Mapenzi, Levinus Leonard; Shimba, Moses Joel; Moto, Edward Angelo; Maghembe, Reuben Silas; Mmochi, Aviti John (January 2020). "Heavy metals bio-accumulation in tilapia and catfish species in Lake Rukwa ecosystem Tanzania". ''Journal of Geochemical Exploration''. '''208''' 106413. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413|10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106413]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0375-6742 0375-6742]</ref>. == Helium discovery == For 2016, dem discover about 1.53 billion cubic meters (54.2 billion standard cubic feet) of [[:en:Helium|helium]] gas for Lake Rukwa, wey value reach $3.5 billion.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20160828202951/http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Helium--could-earn-Tanzania--3-5bn-/-/1840340/3284646/-/awfffj/-/index.html Helium 'could earn Tanzania $3.5bn]'". ''www.thecitizen.co.tz''. July 8, 2016. Archived from [http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Helium--could-earn-Tanzania--3-5bn-/-/1840340/3284646/-/awfffj/-/index.html the original] on August 28, 2016. Retrieved July 10, 2016</ref> == Reference == rdv358qqcf1i4eq97wkk12mko1a2ac7 14 27788 104453 2026-06-22T14:43:15Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104453 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27789 104454 2026-06-22T14:43:27Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104454 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27790 104455 2026-06-22T14:43:39Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104455 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27791 104456 2026-06-22T14:43:50Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104456 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27792 104457 2026-06-22T14:44:44Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 Created page with "Lake Natron na one highly alkaline salt lake wey dey north side of Ngorongoro District for Arusha Region, Tanzania. Di far northern end cross enter Kajiado County and Narok County for Kenya. E dey inside Gregory Rift, wey be di eastern branch of East African Rift. Di lake dey inside Lake Natron Basin, wey be Ramsar Site wetland of international importance." 104457 wikitext text/x-wiki Lake Natron na one highly alkaline salt lake wey dey north side of Ngorongoro District for Arusha Region, Tanzania. Di far northern end cross enter Kajiado County and Narok County for Kenya. E dey inside Gregory Rift, wey be di eastern branch of East African Rift. Di lake dey inside Lake Natron Basin, wey be Ramsar Site wetland of international importance. k8d8pi5kabk6pweywr765ubrf0z27bd 104459 104457 2026-06-22T14:47:57Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104459 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], Tanzania. Di far northern end cross enter Kajiado County and Narok County for Kenya. E dey inside Gregory Rift, wey be di eastern branch of East African Rift. Di lake dey inside Lake Natron Basin, wey be Ramsar Site wetland of international importance. efl9hjn03wmfaf2f1sfnoigp67daou4 104460 104459 2026-06-22T14:50:39Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104460 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]]. Di lake dey inside Lake Natron Basin, wey be Ramsar Site wetland of international importance. chkgn5kfqxzs35ic4c426dctaf62kf4 104461 104460 2026-06-22T14:51:49Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104461 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]]. Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance. 27b2eruwcr3h48ljie7i4illeq3r4hz 104462 104461 2026-06-22T14:54:58Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104462 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]]. Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ajblzp8m3gn0tc6wyd3e4qs6cbyg3pn 104463 104462 2026-06-22T14:55:26Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104463 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]]. Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Reference == k8wp7u3lkd4us0369sprvskggpi3lzz 104464 104463 2026-06-22T14:56:25Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104464 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Reference == dh9l1te1rngqycc1jmsznui3ezh77p3 104466 104464 2026-06-22T14:58:23Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104466 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> Dis lake dey mainly get water from Southern Ewaso Ng’iro River wey dey rise for central Kenya, plus mineral‑rich hot springs. E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F). == References == kwk1yhc5bekqlq2ht0l2q4acj93v1s6 104468 104466 2026-06-22T15:11:46Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104468 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from Southern Ewaso Ng’iro River wey dey rise for central Kenya, plus mineral‑rich hot springs. E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F). == References == fpk5ff2j1cfcbqeuua0duli55hakzn5 104469 104468 2026-06-22T15:12:02Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104469 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from Southern Ewaso Ng’iro River wey dey rise for central Kenya, plus mineral‑rich hot springs. E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F). High evaporation don leave natron (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and trona (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated trachyte lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. == References == ez53bzaqqatzcr2g63tsa17cts8u4xb 104470 104469 2026-06-22T15:13:33Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104470 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from Southern Ewaso Ng’iro River wey dey rise for central Kenya, plus mineral‑rich hot springs. E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F). High evaporation don leave natron (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and trona (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated trachyte lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body (calcify). == References == qauy7i53jho039i7wqxdpwxbu33kwkc 104472 104470 2026-06-22T15:18:48Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104472 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs. E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F). High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]). == References == mlhcwbizz6gzcirdcdi8yqiofh1fqjg 104476 104472 2026-06-22T15:23:51Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104476 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]). == References == sa4fkhegenlhk30q7h2mlcaxq5peloa 104478 104476 2026-06-22T15:25:14Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104478 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == References == b76qjr3yd1rgeupyjhafi2s9l9a4hfa 104484 104478 2026-06-22T15:30:58Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104484 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey evaporate plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving microorganisms go begin grow well. Dis kain halophile organisms include some cyanobacteria wey dey make dia own food with photosynthesis, same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di alkali salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di halophilic microorganisms wey dey live there. Salt marshes and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == References == hqpf4exw8kdv1uwqqjeege9d4rpoj8z 104486 104484 2026-06-22T15:32:16Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104486 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey evaporate plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving microorganisms go begin grow well. Dis kain halophile organisms include some cyanobacteria wey dey make dia own food with photosynthesis, same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di alkali salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di halophilic microorganisms wey dey live there. Salt marshes and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == References == q6ezieb661djvxawl03cinssgkdyoyj 104489 104486 2026-06-22T15:35:38Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104489 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with photosynthesis, same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di alkali salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di halophilic microorganisms wey dey live there. Salt marshes and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == References == ro8tvsyhgp4q49ssiuvw2aoc6a9molo 104490 104489 2026-06-22T15:38:10Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104490 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == References == 45a1x0n85vzy4l0zpn3uv6y1zy9yjj2 104492 104490 2026-06-22T15:40:25Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104492 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still get some algae, small-small invertebrates, and birds wey dey live there. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. == References == 8x8u71mg3s6p5d8lztbnudig4suwoer 104493 104492 2026-06-22T15:41:00Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104493 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still get some algae, small-small invertebrates, and birds wey dey live there. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. == References == 1ou4cj2vqicvzycf61gvxhn5ayl4qw8 104494 104493 2026-06-22T15:42:43Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104494 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still get some algae, small-small invertebrates, and birds wey dey live there. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million lesser flamingoes. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di salt level dey rise, cyanobacteria go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop Spirulina (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di harsh environment dey block predators wey wan reach dia nests for evaporite islands wey dey form seasonally. Greater flamingoes too dey breed for di mud flats. == References == o4ixkwen9m331b2zuog4a4r5d708jiy 104496 104494 2026-06-22T15:44:10Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104496 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still get some algae, small-small invertebrates, and birds wey dey live there. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million lesser flamingoes. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di salt level dey rise, cyanobacteria go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop Spirulina (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di harsh environment dey block predators wey wan reach dia nests for evaporite islands wey dey form seasonally. Greater flamingoes too dey breed for di mud flats. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos'' by Disneynature, because of di close relationship e get with Lesser flamingoes as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di alkaline tilapias ''Alcolapia latilabris'' and ''A. ndalalani'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''A. alcalica'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == References == geo2bwe48t30yp1r4tspyt3r2ri2udu 104501 104496 2026-06-22T15:49:15Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104501 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million lesser flamingoes. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di salt level dey rise, cyanobacteria go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop Spirulina (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di harsh environment dey block predators wey wan reach dia nests for evaporite islands wey dey form seasonally. Greater flamingoes too dey breed for di mud flats. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos'' by Disneynature, because of di close relationship e get with Lesser flamingoes as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di alkaline tilapias ''Alcolapia latilabris'' and ''A. ndalalani'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''A. alcalica'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == References == bqo2awfc9tm4a450t3jdeylcgdt6kwa 104509 104501 2026-06-22T15:57:54Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104509 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos'' by Disneynature, because of di close relationship e get with Lesser flamingoes as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di alkaline tilapias ''Alcolapia latilabris'' and ''A. ndalalani'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''A. alcalica'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == References == te03tlwsfl6yjellunh84oa5a5w9uiv 104510 104509 2026-06-22T15:59:56Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104510 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by Disneynature, because of di close relationship e get with Lesser flamingoes as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di alkaline tilapias ''Alcolapia latilabris'' and ''A. ndalalani'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''A. alcalica'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == References == i1ohnbk13im429w3gv5n7agrf04v6tw 104511 104510 2026-06-22T16:03:31Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104511 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di alkaline tilapias ''Alcolapia latilabris'' and ''A. ndalalani'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''A. alcalica'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == References == jv21x4rn13tj2xheh1y3bsdiukp2p71 104513 104511 2026-06-22T16:08:45Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104513 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''A. ndalalani'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''A. alcalica'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == References == o31k0d97lhiumz4vxs71ufaac22m6kk 104515 104513 2026-06-22T16:09:43Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104515 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == References == 4ebonuqc3yx82pix5hy3j3rylikd5bz 104517 104515 2026-06-22T16:10:41Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104517 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. Di area wey dey around di salt lake no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one hydroelectric power plant wey dem wan build for Ewaso Ng'iro across Kenya border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. == References == a1ar5092j8974thrwqq7d9j9uuqr4o6 104518 104517 2026-06-22T16:11:13Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104518 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == Threats and preservation == Di area wey dey around di salt lake no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one hydroelectric power plant wey dem wan build for Ewaso Ng'iro across Kenya border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. == References == kqnwsa0km1ai5r9ocmo1sqcq2fywz73 104520 104518 2026-06-22T16:12:39Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104520 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == Threats and preservation == Di area wey dey around di salt lake no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one hydroelectric power plant wey dem wan build for Ewaso Ng'iro across Kenya border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. One new threat wey dey face Lake Natron na di soda ash plant wey dem propose make dem build for di lake shore. Di plant go pump water from di lake and extract sodium carbonate to turn am into washing powder wey dem go export. Alongside di plant, dem plan build houses for over 1000 workers, plus one coal-fired power station wey go supply energy for di whole plant complex. On top dat, e get possibility say di developers fit introduce one hybrid brine shrimp to make di extraction process more efficient. == References == nu4u0i2b61ww7mue8f3ytut9780sdou 104525 104520 2026-06-22T16:20:55Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104525 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == Threats and preservation == Di area wey dey around di salt lake no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one hydroelectric power plant wey dem wan build for Ewaso Ng'iro across Kenya border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. One new threat wey dey face Lake Natron na di soda ash plant wey dem propose make dem build for di lake shore. Di plant go pump water from di lake and extract sodium carbonate to turn am into washing powder wey dem go export. Alongside di plant, dem plan build houses for over 1000 workers, plus one coal-fired power station wey go supply energy for di whole plant complex. On top dat, e get possibility say di developers fit introduce one hybrid brine shrimp to make di extraction process more efficient. According to Chris Magin, wey be RSPB international officer for Africa, "Di chance say lesser flamingoes go continue to breed inside dis kain wahala na almost zero. Dis development go make lesser flamingoes for East Africa face extinction." Seventy-five percent of di world lesser flamingoes dey born for Lake Natron. Right now, more than fifty East African conservation and environmental institutions dey run worldwide campaign to stop di soda ash factory wey Tata Chemicals Ltd from Mumbai, India, and National Development Corporation of Tanzania dey plan build. Di group dey work under umbrella name ''Lake Natron Consultative Group'', and Ken Mwathe, wey be Conservation Programme Manager for BirdLife International Africa Secretariat, dey co-ordinate am. == References == 0vcf7e32dvu1rtsg3ae941pwwcov62u 104529 104525 2026-06-22T16:22:11Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104529 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == Threats and preservation == Di area wey dey around di salt lake no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one hydroelectric power plant wey dem wan build for Ewaso Ng'iro across Kenya border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. One new threat wey dey face Lake Natron na di soda ash plant wey dem propose make dem build for di lake shore. Di plant go pump water from di lake and extract sodium carbonate to turn am into washing powder wey dem go export. Alongside di plant, dem plan build houses for over 1000 workers, plus one coal-fired power station wey go supply energy for di whole plant complex. On top dat, e get possibility say di developers fit introduce one hybrid brine shrimp to make di extraction process more efficient. According to Chris Magin, wey be RSPB international officer for Africa, "Di chance say lesser flamingoes go continue to breed inside dis kain wahala na almost zero. Dis development go make lesser flamingoes for East Africa face extinction." Seventy-five percent of di world lesser flamingoes dey born for Lake Natron. Right now, more than fifty East African conservation and environmental institutions dey run worldwide campaign to stop di soda ash factory wey Tata Chemicals Ltd from Mumbai, India, and National Development Corporation of Tanzania dey plan build. Di group dey work under umbrella name ''Lake Natron Consultative Group'', and Ken Mwathe, wey be Conservation Programme Manager for BirdLife International Africa Secretariat, dey co-ordinate am. As dem communicate for June 2008, Tata Chemicals no go continue with di Natron Project, and any re-examination of di project go dey under di Ramsar Wetlands plan wey dem dey prepare now. Because of di unique biodiversity, Tanzania don put Lake Natron Basin for Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance since 4 July 2001. Di lake also dey part of World Wildlife Fund East African halophytics ecoregion. == References == bzkw4xj7mlwtsg9w6that40y143kl1k 104532 104529 2026-06-22T16:23:42Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104532 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == Threats and preservation == Di area wey dey around di [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Power_plant|power plant]] wey dem wan build for Ewaso Ng'iro across Kenya border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. One new threat wey dey face Lake Natron na di soda ash plant wey dem propose make dem build for di lake shore. Di plant go pump water from di lake and extract sodium carbonate to turn am into washing powder wey dem go export. Alongside di plant, dem plan build houses for over 1000 workers, plus one coal-fired power station wey go supply energy for di whole plant complex. On top dat, e get possibility say di developers fit introduce one hybrid brine shrimp to make di extraction process more efficient. According to Chris Magin, wey be RSPB international officer for Africa, "Di chance say lesser flamingoes go continue to breed inside dis kain wahala na almost zero. Dis development go make lesser flamingoes for East Africa face extinction." Seventy-five percent of di world lesser flamingoes dey born for Lake Natron. Right now, more than fifty East African conservation and environmental institutions dey run worldwide campaign to stop di soda ash factory wey Tata Chemicals Ltd from Mumbai, India, and National Development Corporation of Tanzania dey plan build. Di group dey work under umbrella name ''Lake Natron Consultative Group'', and Ken Mwathe, wey be Conservation Programme Manager for BirdLife International Africa Secretariat, dey co-ordinate am. As dem communicate for June 2008, Tata Chemicals no go continue with di Natron Project, and any re-examination of di project go dey under di Ramsar Wetlands plan wey dem dey prepare now. Because of di unique biodiversity, Tanzania don put Lake Natron Basin for Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance since 4 July 2001. Di lake also dey part of World Wildlife Fund East African halophytics ecoregion. == References == hfsm6tv9jhj3w8ttwt8rtm3lxd9dfpl 104536 104532 2026-06-22T16:24:57Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104536 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == Threats and preservation == Di area wey dey around di [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Power_plant|power plant]] wey dem wan build for [[:en:Ewaso_Ng'iro|Ewaso Ng'iro]] across [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. One new threat wey dey face Lake Natron na di soda ash plant wey dem propose make dem build for di lake shore. Di plant go pump water from di lake and extract sodium carbonate to turn am into washing powder wey dem go export. Alongside di plant, dem plan build houses for over 1000 workers, plus one coal-fired power station wey go supply energy for di whole plant complex. On top dat, e get possibility