Leonardo da Vinci

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| name               = Leonardo da Vinci
| image              = Francesco Melzi - Portrait of Leonardo.png&lt;!-- Please consult previous discussions on the talk page before changing this image. It is his only certain contemporary likeness. --&gt;
| caption            = Ii chhaapa, jiske [[Francesco Melzi]] paint karis&lt;br/&gt; rahaa, {{circa|1515–1518}}, khaali ek chhaapa he jon&lt;br/&gt; da Vinci ke jamaana ke jan paint karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=A portrait of Leonardo c. 1515–18 |publisher=[[Royal Collection Trust]] |url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/912726/a-portrait-of-leonardo |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123161405/https://www.rct.uk/collection/912726/a-portrait-of-leonardo |archive-date=23 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Zöllner|2019|p=20}}
| birth_name         = Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci
| birth_date         = {{birth date|df=yes|1452|04|15}}
| birth_place        = (possibly [[Anchiano]]),Vinci, 
| education          = Studio of [[Andrea del Verrocchio]]
| years_active       = {{circa|1470–1519}}
| death_date         = {{death date and age|df=yes|1519|5|2|1452|4|15}}
| death_place        = [[Clos Lucé]], Amboise, 
| resting_place      = [[Château d'Amboise]]
| nationality        = 
| family             = [[Da Vinci family]]
| known_for          = {{hlist|Painting|drawing|engineering|anatomical&lt;br/&gt; studies|hydrology|botany|optics|geology}}
| notable_works      = {{plainlist|
* ''[[Virgin of the Rocks]]'' ({{circa|1483–1493}})
* ''[[Lady with an Ermine]]'' ({{circa|1489–1491|lk=no}})
* ''[[Vitruvian Man|The Vitruvian Man]]'' ({{circa|1490|lk=no}})
* ''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|The Last Supper]]'' ({{circa|1495–1498|lk=no}})
* ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' ({{circa|1503–1516|lk=no}})}}
| movement           = [[High Renaissance]]
| signature          = Firma de Leonardo Da Vinci.svg
| signature_alt      = Signature written in ink in a flowing script
| signature_size     = 200px
}}

'''Leonardo da Vinci''' ([[15 April]] [[1452]] - [[2 May]] [[1519]]) [[Italy]] ke ek painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor aur architect rahaa. 

== Jiwan kahaani ==
=== Bajpan ke kahaani (1452–1472) ===
==== Janam aur palwaar ====
[[File:Baptism record of Leonardo Da Vinci.jpg|thumb|220x124px|right|Leonardo da Vinci ke baptism record]]
Leonardo da Vinci, jiske asli naam Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci rahaa (&quot;Leonardo, son of ser Piero from Vinci&quot;),{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=7}} 15 April 1452 ke [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] ke hill town [[Vinci, Tuscany|Vinci]], [[Italy]],  [[Florence]] se 20 mile duur.{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=5}}{{sfn|Nicholl|2005|p=[https://archive.org/details/leonardodavinci00char/page/17 17]}} Uu [[Legitimacy (family law)|saadi se bahaar]], to Piero da Vinci (Ser Piero da Vinci d'Antonio di ser Piero di ser Guido; 1426–1504) ke larrka rahaa,{{sfn|Bambach|2019|pp=16, 24}} jon ek Florentine [[Civil law notary|legal notary]],{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=5}} rahaa. {{sfn|Marani|2003|p=13}}{{sfn|Bambach|2019|p=16}} Ii bhi daawa karaa gais hae ki, uske maiyaa, Caterina, saait ek  Middle East ke gulaam rahaa hoi &quot;nai to kamti se kamti  Mediterranean se&quot; nai to  Chinese descent ke.  [[Alessandro Vezzosi]], head of the [[Museo Ideale Leonardo da Vinci|Leonardo Museum in Vinci]], ke anusaar ii sabuut hae ki  Piero ke lage ek gulaam rahaa jiske naam Caterina rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |first=John |last=Hooper |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2008/apr/12/art.italy |title=Da Vinci's mother was a slave, Italian study claims |date=12 April 2008 |access-date=16 August 2015 |archive-date=23 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223072445/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2008/apr/12/art.italy |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Leonardo ke fingerprints re reconstruction ek pattern dekhae hae jon 60%  Middle Eastern log ke match kare hae, aur isse ii sanjha jaae hae ki  Leonardo me kuchh Middle Eastern khuun rahaa hoi.  Lekin abhi jaldi, historian [[Martin Kemp (art historian)|Martin Kemp]], Italy ke historical archive ke study kar ke sabuut paais hae ki  Leonardo ke maiya ke  young local aurat rahii, jiske naam   Caterina di Meo Lippi rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Alberge |first=Dalya |date=21 May 2017 |title=Tuscan archives yield up secrets of Leonardo's mystery mother |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2017/may/20/leonardo-da-vinci-orphan-mother-caterina |work=The Guardian |access-date=5 June 2019 |archive-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510151906/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2017/may/20/leonardo-da-vinci-orphan-mother-caterina |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii nai jaana jaae he ki  Leonardo kahaan paida bhais rahaa ;  local oral tradition jiske historian [[Emanuele Repetti]] record karis hae,{{sfn|Bambach|2019|p=24}} ke anusaar uu  [[Anchiano]] , a country hamlet that would have offered sufficient privacy for the illegitimate birth, though it is still possible he was born in a house in Florence that Ser Piero almost certainly had, me paida bhais rahaa. Leonardo ke maiya aur pitaji, duuno uske janam ke baad duusra jan se saadi karin . Caterina – jiske  baad me Leonardo ke notes me   &quot;Caterina&quot; nai to &quot;Catelina&quot; bola gais hae – ke naam  Caterina Buti del Vacca rahaa, jon  local artisan Antonio di Piero Buti del Vacca, ke saathe saadi karis rahaa.   Ser Piero baad me Albiera Amadori ke saathe saadi karis rahaa aur 1464 me uske maut ke baad tiin aur dafe saadi karis rahaa. {{sfn|Bambach|2019|p=24}}{{sfn|Kemp|Pallanti|2017|p=65}} Ii sab saadi me se  Leonardo ke  16 half-siblings (of whom 11 survived infancy) rahaa. {{sfn|Kemp|Pallanti|2017|pp=65–66}} jon usse bahut jawaan rahin (aakhri waala uu time paida bhais jab  Leonardo was 46 saal ke rahaa){{sfn|Kemp|Pallanti|2017|pp=65–66}} aur jisse uske bahut kamti len-den rahaa.

[[File:Geburtshaus von Leonardo da Vinci in Vinci (Toskana).jpg|thumb|left| Leonardo ke bachpan ke ghar,[[Anchiano]], [[Vinci, Tuscany|Vinci]], Italy me|alt=Photo of a building of rough stone with small windows, surrounded by olive trees]]
Leonardo ke bachpan ke baare me bahut nai jaana jaae hae, aur bahut chij sacchaa nai hoi,  uske biography  ''[[Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects]]'' (1550) by 16th-century art historian [[Giorgio Vasari]] ke kaaran.{{sfn|Brown|1998|pp=1, 5}}{{sfn|Marani|2003|p=12}} Tax records ii dekhae hae ki at least 1457 me uu aapan paternal grandfather, Antonio da Vinci,{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=5}} ke ghar me rahaa lekin ii hoe sake hae ki iske pahile waala saal me uu aapan maiya ke saathe   Vinci me, chaahe Anchiano nai to Campo Zeppi me  San Pantaleone parish me rahaa.{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=175}}{{sfn|Nicholl|2005|p=[https://archive.org/details/leonardodavinci00char/page/28 28]}} Ii sanjha jaae hae ki uu aapan uncle, Francesco da Vinci,{{sfn|Kemp|2003}} ke kaafi nagiich rahaa lekin uske pitaji jaada time   Florence me rahaa.{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=5}} Ser Piero, jon ek khandaani notary rahaa, Florence me 1469 me aapan official ghar banais rahaa aur aapan career me achchhaaa karat rahaa.  {{sfn|Brown|1998|p=5}} Uske palwaar ke itihaas ke bawajuut, Leonardo ke khaali  basic aur informal sikchhaa (vernacular) writing, reading, aur mathematics me milaa; saait ii kaaran se ki uske  artistic talents ke bachpan me recognise karaa gais rahaa, tab uske palwaar wahii chij me uske parrhaai ke concentrate karis. {{sfn|Brown|1998|p=5}}

Baad me, Leonardo aapan  earliest memory ke record karis rahaa,  [[Codex Atlanticus]] me.{{sfn|Nicholl|2005|p=[https://archive.org/details/leonardodavinci00char/page/30 30], [https://archive.org/details/leonardodavinci00char/page/506 506]}} Jab uu chirrya ke flight ke baare me likhat rahaa, tab uu ii yaad karis hae ki ek   infant chirrya uske cradle ke lage aais aur uske muh ke aapan puunch se kholis ; itihaas ke adhyan kare waala log ii debate kare hae ki ii sach rahaa ki fantasy.{{sfn|Nicholl|2005|p=[https://archive.org/details/leonardodavinci00char/page/30 30]|ps=. See p. [https://archive.org/details/leonardodavinci00char/page/506 506] for the original Italian.}}

==== Verrocchio's workshop ====
[[File:Andrea del Verrocchio, Leonardo da Vinci - Baptism of Christ - Uffizi.jpg|thumb|''[[The Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio)|Christ]]'' ke baptism (1472–1475), [[Verrocchio]] aur Leonardo se, [[Uffizi]] Gallery me|alt=Painting showing Jesus, naked except for a loin-cloth, standing in a shallow stream in a rocky landscape, while to the right, John the Baptist, identifiable by the cross that he carries, tips water over Jesus' head. Two angels kneel at the left. Above Jesus are the hands of God, and a dove descending|230x230px]]

Mid-1460s me, Leonardo ke palwaar Florence me jaae ke rahe lagin, jon uu time  Christian [[Renaissance humanism|Humanist]] soch and sanskriti ke center rahaa.{{sfn|Rosci|1977|p=13}} 14 saal ke umar me,{{sfn|Wallace|1972|p=11}} uu ek studio boy banis, [[Andrea del Verrocchio]] ke workshop me, jon Florence ke uu time ke jaana maana  painter aur sculptor rahaa.{{sfn|Rosci|1977|p=13}} Yahii time Verrocchio ke master, mashuur sculptor [[Donatello]] ke maut bhais. 17 saal ke umar me Leonardo ek apprentice banaa aur training me saat saal talak rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Bacci |first=Mina |translator-last=Tanguy |translator-first=J. |title=The Great Artists: Da Vinci |year=1978 |orig-date=1963 |publisher=Funk &amp; Wagnalls |location=New York}}&lt;!--intro--&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Ii workshop ke aur mashuurs painters jon rahin, nai to isse sambandh rakkhat rahin me   [[Domenico Ghirlandaio|Ghirlandaio]], [[Perugino]], [[Botticelli]], aur [[Lorenzo di Credi]] rahaa.{{sfn|Bortolon|1967}}{{sfn|Arasse|1998}} Leonardo ke duunoaur dher rakam ke  technical skills hian pe mila,{{sfn|Rosci|1977|p=27}} jisme drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics, woodwork rahaa, aur  artistic skills jaise drawing, painting, sculpting, aur modelling.{{sfn|Martindale|1972}}{{efn|The &quot;diverse arts&quot; and technical skills of Medieval and Renaissance workshops are described in detail in the 12th-century text ''On Divers Arts'' by [[Theophilus Presbyter]] and in the early 15th-century text ''Il Libro dell'Arte'' by [[Cennino Cennini]].}}

Leonardo ke time ke Botticelli, Ghirlandaio aur Perugino rahin, jon usse thorraa barraa rahin.{{sfn|Rosci|1977|pp=9–20}} Leonardo uu log ke  Verrocchio ke workshop nai to [[Platonic Academy (Florence)|Platonic Academy]] of the [[Medici]] me mila rahaa.{{sfn|Bortolon|1967}} Florence me dher artist ke kaam ke display karaa gais rahaa, jaise  [[Masaccio]], jiske figurative [[fresco]] me realism aur emotion, aur [[Lorenzo Ghiberti|Ghiberti]], jiske ''[[Florence Baptistery#Lorenzo Ghiberti|Gates of Paradise]]'',  [[gold leaf]] se chamkat rahaa, jon art of combining complex figure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds dekhaat rahaa. [[Piero della Francesca]] , [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]] ke detail me adhyan karis rahaa,&lt;ref&gt;Piero della Francesca, ''On Perspective for Painting (De Prospectiva Pingendi)''&lt;/ref&gt; aur pahila painter rahaa jon light ke scientific study karis rahaa. Ii adhyan aur  [[Leon Battista Alberti]] ke treatise ''[[De pictura]]'' jawaan artist pe dher asar karis rahaa, khaas kar ke Leonardo ke aapan observations aur artworks me{{sfn|Hartt|1970|pp=127–133}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Rach&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Rachum |first=Ilan |title=The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780706408577 |year=1979}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Verrocchio ke workshop ke jaada painting uske  assistants kare rahin. Vasari ke anusaar, Leonardo, Verrocchio se uske ''[[The Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio and Leonardo)|The Baptism of Christ]]'' ({{Circa|1472–1475|lk=off}}), painting jisme ek jawaan angel Jesus robe pakrris hae, skill dekhais rahaa jon uske master se achchhaa rahaa, jiske kaaran ii socha jaae hae ki Verrocchio aapan painting band kar diis rahaa. &lt;ref group=&quot;‡&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Vasari|1991|p=287}}&lt;/ref&gt; (the latter claim probably being apocryphal), me collaborate karis rahaa.{{sfn|Ottino della Chiesa|1967|p=83}}  [[oil painting|Oil paint]] ke nawaa technique ke dher work ke area me kaam me laawa gais rahaa, jisme  the landscape, the rocks seen through the brown mountain stream, aur  Jesus ke figure ke jaada hissa , me Leonardo ke haanth rahaa.{{sfn|Ottino della Chiesa|1967|p=88}} Iske alaawa, Leonardo , Verrocchio ke dui painting me model bhi rahaa hoi: the bronze statue of ''[[David (Verrocchio)|David]]'' in the [[Bargello]] aur [[archangel Raphael]] in ''[[Tobias and the Angel (Verrocchio)|Tobias and the Angel]]''.{{sfn|Ottino della Chiesa|1967|p=83}}