say di developers fit introduce one hybrid brine shrimp to make di extraction process more efficient. According to Chris Magin, wey be RSPB international officer for Africa, "Di chance say lesser flamingoes go continue to breed inside dis kain wahala na almost zero. Dis development go make lesser flamingoes for East Africa face extinction." Seventy-five percent of di world lesser flamingoes dey born for Lake Natron. Right now, more than fifty East African conservation and environmental institutions dey run worldwide campaign to stop di soda ash factory wey Tata Chemicals Ltd from Mumbai, India, and National Development Corporation of Tanzania dey plan build. Di group dey work under umbrella name ''Lake Natron Consultative Group'', and Ken Mwathe, wey be Conservation Programme Manager for BirdLife International Africa Secretariat, dey co-ordinate am. As dem communicate for June 2008, Tata Chemicals no go continue with di Natron Project, and any re-examination of di project go dey under di Ramsar Wetlands plan wey dem dey prepare now. Because of di unique biodiversity, Tanzania don put Lake Natron Basin for Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance since 4 July 2001. Di lake also dey part of World Wildlife Fund East African halophytics ecoregion. == References == 9gtarczwr8wi35tdk8kr6pxv1rd8pga 104538 104536 2026-06-22T16:26:29Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104538 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == Threats and preservation == Di area wey dey around di [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Power_plant|power plant]] wey dem wan build for [[:en:Ewaso_Ng'iro|Ewaso Ng'iro]] across [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. One new threat wey dey face Lake Natron na di [[:en:Soda_ash|soda ash]] plant wey dem propose make dem build for di lake shore. Di plant go pump water from di lake and extract sodium carbonate to turn am into washing powder wey dem go export. Alongside di plant, dem plan build houses for over 1000 workers, plus one coal-fired power station wey go supply energy for di whole plant complex. On top dat, e get possibility say di developers fit introduce one hybrid [[:en:Brine_shrimp|brine shrimp]] to make di extraction process more efficient. According to Chris Magin, wey be RSPB international officer for Africa, "Di chance say lesser flamingoes go continue to breed inside dis kain wahala na almost zero. Dis development go make lesser flamingoes for East Africa face extinction." Seventy-five percent of di world lesser flamingoes dey born for Lake Natron. Right now, more than fifty East African conservation and environmental institutions dey run worldwide campaign to stop di soda ash factory wey Tata Chemicals Ltd from Mumbai, India, and National Development Corporation of Tanzania dey plan build. Di group dey work under umbrella name ''Lake Natron Consultative Group'', and Ken Mwathe, wey be Conservation Programme Manager for BirdLife International Africa Secretariat, dey co-ordinate am. As dem communicate for June 2008, Tata Chemicals no go continue with di Natron Project, and any re-examination of di project go dey under di Ramsar Wetlands plan wey dem dey prepare now. Because of di unique biodiversity, Tanzania don put Lake Natron Basin for Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance since 4 July 2001. Di lake also dey part of World Wildlife Fund East African halophytics ecoregion. == References == 6edhvkl84f0tpbjxf4r8bfzfqtpfcxp 104542 104538 2026-06-22T16:27:44Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104542 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == Threats and preservation == Di area wey dey around di [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Power_plant|power plant]] wey dem wan build for [[:en:Ewaso_Ng'iro|Ewaso Ng'iro]] across [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. One new threat wey dey face Lake Natron na di [[:en:Soda_ash|soda ash]] plant wey dem propose make dem build for di lake shore. Di plant go pump water from di lake and extract sodium carbonate to turn am into washing powder wey dem go export. Alongside di plant, dem plan build houses for over 1000 workers, plus one coal-fired power station wey go supply energy for di whole plant complex. On top dat, e get possibility say di developers fit introduce one hybrid [[:en:Brine_shrimp|brine shrimp]] to make di extraction process more efficient. According to Chris Magin, wey be [[:en:Royal_Society_for_the_Protection_of_Birds|RSPB]] international officer for Africa, "Di chance say lesser flamingoes go continue to breed inside dis kain wahala na almost zero. Dis development go make lesser flamingoes for East Africa face extinction." Seventy-five percent of di world lesser flamingoes dey born for Lake Natron. Right now, more than fifty East African conservation and environmental institutions dey run worldwide campaign to stop di soda ash factory wey Tata Chemicals Ltd from Mumbai, India, and National Development Corporation of Tanzania dey plan build. Di group dey work under umbrella name ''Lake Natron Consultative Group'', and Ken Mwathe, wey be Conservation Programme Manager for [[:en:BirdLife_International|BirdLife International]] Africa Secretariat, dey co-ordinate am. As dem communicate for June 2008, Tata Chemicals no go continue with di Natron Project, and any re-examination of di project go dey under di Ramsar Wetlands plan wey dem dey prepare now. Because of di unique biodiversity, Tanzania don put Lake Natron Basin for Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance since 4 July 2001. Di lake also dey part of World Wildlife Fund East African halophytics ecoregion. == References == rvtf3dizh4pqgoj134lbwvjj7801r9j 104647 104542 2026-06-23T11:57:03Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 104647 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Natron''' na one highly [[:en:Soda_lake|alkaline]] [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] wey dey north side of [[:en:Ngorongoro_District|Ngorongoro District]] for [[:en:Arusha_Region|Arusha Region]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]Di far northern end cross enter [[:en:Kajiado_County|Kajiado County]] and [[:en:Narok_County|Narok County]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]]. E dey inside [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]], wey be di eastern branch of [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> Di lake dey inside [[:en:Lake_Natron_Basin|Lake Natron Basin]], wey be [[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar Site]] [[:en:Wetland|wetland]] of international importance.<ref>[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1080 "Lake Natron Basin"]. ''[[:en:Ramsar_Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Description == Dis lake dey mainly get water from [[:en:Southern_Ewaso_Ng'iro|Southern Ewaso Ng’iro]] River wey dey rise for central [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]], plus mineral‑rich hot springs.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 "Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> E no deep, less than three metres (9.8 ft), and di width dey change depending on di water level. Di lake maximum length na 57 kilometres (35 mi) and width na 22 kilometres (14 mi). Di area around dey get irregular seasonal rainfall, mostly between December and May, total about 800 millimetres (31 in) every year. Temperature for di lake dey often pass 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0901 Eastern Africa: Northern Tanzania, on the border with Kenya]". ''World Wildlife Fund''.</ref> High evaporation don leave [[:en:Natron|natron]] (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and [[:en:Trona|trona]] (sodium sesquicarbonate dihydrate) for di lake. Di alkalinity fit reach pH wey pass 12. As Live Science talk, di high alkalinity dey come from sodium carbonate and other minerals wey dey flow enter di water from di environment around. Di bedrock wey surround di lake na alkaline, sodium‑dominated [[:en:Trachyte|trachyte]] lavas wey dem lay down during Pleistocene period. Di lavas get plenty carbonate but small calcium and magnesium, and na dat one make di lake concentrate into strong alkaline brine. Dis kain chemical condition dey create harsh environment wey only special organisms fit survive. Di chemical property of di water dey make any living thing wey die inside di lake turn to stone‑like body ([[:en:Calcification|calcify]]).<ref>Joseph Stromberg (2 October 2013). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-alkaline-african-lake-turns-animals-into-stone-445359/ "This Alkaline African Lake Turns Animals into Stone]". ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</ref> == Flora == Di colour wey di lake get na di kind wey dey happen for places wey water dey [[:en:Evaporation|evaporate]] plenty. As water dey dry during dry season, di salt level go rise sotay salt-loving [[:en:Microorganism|microorganisms]] go begin grow well. Dis kain [[:en:Halophile|halophile]] organisms include some [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] wey dey make dia own food with [[:en:Photosynthesis|photosynthesis]], same way plants dey do. Di red pigment wey cyanobacteria get for photosynthesis na im dey give di deep red colour for di open water of di lake and di orange colour for di shallow side. Di [[:en:Alkali|alkali]] salt crust wey dey on top di lake surface dey also turn red or pink because of di [[:en:Halophilic|halophilic]] microorganisms wey dey live there. [[:en:Salt_marsh|Salt marshes]] and freshwater wetlands wey dey around di edge of di lake dey support plenty different plants. == Fauna == Most animals no dey like di lake because e hot well-well (up to 60 °C [140 °F]) and di salt level dey high and dey change anyhow. But Lake Natron still bi home for some [[:en:Endemism|endemic]] [[:en:Algae|algae]], small-small [[:en:Invertebrates|invertebrates]], and [[:en:Birds|birds]]. For di water wey no too salty around di edges, some fish fit survive too. Di lake na di only regular breeding ground for East Africa wey dey house about 2.5 million [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|lesser flamingoes]]. Dem dey call am "near threatened" because dem depend only on dis one place. As di [[:en:Salinity|salt]] level dey rise, [[:en:Cyanobacteria|cyanobacteria]] go plenty, and di lake fit support more nests. Dis flamingoes, wey be di single big flock for East Africa, dey gather for nearby salty lakes to chop [[:en:Spirulina_(genus)|Spirulina]] (na blue-green algae wey get red pigment). Lake Natron dey safe for breeding because di [[:en:Corrosive_substance|caustic]] environment dey block [[:en:Predation|predators]] wey wan reach dia nests for [[:en:Evaporite|evaporite]] islands wey dey form seasonally. [[:en:Greater_flamingo|Greater flamingoes]] too dey breed for di [[:en:Mud_flats|mud flats]]. Di lake don inspire one nature documentary wey dem call ''[[:en:The_Crimson_Wing:_Mystery_of_the_Flamingos|The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos]]'' by [[:en:Disneynature|Disneynature]], because of di close relationship e get with [[:en:Lesser_flamingo|Lesser flamingoes]] as di only regular breeding ground for dem. Two fish species wey dey endemic, di [[:en:Alcolapia|alkaline tilapias]] ''[[:en:Alcolapia_latilabris|Alcolapia latilabris]]'' and ''[[:en:Alcolapia_ndalalani|A. ndalalani]]'', dey thrive for di water wey dey near di hot spring inlets. ''[[:en:Alcolapia_alcalica|A. alcalica]]'' dey di lake too, but e no be endemic. == Threats and preservation == Di area wey dey around di [[:en:Salt_lake|salt lake]] no get people wey dey live there, but small herding and seasonal farming dey happen. Threats to di salt balance fit come from more silt wey go enter because of logging wey dem dey plan for Natron watersheds and one [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] [[:en:Power_plant|power plant]] wey dem wan build for [[:en:Ewaso_Ng'iro|Ewaso Ng'iro]] across [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] border. Even though di development plan include make dem build one dike for di north end of di lake to hold freshwater, di risk say e go dilute di breeding ground still dey serious. Di place no get any formal protection. One new threat wey dey face Lake Natron na di [[:en:Soda_ash|soda ash]] plant wey dem propose make dem build for di lake shore. Di plant go pump water from di lake and extract sodium carbonate to turn am into washing powder wey dem go export. Alongside di plant, dem plan build houses for over 1000 workers, plus one coal-fired power station wey go supply energy for di whole plant complex. On top dat, e get possibility say di developers fit introduce one hybrid [[:en:Brine_shrimp|brine shrimp]] to make di extraction process more efficient. According to Chris Magin, wey be [[:en:Royal_Society_for_the_Protection_of_Birds|RSPB]] international officer for Africa, "Di chance say lesser flamingoes go continue to breed inside dis kain wahala na almost zero. Dis development go make lesser flamingoes for East Africa face extinction." Seventy-five percent of di world lesser flamingoes dey born for Lake Natron. Right now, more than fifty East African conservation and environmental institutions dey run worldwide campaign to stop di soda ash factory wey Tata Chemicals Ltd from Mumbai, India, and National Development Corporation of Tanzania dey plan build. Di group dey work under umbrella name ''Lake Natron Consultative Group'', and Ken Mwathe, wey be Conservation Programme Manager for [[:en:BirdLife_International|BirdLife International]] Africa Secretariat, dey co-ordinate am. As dem communicate for June 2008, Tata Chemicals no go continue with di Natron Project, and any re-examination of di project go dey under di Ramsar Wetlands plan wey dem dey prepare now. Because of di unique biodiversity, Tanzania don put Lake Natron Basin for Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance since 4 July 2001. Di lake also dey part of World Wildlife Fund East African halophytics ecoregion. Lake Natron get plenty campgrounds wey dey near di water, and na from here people dey start to climb Ol Doinyo Lengai. Di lake get big tourist attraction wey fit help ecotourism grow well. But di wahala wey dey affect di management na say dem no get general plan, money no dey enough for operation, no clear way to share di ecotourism benefits well, and di tourism infrastructure wey fit serve different type of visitors still dey poor. People fit also reach di lake from Shompole Conservancy for Kenya. == References == forim92kx6wrbuv1gbamp105suqqq5o 14 27793 104474 2026-06-22T15:21:24Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104474 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27794 104551 2026-06-22T16:32:52Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104551 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27795 104589 2026-06-22T16:58:18Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104589 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27796 104591 2026-06-22T16:59:01Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104591 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27797 104596 2026-06-22T17:31:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104596 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]] llnn2nme4toktdzeudha50lilveu2en 104618 104596 2026-06-23T08:59:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104618 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]The '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. bbqqymt7eu2lqezc77hwl56xsklgp9a 104619 104618 2026-06-23T08:59:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104619 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]The '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project. 9zaq3pxeudbhd39wi3h941r39ibfwp0 104620 104619 2026-06-23T09:00:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104620 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> gj0cyjn2yz5ak0k3gp7puoaj3ox22bn 104621 104620 2026-06-23T09:00:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104621 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> == References == ceyabdipxqdwoer916ln3nbph4pikv8 104622 104621 2026-06-23T09:01:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104622 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. == References == sz1pkuqcyxm7gu7e15uotpkji6g81y4 104623 104622 2026-06-23T09:01:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104623 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd. == References == 7nrp69rd1u298b8k9xh5upyulvp2qqq 104624 104623 2026-06-23T09:02:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104624 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moutaz Ali |year=2017 |title=The Eighth Wonder of the World? |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |archive-date=2021-12-19 |access-date=2019-11-30 |website=Quantara.de}}</ref> == References == bzji308b725rrd3g69emnxi61moii5i 104625 104624 2026-06-23T09:02:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104625 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moutaz Ali |year=2017 |title=The Eighth Wonder of the World? |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |archive-date=2021-12-19 |access-date=2019-11-30 |website=Quantara.de}}</ref> According to de project ein website, e be de largest [[:en:Underground_mining_(hard_rock)#Development_mining_vs._production_mining|underground network]] of [[:en:Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)|pipes]] ({{convert|2820|km}}) den [[:en:Aqueduct_(water_supply)|aqueducts]] for de world insyd. == References == 481bi1yps2t76uvfzo520bddcj8y8m7 104626 104625 2026-06-23T09:03:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104626 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moutaz Ali |year=2017 |title=The Eighth Wonder of the World? |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |archive-date=2021-12-19 |access-date=2019-11-30 |website=Quantara.de}}</ref> According to de project ein website, e be de largest [[:en:Underground_mining_(hard_rock)#Development_mining_vs._production_mining|underground network]] of [[:en:Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)|pipes]] ({{convert|2820|km}}) den [[:en:Aqueduct_(water_supply)|aqueducts]] for de world insyd. E dey consist of more dan 1,300 [[:en:Well|wells]], most of wey dey ova 500 m [[:en:Depth_in_a_well|deep]], den dey supply 6,500,000 m³ of [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] per day to de cities of [[:en:Tripoli,_Libya|Tripoli]], [[:en:Benghazi|Benghazi]], [[:en:Sirte|Sirte]] den elsewhere for Libya insyd. == References == iyzf9lpexdyizmquznkjma4uo5yz8h4 104627 104626 2026-06-23T09:04:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104627 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moutaz Ali |year=2017 |title=The Eighth Wonder of the World? |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |archive-date=2021-12-19 |access-date=2019-11-30 |website=Quantara.de}}</ref> According to de project ein website, e be de largest [[:en:Underground_mining_(hard_rock)#Development_mining_vs._production_mining|underground network]] of [[:en:Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)|pipes]] ({{convert|2820|km}}) den [[:en:Aqueduct_(water_supply)|aqueducts]] for de world insyd. E dey consist of more dan 1,300 [[:en:Well|wells]], most of wey dey ova 500 m [[:en:Depth_in_a_well|deep]], den dey supply 6,500,000 m³ of [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] per day to de cities of [[:en:Tripoli,_Libya|Tripoli]], [[:en:Benghazi|Benghazi]], [[:en:Sirte|Sirte]] den elsewhere for Libya insyd. De late [[:en:Brotherly_Leader_and_Guide_of_the_Revolution|Libyan leader]] [[:en:Muammar_Gaddafi|Muammar Gaddafi]] describe am as de "[[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|Eighth Wonder of]] [[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|de World]]". == References == t16lk6xcsocnai7qkraxdiqbywh9h4m 104628 104627 2026-06-23T09:04:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104628 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moutaz Ali |year=2017 |title=The Eighth Wonder of the World? |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |archive-date=2021-12-19 |access-date=2019-11-30 |website=Quantara.de}}</ref> According to de project ein website, e be de largest [[:en:Underground_mining_(hard_rock)#Development_mining_vs._production_mining|underground network]] of [[:en:Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)|pipes]] ({{convert|2820|km}}) den [[:en:Aqueduct_(water_supply)|aqueducts]] for de world insyd. E dey consist of more dan 1,300 [[:en:Well|wells]], most of wey dey ova 500 m [[:en:Depth_in_a_well|deep]], den dey supply 6,500,000 m³ of [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] per day to de cities of [[:en:Tripoli,_Libya|Tripoli]], [[:en:Benghazi|Benghazi]], [[:en:Sirte|Sirte]] den elsewhere for Libya insyd. De late [[:en:Brotherly_Leader_and_Guide_of_the_Revolution|Libyan leader]] [[:en:Muammar_Gaddafi|Muammar Gaddafi]] describe am as de "[[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|Eighth Wonder of]] [[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|de World]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water-Technology |url=http://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816232713/https://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |archive-date=2020-08-16 |access-date=2004-10-14}}</ref> == References == j9x63w9lzi1npkh4ml4cigq7tcb01jn 104629 104628 2026-06-23T09:04:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104629 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moutaz Ali |year=2017 |title=The Eighth Wonder of the World? |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |archive-date=2021-12-19 |access-date=2019-11-30 |website=Quantara.de}}</ref> According to de project ein website, e be de largest [[:en:Underground_mining_(hard_rock)#Development_mining_vs._production_mining|underground network]] of [[:en:Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)|pipes]] ({{convert|2820|km}})<ref>Keys, D., 2011, Libya Tale of Two Fundamentally Different Cities, BBC Knowledge Asia Edition, Vol.3 Issue 7</ref> den [[:en:Aqueduct_(water_supply)|aqueducts]] for de world insyd. E dey consist of more dan 1,300 [[:en:Well|wells]], most of wey dey ova 500 m [[:en:Depth_in_a_well|deep]], den dey supply 6,500,000 m³ of [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] per day to de cities of [[:en:Tripoli,_Libya|Tripoli]], [[:en:Benghazi|Benghazi]], [[:en:Sirte|Sirte]] den elsewhere for Libya insyd. De late [[:en:Brotherly_Leader_and_Guide_of_the_Revolution|Libyan