Vasari, jab Leonardo jawaan admi rahaa ke time ke ek kahaani batae hae: ek local kisan aapan khaatir ek golaa shield banais aur ii request karis ki  Ser Piero uske khaatir iske paint karwae. Leonardo,  [[Medusa]] ke kahaani se inspire hoe ke,  [[Medusa (Leonardo)|ek monster ke paint karis]] jon aagi nikaalat rahaa aur etna  terrifying rahaa ki uske pitaji ek duusra shield khareed ke ke kisan ke diss aur  Leonardo ke painting ke ek Florentine art dealer ke 100 [[ducat]] me beech diis, jon baad me iske Duke of Milan ke beech diis.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

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  <page>
    <title>Iraq</title>
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      <text bytes="12943" sha1="q1wuekjqbo4mmiporvr7npklzc2vwc4" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country | fullcountryname = Republic of Iraq&lt;br /&gt;
{{Nq|الجمهورية العراقية}} (Al-Jumhuriyah Al-Iraqiyah)
| image_flag = Flag of Iraq.svg 
| image_coa = Iraq-COA.png 
| image_location = Iraq in its region.svg
| nationalmotto = الله أكبر translation: &quot;God is Great&quot; 
| nationalsong = Mautinii
| officiallanguages = [[Arbii bhasa|Arabic]]
| secondary language = [[English bhasa|English]]
| abaaditotal = 25,374,691 
| abaadirank = 44 
| abaadidensity = 59 
| countrycapital = [[Baghdad]] 
| countrylargestcity = [[Baghdad]] 
| areatotal = 437,072 
| arearank = 57 
| areawater = ? 
| areawaterpercent = 1.1 
| establishedin = October 1, 1919 from the Ottoman Empire.&lt;br /&gt;October 3, 1932 from the British 
| leadertitlename = President Jalal El-Talabani, Prime Minister Noori El-Malikki 
| currency = Iraqi dinar (IQD)
| utcoffset = +3
| dialingcode = 964 
| internettld = IQ }}

'''Republic of Iraq''' southwestern [[Asia]] ke ek Middle Eastern des hae.  Iske border south me [[Saudi Arabia]] aur [[Kuwait]], north me [[Turkey]], north-west me [[Syria]], west me [[Jordan]] aur east me [[Iran]] hae.  Iraq ke capital [[Baghdad]] hae.

== Politics ==
[[1968]] se [[2003]] talak, Iraq me Ba'ath Party raaj karta rahaa.  Saddam Hussein, 1979 se President rahaa ja talak Ba'ath Party ke khatam nai kar dewa gais. Ii time pe uu dher log ke jaan se marwae diis jiske uu like nai karat rahaa. Uu Iran ke bhi invade karis rahaa.

1990, Iraq, Kuwait ke invade kar ke aapan niche kar liis. Dher des jisme [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Pakistan]] larrai kar ke Kuwait ke ajaad karin.  

March 2003, me United States, British, Australian, Danish aur Polish forces log Iraq ke invade kar ke Ba'ath Party ke surrender karwae diin.  Uppar se invade kare ke kaaran rahaa ki United Nations ike nspectors log nuclear, biological, aur chemical weapons ke khoje sake.  Pahile, Iraq chemical weapons se Kurdish log ke maris rahaa.

Suruu me des ke tiin zone me baata gais rahaa, American zone, British zone, aur Polish zone jaise ki Germany ke 1945 me baata gais rahaa.  Ek nawaa temporary government ke [[28 June]], [[2004]] me form karaa gais rahaa, lekin abhi talak coalition forces des me hae.  Ghazi A. El-Yawer ii  temporary government ke President hae.

Ii des ke dharmik gut jisme Shia, Sunni]] Muslim aur  Christian log bhi hae, ke kaaran des me dher instability hae aur ii kaaran se kuch log bole hae ki des me civil war hae.

==Itihaas==
Abhi jahaan pe Iraq hae, huan pe puraana jamaana me [[Mesopotamia]] rahaa, aur ii jagha ke civilization ke sruwaat waala jagha maana jaae hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kandela-2000&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kandela |first=Peter |date=July 2000 |title=The history and ancient civilisations of Iraq |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2000-07-08_356_9224/page/171 |journal=The Lancet |volume=356 |issue=9224 |page=171 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02460-0 |issn=0140-6736}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mesopotamia ke itihaas isse pahile lower paleolithic jamaana talak jaae hae aur hian pe dher pragrati bhais hae 7th century AD talak jab hian pe [[Caliphate]] rahaa.

===Bronze aur Iron Jamaana===
[[File:Shanidar Cave - overview.jpg|thumb|left|Shanidar Gufaa, uu jagha hae jahaan pe aath barraa jan aur dui larrkan [[Neanderthal|Neanderthals]] ke remains ke paawa gais rahaa, jon lagbhag 65,000–35,000 saal puraana rahaa. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Murray |first=Tim |title=Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/milestonesinarch0000murr |publisher=Abc-Clio |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-57607-186-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/milestonesinarch0000murr/page/454 454]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=Owen |title=&quot;The Skeletons of Shanidar Cave&quot; |publisher=Smithsonian |year=2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus map.png|thumb|left|The [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], [[Nabonidus]] ke niche ({{reign|556 BC|539 BC}}), jab iske niche sab se jaada ilaaka rahaa.]]
Iske border ke bhitta, puraana jagha, [[Suner]] rahaa, jon 6000 aur 5000 BC ke time, Neolithic Ubaid paerion me suruu bhais rahaa. &lt;ref name=&quot;Kandela-2000&quot; /&gt; Sumer ke [[dunia]] ke sab se puraana civilization maana jaae hae, jahaan pe log town me rahe ke suruu kare rahin, bhasa ke likha jaae suruu bhais rahaa aur monuments banaawa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kandela-2000&quot; /&gt; Iraq waala ilaaka me Akkadian, Neo-Assyrian aur Neo Babylonian empire rahaa jon Mesopotamia aur puraana Near East ke Bronze aur Iron Age ke time dominate karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kandela-2000&quot; /&gt;

Puraana jamaana ke Iraq ek jagha rahaa jahaan pe nawaa chij suruu karaa gais rahaa, jisme likhaai, [[astronomy]], [[mathematics]], [[law]] aur [[philosophy]] rahaa. Ii raaj 539 BC me khalaas bhais, jab Neo-Babylonian Empire ke [[Achaemenid Empire]], [[Cyrus the Great]] ke niche, capture kar liis aur apne ke &quot;Babylon ke Raja&quot; batais. [Babylon]] city , jon Babylon ke capital rahaa, Achaemenid Empire ke ek khaas capital bhi rahaa. Mesopotamia pahila jagha rahaa jahaan pe Israel se baahar [[Jews]] log jaae ke rahe lage rahin.

Baad ke century me Iraq ke ilaaka dher empire ke niche aais, jisme [[Greece}Greek]], Parthian aur [[Roman Empire]] rahaa. 3rd century me Persian Sasanian Empire ii jagha ke aapan niche kar liis rahaa.

===Biich ke jamaana (Middle Ages)===
[[File:Abbasid Caliphate 850AD.png|thumb|[[Abbasid Caliphate]] with capitals in Baghdad and [[Abbasid Samarra|Samarra]] c. 850]]
[[Arbii bhasa]] me ''al-ʿIrāq'' saait ii time suruu bhais rahaa.  Sasanian Empire ke 636 me Rashidun Caliphate conquer kar lii rahaa aur Iraq Muslim raaj ke niche aae gais. Kufa city ke iske baad suruu karaa gais rahaa, jon Rashidun dynasty ke capital rahaa 680 talak jab [[Shia Islam]] ii jagha pe suruu bhais. 

8th century me [[Abbasid Caliphate]] ke influence ke jaada hoe se [[Baghdad]], jiske 7762 me suruu karaa gais rahaa, Islamic rule ke centre hoe gais. Baghdad Islamic Golden Age ke time ek sanskriti, [[vigyan]] aur gyaan ke centre hoe gais rahaa. Ii city ke prosperity kamtii hoe lagaa Buwayhid Seljuk aur 1258 me Mongol invasion ke kaaran.

16th century me Iraq [[Ottoman Empire]] ke niche aais. 1747 se 1831 talak Iraq ke Mamluk dynasty, jon Georgian origin ke rahaa, ke niche aais, jiske kaaran ii jagha me Ottoman control kamtii hoe gais. 1831 me Ottoman Empire fir se Iraq ke aapan niche kar liis.

===Abhi ke Iraq===
[[File:Nouri_Al-Saeed,_1950s.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nuri al-Said|Nuri Pasha al-Said]] (1888–1958) aath dafe Iraq ke [[Prime Minister of Iraq|prime minister]] rahaa [[Mandatory Iraq]] aur [[Kingdom of Iraq|Hashemite Kingdom]] ke time]]
Iraq ke modern history [[World War I]] ke suruwaat se suruu hoe hae, jab ii ilaaka Ottoman Empire ke raaj se niklaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;TK&quot; /&gt; Arbii sipaahi log Turks ke virod me larre rahin jab uu log ke ajaadi ke waada karaa gais rahaa. Lekin larrai ke baad [[Britain]] aur [[France]] ii waada ke puura nai karin aur ii ilaada ke, chaahe directly, nai to indirectly, aapan control ke niche rakkhin.

Iraq ke Raaja,jon British control ke niche rahaa, des ke different provinces aur og ek ek des me baandhe ke kosis karis. 1930 me ek treaty ke baad Iraq ke aur ajaadi dewa gais, lekin Britain huan pe aapan military rakhis aur oil ke control karis. 1932 me Iraq ke puuraa ajaadi mila aur [[League of Nations]] ke member banaa. 1933 me Iraq ke raja ke maut ke baad uske larrka, Ghazi, raja banaa, Ghazi ke time Iraq me dher dafe coup kare ke kosis  karaa gais rahaa. 1939 me, ek motar ke accident me Ghazi ke maut hoe gais aur uske larrkaa, jon khaali tiin saal ke rahaa.  Ii kaaran se uske uncle, Abdullah regent banaa.

1941 me ek coup ke baad, Iraq me pro-German aur pro-Italian sarkar banaa. Ii kaaran se Britain Iraq ke invade karis, kaaheki ki uu ii sochat rahaa ke Britain ke oil ke supply ke rok dewa jaai. 1953 me Faisal II ke regency suruu bhais. UU des ke different log ke unite nai kare paais, kaaheki ruler log  Sunni rahin jab Iraq ke jaada abaadi Shia rahin. 1958 me ek military coup Faisal ke raaj ke khalaas kar diis.

=== Republic aur Ba'athist Iraq ===
[[File:Saddam_Hussein_1980.jpg|right|thumb|Saddam Hussein, 1980 me]]
1958 ke coup me Qasim power me aais. Uske socialist ideology rahaa. 1959 Qasim ke virod me ek coup ke kosis karaa gais rahaa lekin asafal rahaa. 1961 me jab [[Kuwait]] ke ajaadi dewa gais rahaa tab uu iske virod karis rahaa. 1963 me Ba'ath Party ke coup me Colonel Abdul Salam Arif power me aais. Ii nawaa sarkar, Kuwait ke ajaadi ke recognise karis. 1966 me Arif ke maut ke baad, uske bhaiyaa, Abdul Rahman Arif power me aais. 1967 me, uske niche Irag Six Day War me hissa liis rahaa.  1968 me ek coup ke baad Iraqi Ba'ath PArty power me aais aur Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, President banaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Hirst |first=David |date=18 July 1968 |title=Ba'athists now put Iraq first |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1968/jul/18/iraq.davidhirst |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dhire-dhire, Iraq ke vice-President, [[Saddam Hussein]] aapan taagat ke barrhais. Saddam Hussein Irag ke different ethnic group ke saathe laae ke kosis karis aur 1970 ke ek treaty me Iraqi-Kurdish war khalaas hoe gais.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=15 March 2020 |title=From the Archives (March 16, 1970): Kurds of Iraq |url=https://www.thehindu.com/archives/from-the-archives-march-16-1970-kurds-of-iraq/article31075651.ece |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[1970s]] me Iraq ke leadership Assyrian log ke saathe peace kare ke kosis karis aur exile bhais Jews ke fir se laute ke encourage karis.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Twelfth periodic reports of States parties due in 1993 : Iraq. 14/06/96, Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (the Iraqi government's point of view) |url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/CERD.C.240.Add.3.En?OpenDocument |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206092250/http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/CERD.C.240.Add.3.En?OpenDocument |archive-date=6 February 2012 |access-date=8 April 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Petrosian (2006), Pg 122–123&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Times |first=Bernard Gwertzman Special to The New York |date=12 December 1975 |title=Iraqi Offer to Let Jews Return Fails to Stir Much Enthusiasm |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/12/12/archives/iraqi-offer-to-let-jews-return-fails-to-stir-much-enthusiasm.html |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sarkar muft healthcare aur education ke suruu karis, oil industry ke nationalise kaaris, aurat loagn ke rights ke promote karis aur infrastructure ke develop karis. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |title=For most ordinary Iraqis life was better under Saddam Hussein |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/it-was-better-to-live-in-iraq-under-saddam-9532742.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211041618/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/it-was-better-to-live-in-iraq-under-saddam-9532742.html |archive-date=11 December 2023 |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=The Independent |language=en-GB |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Geography ==
[[File:Iraqi Governorates (numbered).png|left|thumb|Iraq ke province]]
Ii des dui naddi, [[Euphrates]] aur [[Tigris]], ke biich me hae aur ii kaaran se iske purana time me Mesopotamia bola jawat rahaa. Iraq ke lage ek chhota coastline Persian Gulf se hae. Hian ke mausam bahut garam aur jhuura hae. =

Iraq ke18 provinces (''muhafazah'') me baata gais hae.