leader]] [[:en:Muammar_Gaddafi|Muammar Gaddafi]] describe am as de "[[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|Eighth Wonder of]] [[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|de World]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water-Technology |url=http://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816232713/https://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |archive-date=2020-08-16 |access-date=2004-10-14}}</ref> == References == 1i1doi7eup4xitwuyw4wvth6n0jeyv5 104630 104629 2026-06-23T09:05:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104630 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moutaz Ali |year=2017 |title=The Eighth Wonder of the World? |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |archive-date=2021-12-19 |access-date=2019-11-30 |website=Quantara.de}}</ref> According to de project ein website, e be de largest [[:en:Underground_mining_(hard_rock)#Development_mining_vs._production_mining|underground network]] of [[:en:Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)|pipes]] ({{convert|2820|km}})<ref>Keys, D., 2011, Libya Tale of Two Fundamentally Different Cities, BBC Knowledge Asia Edition, Vol.3 Issue 7</ref> den [[:en:Aqueduct_(water_supply)|aqueducts]] for de world insyd. E dey consist of more dan 1,300 [[:en:Well|wells]], most of wey dey ova 500 m [[:en:Depth_in_a_well|deep]], den dey supply 6,500,000 m³ of [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] per day to de cities of [[:en:Tripoli,_Libya|Tripoli]], [[:en:Benghazi|Benghazi]], [[:en:Sirte|Sirte]] den elsewhere for Libya insyd. De late [[:en:Brotherly_Leader_and_Guide_of_the_Revolution|Libyan leader]] [[:en:Muammar_Gaddafi|Muammar Gaddafi]] describe am as de "[[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|Eighth Wonder of]] [[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|de World]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water-Technology |url=http://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816232713/https://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |archive-date=2020-08-16 |access-date=2004-10-14}}</ref> == History == [[File:ManMadeRiverLibya-7A.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ManMadeRiverLibya-7A.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Transport of pipe segments for de 1980s insyd.]] == References == a3eo1l0cjdgjfsg1x0pqh8245t2tdii 104631 104630 2026-06-23T09:06:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104631 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moutaz Ali |year=2017 |title=The Eighth Wonder of the World? |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |archive-date=2021-12-19 |access-date=2019-11-30 |website=Quantara.de}}</ref> According to de project ein website, e be de largest [[:en:Underground_mining_(hard_rock)#Development_mining_vs._production_mining|underground network]] of [[:en:Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)|pipes]] ({{convert|2820|km}})<ref>Keys, D., 2011, Libya Tale of Two Fundamentally Different Cities, BBC Knowledge Asia Edition, Vol.3 Issue 7</ref> den [[:en:Aqueduct_(water_supply)|aqueducts]] for de world insyd. E dey consist of more dan 1,300 [[:en:Well|wells]], most of wey dey ova 500 m [[:en:Depth_in_a_well|deep]], den dey supply 6,500,000 m³ of [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] per day to de cities of [[:en:Tripoli,_Libya|Tripoli]], [[:en:Benghazi|Benghazi]], [[:en:Sirte|Sirte]] den elsewhere for Libya insyd. De late [[:en:Brotherly_Leader_and_Guide_of_the_Revolution|Libyan leader]] [[:en:Muammar_Gaddafi|Muammar Gaddafi]] describe am as de "[[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|Eighth Wonder of]] [[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|de World]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water-Technology |url=http://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816232713/https://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |archive-date=2020-08-16 |access-date=2004-10-14}}</ref> == History == [[File:ManMadeRiverLibya-7A.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ManMadeRiverLibya-7A.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Transport of pipe segments for de 1980s insyd.]] [[File:MMR_13.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MMR_13.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Trench digging for de 1980s insyd.]] == References == bwajn5jcqgi9wkj6oy1hzag0gwsp9x0 104632 104631 2026-06-23T09:09:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 104632 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Man_Made_River_schematic_EN.svg|thumb|300x300px|Schematic drawing of de project. Note dat dem already propose different routes give de not-yet-implemented phases (dashed). Tobruk may for instance end up connected to Ajdabiya instead of to de Jaghboub well field.]]De '''Great Man-Made River Project''' (Arabic: النهر الصناعي العظيم, romanized: an-nahr aṣ-ṣināʿiyy al-ʿaẓīm, abbreviated '''GMRP''') be a network of pipes dat dey supply [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] wey dem obtain am from de [[:en:Nubian_Sandstone_Aquifer_System|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]], a [[:en:Fossil_water|fossil aquifer]], across [[:en:Libya|Libya]]. E be de world ein largest [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx|date=2015-09-24}}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> De project dey utilize a pipeline system dat dey pump water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, for southern Libya insyd, to cities wey dey along de populous northern Mediterranean coast of Libya, wey dey include Tripoli den Benghazi. De water dey cover a distance of up to 1,600 kilometers den dey provide 70% of all fresh water wey dem use for Libya insyd.<ref>{{cite web |author=Moutaz Ali |year=2017 |title=The Eighth Wonder of the World? |url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world |archive-date=2021-12-19 |access-date=2019-11-30 |website=Quantara.de}}</ref> According to de project ein website, e be de largest [[:en:Underground_mining_(hard_rock)#Development_mining_vs._production_mining|underground network]] of [[:en:Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)|pipes]] ({{convert|2820|km}})<ref>Keys, D., 2011, Libya Tale of Two Fundamentally Different Cities, BBC Knowledge Asia Edition, Vol.3 Issue 7</ref> den [[:en:Aqueduct_(water_supply)|aqueducts]] for de world insyd. E dey consist of more dan 1,300 [[:en:Well|wells]], most of wey dey ova 500 m [[:en:Depth_in_a_well|deep]], den dey supply 6,500,000 m³ of [[:en:Fresh_water|fresh water]] per day to de cities of [[:en:Tripoli,_Libya|Tripoli]], [[:en:Benghazi|Benghazi]], [[:en:Sirte|Sirte]] den elsewhere for Libya insyd. De late [[:en:Brotherly_Leader_and_Guide_of_the_Revolution|Libyan leader]] [[:en:Muammar_Gaddafi|Muammar Gaddafi]] describe am as de "[[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|Eighth Wonder of]] [[:en:Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World|de World]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water-Technology |url=http://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816232713/https://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/ |archive-date=2020-08-16 |access-date=2004-10-14}}</ref> == History == [[File:ManMadeRiverLibya-7A.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ManMadeRiverLibya-7A.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Transport of pipe segments for de 1980s insyd.]] [[File:MMR_13.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MMR_13.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Trench digging for de 1980s insyd.]] [[File:GrandOmarMukhtar_ASTER_20060410.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GrandOmarMukhtar_ASTER_20060410.jpg|thumb|313x313px|[[:en:False-color_image|False-color image]] of de [[:en:Omar_al-Mukhtar|Grand Omar Mukhtar]] reservoir project south of Benghazi. Water (dark blue) wey dey reside for reservoirs insyd dey appear twice for dis image insyd, for de upper right den at de bottom. Vegetation dey appear red, cityscape structures such as pavement den buildings dey appear for gray insyd, bare ground dey appear tan anaa beige.]] == References == ctguealoy3v4lwik1vc0pae6trrduku 14 27798 104598 2026-06-22T17:36:35Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104598 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27799 104599 2026-06-22T17:36:57Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104599 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27800 104601 2026-06-22T17:44:16Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104601 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27801 104605 2026-06-22T19:15:29Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1301914557|St. Paul River District]]" 104605 wikitext text/x-wiki '''St. Paul River''' ebe district wey located ein Montserrado County, [[Liberia]]. It recorded a population of 71,831 ein de 2008 census.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2009 |title=2008 Population and Housing Census Final Results |url=https://www.lisgis.net/pg_img/NPHC%202008%20Final%20Report.pdf |access-date=16 October 2017 |publisher=[[LISGIS]] |page=14}}</ref> It has no official administrative status. Its inhabitants are primarily Christians den members of de Bassa, Dey, or Kpelle tribes.<ref name="cda" /> Farming den fishing are de main economic activities along with some small scale trading.<ref name="cda" /> De district has one paved road.<ref name="cda" /> 4g44fqm4f14heyvl8wv6ofpfd84hbev 0 27802 104606 2026-06-22T19:19:47Z Ebenezer Sasu 6302 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1334508050|St. John River District]]" 104606 wikitext text/x-wiki '''St. John River District'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=St. John River |url=https://www.takeyourbackpack.com/backpacking-in-liberia/visit-st-john-river/https://www.takeyourbackpack.com/backpacking-in-liberia/visit-st-john-river/ |access-date=24 January 2026 |website=takeyourbackpack.com}}</ref> ebe one of six districts wey located ein Grand Bassa County, [[Liberia]]. De name derives from de [[Saint John River (Liberia)|Saint John River]]. o87vcvth0t5et4kgy2lcweh8kapq10c 14 27803 104636 2026-06-23T10:22:13Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104636 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27804 104637 2026-06-23T10:22:26Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104637 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27805 104638 2026-06-23T10:22:38Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104638 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27806 104639 2026-06-23T10:22:50Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104639 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27807 104640 2026-06-23T10:29:57Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1360493869|Achimota Hospital]]" 104640 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Achimota Hospital''' (dem sanso know as '''Achimota Government Hospital,'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 2020 |title=Covid-19: 10 food vendors, 3 taxi drivers test positive at Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.adomonline.com/covid-19-10-food-vendors-3-taxi-drivers-test-positive-at-achimota-hospital/ |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=AdomOnline.com}}</ref> anaa '''Achimota District Hospital,'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2025 |title=Mintah Akandoh pays surprise visit to Achimota Hospital, urges reduction in long waiting hours |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Mintah-Akandoh-pays-surprise-visit-to-Achimota-Hospital-urges-reduction-in-long-waiting-hours-1994374 |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref> anaa '''Achimota Municipal Hospital'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-01 |title=Health Minister urges Achimota Hospital to address patient delays |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/08/health-minister-urges-achimota-hospital-to-address-patient-delays/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref>) be a healthcare facility wey dey locate insyd Achimota, a suburb of Accra insyd de Okaikoi North District insyd de [[Greater Accra Region]] of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-29 |title=Kharis Haven is H.E.R Haven Donates to Children and Women’s Wards on Christmas Day - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/kharis-haven-is-h-e-r-haven-donates-to-children-and-womens-wards-on-christmas-day/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-16 |title=About 100,000 people to receive Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine in Accra |url=https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2021/08/16/about-100000-people-to-receive-johnson-johnson-covid-19-vaccine-in-accra/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Ghana Business News |language=en-US}}</ref> De hospital dey serve more dan 10 communities wich dey include Achimota, Kissieman, Ofankor, Pokuase, Haatso, Lapaz, Dome den Amasaman. == History == Na dem establish de hospital insyd 1927 by de [[Achimota School]] authorities after de establishment of de school insyd 1917.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Addo |first=Christiana Osaebea |last2=Esena |first2=Reuben Kwasi |date=2014 |year=2014 |title=Trends in laboratory confirmation of malaria cases in the Achimota Hospital in Accra, Ghana |url=https://isdsnet.com/ijds-v3n4-6.pdf |journal=International Journal of Development and Sustainability |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=679-691 |via=ISDS Journals}}</ref> As at 2015, de Disease Control officer be Mr Michael Alexander Garr wey de Administrator of de hospital be Mr Atindaana N. Nsobila.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-07-03|title=Achimota Hospital records seven cholera cases|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-records-seven-cholera-cases-366133|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250101141536/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-records-seven-cholera-cases-366133|archive-date=2025-01-01|access-date=2026-06-21|work=GhanaWeb|language=en-US}}</ref> De Medical Superintendent of de hospital be Dr Mildred B. Kumassah.<ref>{{Cite web |title=We're Suffering – Achimota Hospital Cries Out |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/627441/were-suffering-achimota-hospital-cries-out.html |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> As at 2020, de Acting Medical Superintendent of de hospital be Dr Salamatu Attah Nantogma.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Okertchiri |first=Jamila Akweley |date=2020-09-15 |title=Melcom Supports Achimota Hospital Maternity Unit |url=https://dailyguidenetwork.com/melcom-supports-achimota-hospital-maternity-unit/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=DailyGuide Network |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-23 |title=COVID 19: Achimota Retail Centre donates medical supplies to Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2020/09/covid-19-achimota-retail-centre-donates-medical-supplies-to-achimota-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> As at 2025, de Administrator of de hospital be Bernard Fiifi Polley.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2025 |title=Achimota Hospital gets facelift to improve healthcare services |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-gets-facelift-to-improve-healthcare-services-1978551 |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Agbenorsi |first=Justice |date=12 April 2025 |title=NGO supports Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ngo-supports-achimota-hospital.html |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Graphic Online}}</ref> == Facilities == De hospital get de Children's Outpatient Department, de general OPD den washrooms.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2025 |title=Achimota Hospital gets facelift to improve healthcare services |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-gets-facelift-to-improve-healthcare-services-1978551 |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-gets-facelift-to-improve-healthcare-services-1978551 "Achimota Hospital gets facelift to improve healthcare services"]. ''Ghana Web''. 5 April 2025<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2026</span>.</cite></ref> E sanso get an ultramodern emergency block plus male, female den children wards, a paediatric unit, a pharmacy, doctor den nurse restroom den an accounts office.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kuffour Senyah |first=Yaa |date=12 December 2022 |title=Achimota Hospital gets GH¢4m emergency block |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/achimota-hospital-gets-gh-4m-emergency-block.html |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Graphic Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Offei |first=Elizabeth |last2=Arthur |first2=Abigail |date=2022-12-10 |title=Achimota Hospital gets GH¢4 million emergency block |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/achimota-hospital-gets-gh%C2%A24-million-emergency-block/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Controversy == Insyd September 2021, na [[Akosua Agyapong]] allegedly accuse a doctor at de hospital of delays wey lead to de death of [[Nana Ampadu]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anderson |first=Linda |date=2021-09-29 |title=Akosua Agyapong: Veteran Musician Alleges that Delays by Achimota Hospital Doctor Killed Nana Ampadu - YEN.COM.GH |url=https://yen.com.gh/195019-careless-achimota-doctor-killed-nana-ampadu-akosua-agyapong-alleges.html |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=yen.com.gh |language=en}}</ref> == Initiative == Insyd 2025, de hospital partner plus Reflo Company Limited to screen den educate women on cervical cancer.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-08 |title=Reflo Company Ltd partners Achimota Hospital to combat cervical cancer |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/02/reflo-company-ltd-partners-achimota-hospital-to-combat-cervical-cancer/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> == Donations == Insyd 2020, de Melcom Care Foundation donate office furniture to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ghalley |first=Prince |date=2020-09-16 |title=Melcom donates furniture to Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.gbcghanaonline.com/general-news/melcom-donates-furniture-to-achimota-hospital/2020/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd 2023, Mr. Mac-Reuben Kumah, de Chief Executive Officer den Managing Director of G7 Security Systems Limited donate items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dzokpo |first=Isaac Kofi |date=27 October 2023 |title=G7 Security Systems CEO Donates To Achimota Hospital To Mark His Birthday |url=https://www.newsghana.com.gh/g7-security-systems-ceo-donates-to-achimota-hospital-to-mark-his-birthday/ |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=News Ghana}}</ref> Insyd 2024, SHEROES Global donate items to newborns at de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-25 |title=Surprise For Achimota Hospital Newborns |url=https://dailyguidenetwork.com/surprise-for-achimota-hospital-newborns/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=DailyGuide Network |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Pages with unreviewed translations]] ixrtpjxxawtlvpim0vsxcdgcxpohcdb 104641 104640 2026-06-23T10:31:13Z DaSupremo 9 Add databox 104641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Achimota Hospital''' (dem sanso know as '''Achimota Government Hospital,'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 2020 |title=Covid-19: 10 food vendors, 3 taxi drivers test positive at Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.adomonline.com/covid-19-10-food-vendors-3-taxi-drivers-test-positive-at-achimota-hospital/ |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=AdomOnline.com}}</ref> anaa '''Achimota District Hospital,'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2025 |title=Mintah Akandoh pays surprise visit to Achimota Hospital, urges reduction in long waiting hours |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Mintah-Akandoh-pays-surprise-visit-to-Achimota-Hospital-urges-reduction-in-long-waiting-hours-1994374 |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref> anaa '''Achimota Municipal Hospital'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-01 |title=Health Minister urges Achimota Hospital to address patient delays |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/08/health-minister-urges-achimota-hospital-to-address-patient-delays/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref>) be a healthcare facility wey dey locate insyd Achimota, a suburb of Accra insyd de Okaikoi North District insyd de [[Greater Accra Region]] of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-29 |title=Kharis Haven is H.E.R Haven Donates to Children and Women’s Wards on Christmas Day - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/kharis-haven-is-h-e-r-haven-donates-to-children-and-womens-wards-on-christmas-day/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-16 |title=About 100,000 people to receive Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine in Accra |url=https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2021/08/16/about-100000-people-to-receive-johnson-johnson-covid-19-vaccine-in-accra/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Ghana Business News |language=en-US}}</ref> De hospital dey serve more dan 10 communities wich dey include Achimota, Kissieman, Ofankor, Pokuase, Haatso, Lapaz, Dome den Amasaman. == History == Na dem establish de hospital insyd 1927 by de [[Achimota School]] authorities after de establishment of de school insyd 1917.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Addo |first=Christiana Osaebea |last2=Esena |first2=Reuben Kwasi |date=2014 |year=2014 |title=Trends in laboratory confirmation of malaria cases in the Achimota Hospital in Accra, Ghana |url=https://isdsnet.com/ijds-v3n4-6.pdf |journal=International Journal of Development and Sustainability |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=679-691 |via=ISDS Journals}}</ref> As at 2015, de Disease Control officer be Mr Michael Alexander Garr wey de Administrator of de hospital be Mr Atindaana N. Nsobila.