{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|-----
|
# Baghdād (بغداد)
# Salāh ad-Dīn (صلاح الدين)
# Diyālā (ديالى)
# Wāsit (واسط)
# Maysān (ميسان)
# Al-Basrah (البصرة)
# Dhī Qār (ذي قار)
# Al-Muthannā (المثنى)
# Al-Qādisiyyah (القادسية)
|
&lt;ol start=10&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Bābil (بابل)
&lt;li&gt;Al-Karbalā' (كربلاء)
&lt;li&gt;An-Najaf (النجف)
&lt;li&gt;Al-Anbar (الأنبار)
&lt;li&gt;Nīnawā (نينوى)
&lt;li&gt;Dahūk (دهوك)
&lt;li&gt;Arbīl (أربيل)
&lt;li&gt;Kirkuk (كركوك)
&lt;li&gt;As-Sulaymāniyyah (السليمانية)
&lt;/ol&gt;
|}

== Economy ==
Iraq me dher tel hae aur hian pe dunia ke chutha sab se barraa petroleum deposit hae. Pahile  Irag dher des ke tel bechat rahaa. 1990 me jab Irag, Kuwait ke invade karis tab [[United Nations]] Iraq se tel ke import pe ban lagae diis. Baad me United Nations Iraq ke tel bech ke food, kaprraa, aur dawai karide ke allow karis aur iske &quot;Oil-for-Food&quot; program bola jawat rahaa.  

Chapa ke gallery
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Fields of corn-Euphrates-Iraq.jpg|Euphrates Naddi ke lage
File:Children living next to Daurra Oil Refinery in Iraq.jpg|Iraqi larrkan
File:Jalal Talabani.jpg|President Talabani
File:BaghdadSign.jpg|Saddam Hussein ke monument
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

{{commons|Iraq}}

[[Category:Iraq| ]]
[[Category:Arab League ke member]]
[[Category:OPEC ke member]]
[[Category:Arbii bhasa waala des]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Mexico</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <comment>Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="11286" sha1="t4yyd2oolb6mpso2hsljx1hrs24zxwt" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country
| fullcountryname    = Estados Unidos Mexicanos
| image_flag         =Flag of Mexico.svg 
| image_coa          = Mexico_coat_of_arms.png 
| image_location     = Mexico (orthographic projection).svg 
| nationalmotto      = none 
| nationalsong       = ''Himno nacional mexicano'' (''Mexican national anthem'') 
| nationalflower     = n/a 
| nationalanimal     =[[eagle]] 
| officiallanguages  = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. And all the 62 native languages are official languages too.
| abaaditotal    = 104,907,991 
| abaadirank     = 11 
| abaadidensity  = 54 
| countrycapital     = [[Mexico City]] 
| countrylargestcity = [[Mexico City]] 
| areatotal          = 1,972,550 
| arearank           = 13 
| areawater          = n/a 
| areawaterpercent   = 2.5 
| establishedin      = Grito de Dolores ([[1810]])&lt;br /&gt;Treaty of Córdoba, ([[1821]]) 
| leadertitlename    = President Andrés Manuel López Obrador
| currency           = Mexican Peso (MXN) 
| utcoffset          = -05:00 to -07:00 
| dialingcode        = 52 
| internettld        = .mx
}}
'''Mexico''', [[North America]] ke ek [[des]] hae. Mexico ke north me [[United States]] aur south me [[Guatemala]] aur [[Belize]] hae. Mexico, [[Pacific Ocean]] aur [[Gulf of Mexico]] ke biich me hae.

Mexico ke jaada log [[Spanish bhasa]] me baat kare hae. Kuch Mexican log, Native American bhasa, jaise ki Nahuatl, Maya, aur Zapotec me bhi baat kare hae. Mexico ke capital [[Mexico City]] hae.

== Geography ==
Mexico, [[North America]] ke south hissa me hae aur iske shape triangle ke rakam hae. Mexico 3000&amp;nbsp;km (1,850 miles) lamba hae. Mexico ke west me [[Pacific Ocean]], east me [[Gulf of Mexico]] aur [[Caribbean Sea]] hae. Mexico me dui barraa peninsula hae, Baja California, northwest me aur, aur Yucatan, Southeast me. Central aur western Mexico me Sierra Madre pahaarr hae jisme Mexico ke sab se uuncha pahaarr, Pico de Orizaba hae. Mexico ke biich me volcano, jaise ki Popocatépetl aur Iztaccíhuatl hae. Mexico ke north me [[desert]] hae aur south me tropical [[rainforest]] hae. Mexico ke kuchh naddii hae Rio Grande, Río Grijalvat, Río Balsas, Río Pánuco, aur Río Yaqui.

== People ==

Mexico uu des hae jhaan pe sab jaada log Spanish bhasa me baat kare hae. Ii duusra sab se barraa Latin American des hae. Mexicao ke 60% log ke duuno Native American aur European forefathers hae , aur ii logan ke mestizo bolaa jaae hae. Mexico ke 15% log pure Native American aur 10% log goraa hae. Mexico ke jaada log [[Roman Catholic]] (89%) hae lekin 6% [[Protestant]] hae.

==Itihaas==
Mexico ke sab se purana chij Valley of Mexico ke nagiich patthar ke hathyaar ke  hissa mila hae jiske &quot;carbon dating&quot; se 10,000 saal puraana bataawa gais hae. Mexico uu jagha hae jahaan pe makai, tamaatar aur bean ke pahila dafe boyaa gais rahaa aur isse &quot;hunter-gatherers&quot;, 5000 BC talak, kisan ban ke gaon me rahe lagin.&lt;ref name=&quot;EvansWebster2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Susan Toby Evans|author2=David L. Webster|title=Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ba_AAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT54|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-80186-0|page=54}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Iske baad dharmik sanskriti bhi barraa aur ek number system banaawa gais.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacLachlan&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Colin M. MacLachlan|title=Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqdKCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT39|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-28643-6|page=39|date=13 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii samay, gaon ke abaadi aur barr gais aur social classes develop bhais aur gaon chief ke niche aais. Sab se taagatwar chief log ke lage dharmik aur rajnitik taagat rahaa jisse uulog ceremony ke khaatir imaarat banais.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Carmack |first1=Robert M. |last2=Gasco |first2=Janine L. |last3=Gossen |first3=Gary H. |title=The Legacy of Mesoamerica: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34678-4 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sab se puraana complex culture Mexico ke Gulf Coast me 1500 BC banaa. Ii jagha se ii sanskriti duusra jagha pe failaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Diehl |first1=Richard A. |title=The Olmecs: America's First Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh |date=2004 |publisher=Thames &amp; Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-02119-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh/page/9 9]–25 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Mexico me chhe khaas jagha rahaa jahaan pe civilization develop bhais rahaa. Baad me Maya aur Zapotec civilization Calakmul aur Alban me complex centres banaay rahin. Ii civilization  sab se jaada develop bhais jab ek likhe ke dhang ke develop karaa gais rahaa. 1521 me, Spanish conquest ke baad native log duuno alphabet aur chhaapa se likhat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;[[Matthew Restall|Restall, Matthew]], &quot;A History of the New Philology and the New Philology in History&quot;, ''Latin American Research Review'' - Volume 38, Number 1, 2003, pp.113–134&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Sampson |first1=Geoffrey |title=Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/writingsystems00geof |date=1985 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-1756-4 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Central Mexico me classical period me Teotihuacan log raj karat rahin aur ek military aur commercial empire ke banain, jiske abaadi 150,000 rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Cowgill |first1=George L. |title=State and Society at Teotihuacan, Mexico |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |date=21 October 1997 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=129–161 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.129 |oclc=202300854 |s2cid=53663189 |s2cid-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske baad Aztec culture barrha aur uu log central Mexico me raaj karat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |website=Ancient Civilizations World |title=Ancient Civilizations of Mexico |url=https://ancientcivilizationsworld.com/mexico/ |date=12 January 2017 |access-date=14 July 2019 |archive-date=12 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712161602/https://ancientcivilizationsworld.com/mexico/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spain February me Aztec Empire ke conquest ke suruu karis aur ek city, Veracruz ke banais, 1521 me Aztec eke capital ke lae ke huan pe Mexico City banais aur Spain ke 300 saal ke raj suruu bhais. Dui kaaran se Spain Mexico ke aapan niche kare maangat rahaa. Pahila rahaa ki huan ke achchhaa se developed society easy se majduur ke de sakat rahaa aur duusra hae ki huan pe dher [[silver]] rahaa. &lt;ref&gt;[[James Lockhart (historian)|Lockhart, James]] and [[Stuart B. Schwartz]]. ''Early Latin America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983, 59&lt;/ref&gt; 
[[File:Guanaguato_at_night.jpg|thumb|[[Guanajuato (city)|Guanajuato]] was one of the richest and most opulent in [[New Spain]]]]

==Jagha==
[[File:Mexico topo.jpg|thumb|Mexico ke chhaapa]]
[[File:Pico de Orizaba desde Hidalgo, Puebla.jpg|thumb|[[Pico de Orizaba]], Mexico ke sab se uuncha pahaarr]]
Maxico, latitudes [[14th parallel north|14°]] aur [[33rd parallel north|33°N]], aur longitudes [[86th meridian west|86°]] aur [[119th meridian west|119°W]] ke biich me [[North America]] ke southern ilaaka me hae. Iske area {{convert|1972550|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} hae aur ii dunia ke 13th sab se barra des hae (area ke mutabik). Iske coast [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Gulf of California]], [[Gulf of Mexico]] aur [[Caribbean Sea]] se hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MuN7xR6wR-4C&amp;pg=PA405 |page=405 |last=Vargas |first=Jorge A. |title=Mexico and the Law of the Sea: Contributions and Compromises |year=2011 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=9789004206205 |access-date=25 September 2020 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204185531/https://books.google.com/books?id=MuN7xR6wR-4C&amp;pg=PA405#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Lagbhag sab Mexico North American Plate me hae, aur ek chhotaa hissa Baja California peninsula me hae. Kuch bidwaan log Mexico ke east ke territory ke [[Central America]] ke hissa maane hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.grec.cat/ |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515192216/http://www.grec.cat/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 May 2016 |title=Nord-Amèrica, in Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana |publisher=Grec.cat |access-date=17 July 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Politically Mexico ke [[Canada]] aur [[America]] ke saathe, [[North America]] ke hissa maana jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Parsons |first=Alan |author2=Jonathan Schaffer |title=Geopolitics of oil and natural gas |publisher=U.S. Department of State |series=Economic Perspectives |date=May 2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Mausam==
[[File:Mexico Köppen.svg|right}|}thumb|Mexico ke climate waala chhaapa]]
Mexico me dher rakam ke mausam hae. [[Tropic of Cancer]], des ke Temperate aur tropical zone me divide kare hae. Tropic of Cancer ke north me winter ke time thandaa rahe hae. Tropic of Cancer ke south me temperature jaada kar ke ekke rakam rahe hae, lekin uuncha jagha thandaa rahe hae. Iske kaaran Mexico me dher rakam ke mausam rahe hae. Samundar ke hawaa ke kaaran [[May]] se [[August]] talak paani barse hae. Mexico ke dher jagha, khaas kar ke north me, jhuuura rahe hae, jab ki lowlands me average me {{convert|2000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} paani barse hae. Mexico me saat rakam ke mausam hae. &lt;ref name=&quot;Clima&quot;&gt;[https://gisviewer.semarnat.gob.mx/aplicaciones/Atlas2015/atm_climas.html &quot;ATLAS / ATMOSFERA&quot;]  &quot;SEMARNAT&quot;, retrieved on October 10, 2024.&lt;/ref&gt;. Mexico ke south me 900 metres ke uunchai talak humid mausam rahe hae. Des ke north me desert ke rakam mausam hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Clima&quot; /&gt;

==Jaanwar==
[[File:Mexican wolf lounging.jpg|thumb|[[Mexican wolf]]]]
Dunia ke sab des me se Mexico me chauthaa sab se jaada rakam ke jaanwar hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Ocupa México cuarto lugar mundial de biodiversidad|url=http://eleconomista.com.mx/sociedad/2011/11/05/ocupa-mexico-cuarto-lugar-mundial-biodiversidad|website=El Economista|access-date=5 February 2017|language=es|archive-date=6 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206104728/http://eleconomista.com.mx/sociedad/2011/11/05/ocupa-mexico-cuarto-lugar-mundial-biodiversidad|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hian pe 200,00 se jaada species ke jaamwar hae jon [[dunia]] ke 10-12% hae. &lt;ref name=&quot;SEMARNAT&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Biodiversidad de México |publisher=SEMARNAT |url=http://cruzadabosquesagua.semarnat.gob.mx/iii.html |access-date=7 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007045210/http://cruzadabosquesagua.semarnat.gob.mx/iii.html |archive-date=7 October 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mexico me sab se jaada rakam ke reptile hae.