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-07-03|title=Achimota Hospital records seven cholera cases|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-records-seven-cholera-cases-366133|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250101141536/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-records-seven-cholera-cases-366133|archive-date=2025-01-01|access-date=2026-06-21|work=GhanaWeb|language=en-US}}</ref> De Medical Superintendent of de hospital be Dr Mildred B. Kumassah.<ref>{{Cite web |title=We're Suffering – Achimota Hospital Cries Out |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/627441/were-suffering-achimota-hospital-cries-out.html |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> As at 2020, de Acting Medical Superintendent of de hospital be Dr Salamatu Attah Nantogma.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Okertchiri |first=Jamila Akweley |date=2020-09-15 |title=Melcom Supports Achimota Hospital Maternity Unit |url=https://dailyguidenetwork.com/melcom-supports-achimota-hospital-maternity-unit/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=DailyGuide Network |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-23 |title=COVID 19: Achimota Retail Centre donates medical supplies to Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2020/09/covid-19-achimota-retail-centre-donates-medical-supplies-to-achimota-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> As at 2025, de Administrator of de hospital be Bernard Fiifi Polley.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2025 |title=Achimota Hospital gets facelift to improve healthcare services |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-gets-facelift-to-improve-healthcare-services-1978551 |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Agbenorsi |first=Justice |date=12 April 2025 |title=NGO supports Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ngo-supports-achimota-hospital.html |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Graphic Online}}</ref> == Facilities == De hospital get de Children's Outpatient Department, de general OPD den washrooms.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2025 |title=Achimota Hospital gets facelift to improve healthcare services |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-gets-facelift-to-improve-healthcare-services-1978551 |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-gets-facelift-to-improve-healthcare-services-1978551 "Achimota Hospital gets facelift to improve healthcare services"]. ''Ghana Web''. 5 April 2025<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2026</span>.</cite></ref> E sanso get an ultramodern emergency block plus male, female den children wards, a paediatric unit, a pharmacy, doctor den nurse restroom den an accounts office.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kuffour Senyah |first=Yaa |date=12 December 2022 |title=Achimota Hospital gets GH¢4m emergency block |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/achimota-hospital-gets-gh-4m-emergency-block.html |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Graphic Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Offei |first=Elizabeth |last2=Arthur |first2=Abigail |date=2022-12-10 |title=Achimota Hospital gets GH¢4 million emergency block |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/achimota-hospital-gets-gh%C2%A24-million-emergency-block/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Controversy == Insyd September 2021, na [[Akosua Agyapong]] allegedly accuse a doctor at de hospital of delays wey lead to de death of [[Nana Ampadu]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anderson |first=Linda |date=2021-09-29 |title=Akosua Agyapong: Veteran Musician Alleges that Delays by Achimota Hospital Doctor Killed Nana Ampadu - YEN.COM.GH |url=https://yen.com.gh/195019-careless-achimota-doctor-killed-nana-ampadu-akosua-agyapong-alleges.html |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=yen.com.gh |language=en}}</ref> == Initiative == Insyd 2025, de hospital partner plus Reflo Company Limited to screen den educate women on cervical cancer.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-08 |title=Reflo Company Ltd partners Achimota Hospital to combat cervical cancer |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/02/reflo-company-ltd-partners-achimota-hospital-to-combat-cervical-cancer/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> == Donations == Insyd 2020, de Melcom Care Foundation donate office furniture to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ghalley |first=Prince |date=2020-09-16 |title=Melcom donates furniture to Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.gbcghanaonline.com/general-news/melcom-donates-furniture-to-achimota-hospital/2020/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd 2023, Mr. Mac-Reuben Kumah, de Chief Executive Officer den Managing Director of G7 Security Systems Limited donate items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dzokpo |first=Isaac Kofi |date=27 October 2023 |title=G7 Security Systems CEO Donates To Achimota Hospital To Mark His Birthday |url=https://www.newsghana.com.gh/g7-security-systems-ceo-donates-to-achimota-hospital-to-mark-his-birthday/ |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=News Ghana}}</ref> Insyd 2024, SHEROES Global donate items to newborns at de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-25 |title=Surprise For Achimota Hospital Newborns |url=https://dailyguidenetwork.com/surprise-for-achimota-hospital-newborns/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=DailyGuide Network |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Pages with unreviewed translations]] l19r48kyesaag99rzz3jid6yvxc6lpb 104642 104641 2026-06-23T10:33:16Z DaSupremo 9 Fix reference 104642 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Achimota Hospital''' (dem sanso know as '''Achimota Government Hospital,'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 2020 |title=Covid-19: 10 food vendors, 3 taxi drivers test positive at Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.adomonline.com/covid-19-10-food-vendors-3-taxi-drivers-test-positive-at-achimota-hospital/ |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=AdomOnline.com}}</ref> anaa '''Achimota District Hospital,'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2025 |title=Mintah Akandoh pays surprise visit to Achimota Hospital, urges reduction in long waiting hours |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Mintah-Akandoh-pays-surprise-visit-to-Achimota-Hospital-urges-reduction-in-long-waiting-hours-1994374 |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref> anaa '''Achimota Municipal Hospital'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-01 |title=Health Minister urges Achimota Hospital to address patient delays |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/08/health-minister-urges-achimota-hospital-to-address-patient-delays/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref>) be a healthcare facility wey dey locate insyd Achimota, a suburb of Accra insyd de Okaikoi North District insyd de [[Greater Accra Region]] of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-29 |title=Kharis Haven is H.E.R Haven Donates to Children and Women’s Wards on Christmas Day - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/kharis-haven-is-h-e-r-haven-donates-to-children-and-womens-wards-on-christmas-day/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-16 |title=About 100,000 people to receive Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine in Accra |url=https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2021/08/16/about-100000-people-to-receive-johnson-johnson-covid-19-vaccine-in-accra/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Ghana Business News |language=en-US}}</ref> De hospital dey serve more dan 10 communities wich dey include Achimota, Kissieman, Ofankor, Pokuase, Haatso, Lapaz, Dome den Amasaman. == History == Na dem establish de hospital insyd 1927 by de [[Achimota School]] authorities after de establishment of de school insyd 1917.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Addo |first=Christiana Osaebea |last2=Esena |first2=Reuben Kwasi |date=2014 |year=2014 |title=Trends in laboratory confirmation of malaria cases in the Achimota Hospital in Accra, Ghana |url=https://isdsnet.com/ijds-v3n4-6.pdf |journal=International Journal of Development and Sustainability |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=679-691 |via=ISDS Journals}}</ref> As at 2015, de Disease Control officer be Mr Michael Alexander Garr wey de Administrator of de hospital be Mr Atindaana N. Nsobila.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-07-03|title=Achimota Hospital records seven cholera cases|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-records-seven-cholera-cases-366133|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250101141536/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-records-seven-cholera-cases-366133|archive-date=2025-01-01|access-date=2026-06-21|work=GhanaWeb|language=en-US}}</ref> De Medical Superintendent of de hospital be Dr Mildred B. Kumassah.<ref>{{Cite web |title=We're Suffering – Achimota Hospital Cries Out |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/627441/were-suffering-achimota-hospital-cries-out.html |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> As at 2020, de Acting Medical Superintendent of de hospital be Dr Salamatu Attah Nantogma.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Okertchiri |first=Jamila Akweley |date=2020-09-15 |title=Melcom Supports Achimota Hospital Maternity Unit |url=https://dailyguidenetwork.com/melcom-supports-achimota-hospital-maternity-unit/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=DailyGuide Network |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-23 |title=COVID 19: Achimota Retail Centre donates medical supplies to Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2020/09/covid-19-achimota-retail-centre-donates-medical-supplies-to-achimota-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> As at 2025, de Administrator of de hospital be Bernard Fiifi Polley.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2025|title=Achimota Hospital gets facelift to improve healthcare services|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-gets-facelift-to-improve-healthcare-services-1978551|access-date=21 June 2026|website=Ghana Web}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Agbenorsi |first=Justice |date=12 April 2025 |title=NGO supports Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ngo-supports-achimota-hospital.html |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Graphic Online}}</ref> == Facilities == De hospital get de Children's Outpatient Department, de general OPD den washrooms.<ref name=":02" /> E sanso get an ultramodern emergency block plus male, female den children wards, a paediatric unit, a pharmacy, doctor den nurse restroom den an accounts office.