== Chapa ke gallery ==

&lt;div align=center&gt;
&lt;gallery caption=&quot;[https://citas-fonacot.mx/ Citas Fonacot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240706152320/https://citas-fonacot.mx/ |date=2024-07-06 }}&quot;&gt;
file:Chichen-Itza-Castillo-Seen-From-East.JPG|Archeological site
file:MexCity-palacio.jpg|National Palace
file:Vicente Fox Congreso.jpg|Mexican Congress
file:Standing jaguar.jpg|Jaguar
file:Acapulco,guerrero.jpg|Acapulco
file:Telmexstore.jpg|Retail dukaan
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
==References==
&lt;references/&gt;
[[vibhag:Mexico| ]]
[[vibhag:Latin America]]
[[vibhag:OAS ke member]]
[[vibhag:Spanish bhasa waala des]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Thailand</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-23T17:56:03Z</timestamp>
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        <id>26740</id>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
      <origin>337599</origin>
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      <text bytes="11012" sha1="7uvlgmd2308favm3ilas2vicroifscg" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country|
 fullcountryname=Thailand &lt;br /&gt; ราชอาณาจักรไทย&lt;br /&gt;Raja-anachakra Thai |
 image_flag= Flag of Thailand.svg |
 image_coa=Emblem of Thailand.svg |
 image_location= LocationThailand.png |
 nationalmotto= Nation, Religion, King |
 nationalsong= Phleng Chat |
 nationalflower= n/a |
 nationalanimal= n/a |
 officiallanguages= [[Thai bhasa|Thai]] |
 populationtotal= 68,863,514 |
 populationrank= 20 |
 populationdensity= 131 |
 full name of money=baht 54 |
 countrycapital= [[Bangkok]] |
 countrylargestcity= [[Bangkok]] |
 areatotal= 514,000 |
 arearank= 49 |
 areawater= n/a | 
 areawaterpercent= 0.4 |
 establishedin= [[7 April]], [[1782]] |
 leadertitlename= [[King]]: [[Rama X]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Prime Minister]]: [[Prayut Chan-o-cha]] |
 currency= [[Baht]] |
 utcoffset= +7 |
 dialingcode= 66 |
 internettld= .th
}}

'''Thailand''', nai to '''Kingdom of Thailand''' [[Southeast Asia]] me ek [[des]] hae. Iske parrosi des [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], [[Malaysia]], aur [[Myanmar]] hae. Iske naam [[24 June]] [[1939]] talak '''Siam''' rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;ThaiCSM&quot;&gt;[http://www.csmngt.com/thailand_history.htm Thailand (Siam) History], CSMngt-Thai.&lt;/ref&gt; Iske fir se Siam 1945 se lae ke [[May 11]] [[1949]] bola jawat rahaa, jab ke iske naam badal ke Thailand kar dewa gais. ''Thai'' (ไทย) sabd uu jaat ke naam se aawe hai jon ki ii des ke biich me rahe hae.Thailand ke [[capital city]] [[Bangkok]] hae. Thailand, [[Southeast Asia]] ke ekke des hai jispe koi Western power raaj nai karis hae.

Thailand ek [[constitutional monarchy]] hae. Iske raja des ke [[head of state]] hae. Anhi ke raja [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]]hai.

Thailand ke 95% log [[Buddhism]] dharam ke maane hai lekin des ke south me kuchh log [[Islam]] ke maane hae. Des ke south me kuchh Muslim log sarkar se larre hai jisse ki uu logan ke ajaadi mil jaae sake. Des ke aur dharam hai [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], aur [[Sikhism]].

==Itihaas==
===Praana itihaas===
Thailand me insaan ke rahe ke sabuut 20,000 saal pahile se hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;LePoer 1989&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barbara Leitch LePoer |title=Thailand: A Country Study |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |year=1989}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dhaan ke kheti ke sabuut 2,000 BCE se hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Baker 2017&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GHiuDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA27 |title=A History of Ayutthaya |last2=Phongpaichit |first2=Pasuk |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-107-19076-4 |author-link=Chris Baker (writer) |access-date=15 December 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150305/https://books.google.com/books?id=GHiuDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA27#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Abhi ke Thailand ke jagha ke log Maritime Jade Road me rahin jisme 2000 BCe se 1000 CE talak trade karaa jaawat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Tsang |first=Cheng-hwa |date=2008-01-24 |title=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan |url=http://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/JIPA/article/view/11751 |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |volume=20 |doi=10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=1835-1794 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.&lt;/ref&gt;  Thailand me [[bronze]] 1000 BCE se kaam me laawa jaae hae. Bon Chiang, jon northeast Thailand me hae, me [[Southeast Asia]] ke sab sepuraana [[copper]] aur bronze produce kare waala jagha hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Higham |first1=Charles |last2=Higham |first2=Thomas |last3=Ciarla |first3=Roberto |last4=Douka |first4=Katerina |last5=Kijngam |first5=Amphan |last6=Rispoli |first6=Fiorella |date=10 December 2011 |title=The Origins of the Bronze Age of Southeast Asia |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257607857 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=227–274 |doi=10.1007/s10963-011-9054-6 |s2cid=162300712 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511090306/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257607857_The_Origins_of_the_Bronze_Age_of_Southeast_Asia |archive-date=11 May 2021 |access-date=10 February 2018 |via=Researchgate.net}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Loha]] ke Thailand me 500 BCE se kaam me laawa jaae hae.

Funan ke Kingdom, 200BCE me Southeast Asia ke sab se taagatwar rajya rahaa. 6th century me Mon log, Dvaravati aur Hariphunchai ke kingdom suruu kare rahin. 9th century me Khmer log ek Empire ke suruu kare rahin jiske rajdhani [[Angkor]] me rahaa. 19th century me ek Malay stte, jiske naam Tambrainga rahaa, [[Malacca Strait]] se trade ke control karat rahaa. Indochina ke peninsula me, Funan se Khmer kingdom talak, India ke influence rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589625/Thailand/274233/History?anchor=ref509754 Thailand. History] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402103818/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589625/Thailand/274233/History?anchor=ref509754 |date=2 April 2012}}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''&lt;/ref&gt;

Thai log, Tai ethnic group ke hae, jiske ii log ke common bhasa ke root se samjha jaae hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wyatt 1984&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Wyatt |first=David K. |url=https://archive.org/details/thailand00davi |title=Thailand: A Short History |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-300-03054-9 |location=New Haven |author-link=David K. Wyatt}}&lt;/ref&gt; China ke itihaas me Tai log ke 6th century BCE me likha gais hae 