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kuffour Senyah |first=Yaa |date=12 December 2022 |title=Achimota Hospital gets GH¢4m emergency block |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/achimota-hospital-gets-gh-4m-emergency-block.html |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Graphic Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Offei |first=Elizabeth |last2=Arthur |first2=Abigail |date=2022-12-10 |title=Achimota Hospital gets GH¢4 million emergency block |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/achimota-hospital-gets-gh%C2%A24-million-emergency-block/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Controversy == Insyd September 2021, na [[Akosua Agyapong]] allegedly accuse a doctor at de hospital of delays wey lead to de death of [[Nana Ampadu]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anderson |first=Linda |date=2021-09-29 |title=Akosua Agyapong: Veteran Musician Alleges that Delays by Achimota Hospital Doctor Killed Nana Ampadu - YEN.COM.GH |url=https://yen.com.gh/195019-careless-achimota-doctor-killed-nana-ampadu-akosua-agyapong-alleges.html |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=yen.com.gh |language=en}}</ref> == Initiative == Insyd 2025, de hospital partner plus Reflo Company Limited to screen den educate women on cervical cancer.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-08 |title=Reflo Company Ltd partners Achimota Hospital to combat cervical cancer |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/02/reflo-company-ltd-partners-achimota-hospital-to-combat-cervical-cancer/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> == Donations == Insyd 2020, de Melcom Care Foundation donate office furniture to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ghalley |first=Prince |date=2020-09-16 |title=Melcom donates furniture to Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.gbcghanaonline.com/general-news/melcom-donates-furniture-to-achimota-hospital/2020/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd 2023, Mr. Mac-Reuben Kumah, de Chief Executive Officer den Managing Director of G7 Security Systems Limited donate items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dzokpo |first=Isaac Kofi |date=27 October 2023 |title=G7 Security Systems CEO Donates To Achimota Hospital To Mark His Birthday |url=https://www.newsghana.com.gh/g7-security-systems-ceo-donates-to-achimota-hospital-to-mark-his-birthday/ |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=News Ghana}}</ref> Insyd 2024, SHEROES Global donate items to newborns at de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-25 |title=Surprise For Achimota Hospital Newborns |url=https://dailyguidenetwork.com/surprise-for-achimota-hospital-newborns/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=DailyGuide Network |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Pages with unreviewed translations]] c8j8dwhgzbxzrxuwxkcespu83298zkg 104643 104642 2026-06-23T10:35:49Z DaSupremo 9 Add categories 104643 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Achimota Hospital''' (dem sanso know as '''Achimota Government Hospital,'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 2020 |title=Covid-19: 10 food vendors, 3 taxi drivers test positive at Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.adomonline.com/covid-19-10-food-vendors-3-taxi-drivers-test-positive-at-achimota-hospital/ |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=AdomOnline.com}}</ref> anaa '''Achimota District Hospital,'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2025 |title=Mintah Akandoh pays surprise visit to Achimota Hospital, urges reduction in long waiting hours |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Mintah-Akandoh-pays-surprise-visit-to-Achimota-Hospital-urges-reduction-in-long-waiting-hours-1994374 |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref> anaa '''Achimota Municipal Hospital'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-01 |title=Health Minister urges Achimota Hospital to address patient delays |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/08/health-minister-urges-achimota-hospital-to-address-patient-delays/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref>) be a healthcare facility wey dey locate insyd Achimota, a suburb of Accra insyd de Okaikoi North District insyd de [[Greater Accra Region]] of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-29 |title=Kharis Haven is H.E.R Haven Donates to Children and Women’s Wards on Christmas Day - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/kharis-haven-is-h-e-r-haven-donates-to-children-and-womens-wards-on-christmas-day/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-16 |title=About 100,000 people to receive Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine in Accra |url=https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2021/08/16/about-100000-people-to-receive-johnson-johnson-covid-19-vaccine-in-accra/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Ghana Business News |language=en-US}}</ref> De hospital dey serve more dan 10 communities wich dey include Achimota, Kissieman, Ofankor, Pokuase, Haatso, Lapaz, Dome den Amasaman. == History == Na dem establish de hospital insyd 1927 by de [[Achimota School]] authorities after de establishment of de school insyd 1917.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Addo |first=Christiana Osaebea |last2=Esena |first2=Reuben Kwasi |date=2014 |year=2014 |title=Trends in laboratory confirmation of malaria cases in the Achimota Hospital in Accra, Ghana |url=https://isdsnet.com/ijds-v3n4-6.pdf |journal=International Journal of Development and Sustainability |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=679-691 |via=ISDS Journals}}</ref> As at 2015, de Disease Control officer be Mr Michael Alexander Garr wey de Administrator of de hospital be Mr Atindaana N. Nsobila.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-07-03|title=Achimota Hospital records seven cholera cases|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-records-seven-cholera-cases-366133|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250101141536/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-records-seven-cholera-cases-366133|archive-date=2025-01-01|access-date=2026-06-21|work=GhanaWeb|language=en-US}}</ref> De Medical Superintendent of de hospital be Dr Mildred B. Kumassah.<ref>{{Cite web |title=We're Suffering – Achimota Hospital Cries Out |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/627441/were-suffering-achimota-hospital-cries-out.html |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> As at 2020, de Acting Medical Superintendent of de hospital be Dr Salamatu Attah Nantogma.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Okertchiri |first=Jamila Akweley |date=2020-09-15 |title=Melcom Supports Achimota Hospital Maternity Unit |url=https://dailyguidenetwork.com/melcom-supports-achimota-hospital-maternity-unit/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=DailyGuide Network |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-23 |title=COVID 19: Achimota Retail Centre donates medical supplies to Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2020/09/covid-19-achimota-retail-centre-donates-medical-supplies-to-achimota-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> As at 2025, de Administrator of de hospital be Bernard Fiifi Polley.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2025|title=Achimota Hospital gets facelift to improve healthcare services|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Achimota-Hospital-gets-facelift-to-improve-healthcare-services-1978551|access-date=21 June 2026|website=Ghana Web}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Agbenorsi |first=Justice |date=12 April 2025 |title=NGO supports Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ngo-supports-achimota-hospital.html |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Graphic Online}}</ref> == Facilities == De hospital get de Children's Outpatient Department, de general OPD den washrooms.<ref name=":02" /> E sanso get an ultramodern emergency block plus male, female den children wards, a paediatric unit, a pharmacy, doctor den nurse restroom den an accounts office.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kuffour Senyah |first=Yaa |date=12 December 2022 |title=Achimota Hospital gets GH¢4m emergency block |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/achimota-hospital-gets-gh-4m-emergency-block.html |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=Graphic Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Offei |first=Elizabeth |last2=Arthur |first2=Abigail |date=2022-12-10 |title=Achimota Hospital gets GH¢4 million emergency block |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/achimota-hospital-gets-gh%C2%A24-million-emergency-block/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == Controversy == Insyd September 2021, na [[Akosua Agyapong]] allegedly accuse a doctor at de hospital of delays wey lead to de death of [[Nana Ampadu]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anderson |first=Linda |date=2021-09-29 |title=Akosua Agyapong: Veteran Musician Alleges that Delays by Achimota Hospital Doctor Killed Nana Ampadu - YEN.COM.GH |url=https://yen.com.gh/195019-careless-achimota-doctor-killed-nana-ampadu-akosua-agyapong-alleges.html |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=yen.com.gh |language=en}}</ref> == Initiative == Insyd 2025, de hospital partner plus Reflo Company Limited to screen den educate women on cervical cancer.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-08 |title=Reflo Company Ltd partners Achimota Hospital to combat cervical cancer |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/02/reflo-company-ltd-partners-achimota-hospital-to-combat-cervical-cancer/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> == Donations == Insyd 2020, de Melcom Care Foundation donate office furniture to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ghalley |first=Prince |date=2020-09-16 |title=Melcom donates furniture to Achimota Hospital |url=https://www.gbcghanaonline.com/general-news/melcom-donates-furniture-to-achimota-hospital/2020/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd 2023, Mr. Mac-Reuben Kumah, de Chief Executive Officer den Managing Director of G7 Security Systems Limited donate items to de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dzokpo |first=Isaac Kofi |date=27 October 2023 |title=G7 Security Systems CEO Donates To Achimota Hospital To Mark His Birthday |url=https://www.newsghana.com.gh/g7-security-systems-ceo-donates-to-achimota-hospital-to-mark-his-birthday/ |access-date=21 June 2026 |website=News Ghana}}</ref> Insyd 2024, SHEROES Global donate items to newborns at de hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-25 |title=Surprise For Achimota Hospital Newborns |url=https://dailyguidenetwork.com/surprise-for-achimota-hospital-newborns/ |access-date=2026-06-21 |website=DailyGuide Network |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Hospitals insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Greater Accra Region]] [[Category:Hospitals dem establish insyd 1927]] [[Category:Hospital buildings dem plete insyd 1927]] [[Category:1927 establishments insyd de Gold Coast (British colony)]] ti6ezo3bs44p1rvyhwef3a6zv57ms1s 14 27808 104644 2026-06-23T10:36:23Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104644 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27809 104645 2026-06-23T10:36:36Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104645 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27810 104646 2026-06-23T10:36:50Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 104646 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1