Thai log abhi ke Thailand me 6th se 11th century me aae ke suruu karin, jahan pe pahile Mon aur Khmer log rahat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last1=E. Jane Keyes |last2=James A. Hafner |display-authors=et al. |year=2018 |title=Thailand: History |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Thailand/Sports-and-recreation#ref274233 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624002018/https://www.britannica.com/place/Thailand/Sports-and-recreation#ref274233 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske matlab ii hae ki Thai log ke  sanskriti Hindustani, Mon aur Khmer sanskriti se influence bhais hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Keyes |first=Charles F. |title=Government policies and ethnic relations in Asia and the Pacific |url=https://archive.org/details/governmentpolici0000unse_g0u8 |publisher=MIT Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780262522458 |editor-last=Michael E. Brown |pages=[https://archive.org/details/governmentpolici0000unse_g0u8/page/197 197]–232 |chapter=Cultural Diversity and National Identity in Thailand |editor-last2=Sumit Ganguly |editor-link2=Sumit Ganguly}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tai log dher jaat ke log se mil ke aaj ke Thailand ke dher ethnic group ke banain hae, lekin bahut log ii biswas kare hae ki Thai ek jaat nai hae, lekin ek sankritic group hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ชนชาติไทย 'ไม่ใช่' คนไทย โดย สุจิตต์ วงษ์เทศ |url=https://www.matichon.co.th/columnists/news_4238682 |website=Matichon |date=18 October 2023 |access-date=20 February 2024 |archive-date=20 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220043823/https://www.matichon.co.th/columnists/news_4238682 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;   

Thai log ke Champa ke rajya me gulaam nai to jaheli ke ruup me mention karaa jaae hae, aur Angkor Wat ke itihaas me kuch siphaai ke group ke &quot;Shyam&quot; ke naam dewa gais hae, lekin Champ ke itihaas me ii log ke jaati ke baare me koi chij nai hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith 2019&quot;&gt;{{Cite thesis |last=Smith |first=John |title=State, Community, and Ethnicity in Early Modern Thailand, 1351–1767 |year=2019 |degree=PhD |url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/151629|institution=University of Michigan |hdl=2027.42/151629 |access-date=5 April 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160310/https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/151629 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuchh log ii bhi biswas kare hae ki &quot;Shyam&quot; Shan log, Bru log, nai to Brau log hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith 2019&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Juntanamalaga |first=Preecha |date=1 June 1988 |title=Thai or Siam? |url=http://ans-names.pitt.edu/ans/article/view/1181 |journal=Names |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=69–84 |doi=10.1179/nam.1988.36.1-2.69 |issn=1756-2279 |access-date=5 April 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328150530/https://ans-names.pitt.edu/ans/article/view/1181 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Southeast Asia ke log &quot;Shyam&quot; naam Khmer, Cham Bagan aur Mon log ke bola jaae hae, lekin China ke log ii log ke Xian bole hae.

===Puraana Tai confederate cities: (691 BCE - 13th century CE===
[[File:Tai Migration.svg|thumb|240px|Map dekhae hae [[Kra-Dai bhasa]] ke distribution. Arrows  [[Thai bhasa|Tai-speaking tribes]] ke migration, naddi ke bagal aur  lower passes se.&lt;ref name=&quot;Baker 2017&quot; /&gt;]]
[[File:Location Lanna (under King Tilok).png|thumb|240px|[[Lan Na]] kingdom  [[Tilokaraj]] ({{tooltip|r.|reign}} 1441–1487) ke raj ke time]]

== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
{{reflist|2}}

=== Bahaari jorr ===
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/th.html The United States CIA website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050612084026/http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/th.html |date=2005-06-12 }}
* [http://www.thaigov.go.th/ Thaigov.go.th] Royal Government of Thailand 
* [http://www.tourismthailand.org/ Tourism Authority of Thailand] Official tourism website
* [http://www.parliament.go.th/files/mainpage.htm Thai National Assembly] Official Thai Parliament website
* [http://www.mfa.go.th/ Mfa.go.th] Thailand Ministry of Foreign Affairs
* {{wikivoyage|Thailand}}
* [http://www.thaibirding.com Birdwatching in Thailand]
* [http://www.learnthaiculture.com Learn Thai Culture.com]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html CIA - The World Factbook - Thailand] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229000203/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html |date=2010-12-29 }}
* [http://www.commonlanguageproject.net/?page_id=41#Thailand Thailand Country Fact Sheet] from the Common Language Project
* [http://map.longdo.com/ Longdo Map Thailand] On-line Thailand map
* [http://www.holiday-thai.com/ Holidays Thailand] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411000216/http://www.holiday-thai.com/ |date=2008-04-11 }} Holidays In Thailand

[[vibhag:Thailand| ]]
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    <title>United Kingdom</title>
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      <text bytes="11546" sha1="b19izxnhwg1hzv7klxetwbodzwrq0kx" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country|
 fullcountryname=United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland |
 common_name=The United Kingdom |
 image_flag=Flag of the United Kingdom.svg |
 image_coa=Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom (St. Edward's Crown).svg |
 symbol_type=Coat of Arms |
 image_location=LocationUnitedKingdom.png |
 nationalsong= God Save the King |
 officiallanguages= [[English bhasa|English]] (de facto), recognised regional languages are Welsh, Cornish, Scottish (Gaelic), Scots, and Irish.|
 countrycapital=[[London]]|
 countrylargestcity=London |
 areatotal= 94,526 mi² / 244,820 km² |
 arearank=79 |
 areawater= 1,266.6 mi² / 3,280.6 | 
 areawaterpercent= 1.34 |
 currency = Pound Sterling (£)
| utcoffset = +0
| dialingcode = +44
| internettld = .uk
|
|leader_title1=Raja|leader_name1=Charles|leader_title2=Pradhan Mantri|leader_name2=Rishi Sunak|populationtotal=60 million}}
'''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''', jiske chota kar ke '''United Kingdom''' nai to '''UK''', nai to khaali '''Britain''', bolaa jaawe hae, [[Europe]] ke northwest me ek des hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-guidelines/toponymic-guidelines-for-map-and-other-editors-united-kingdom-of-great-britain-and-northern-ireland--2 |website=GOV.UK |date=9 November 2023 |access-date=12 February 2024 |at=10.2 Definitions |quote=usually shortened to United Kingdom ... The abbreviation is UK or U.K. |archive-date=17 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617165832/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-guidelines |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Isme chaar des hae: [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] aur [[Northern Ireland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;ONS Geography Guide&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/a-beginners-guide-to-uk-geography-2023/about |title=A Beginners Guide to UK Geography (2023) |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date=24 August 2023 |website=Open Geography Portal |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=9 December 2023 |archive-date=9 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209115545/https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/a-beginners-guide-to-uk-geography-2023/about |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; UK [[Great Britain]] island, [[Ireland]] island ke north-eastern hissa aur dher chota chota islands. Iske area 94,354 square miles ( 244,376 square kilometres) hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Definition of Great Britain in English |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Great-Britain?q=Great+Britain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223902/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Great-Britain?q=Great+Britain |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=29 October 2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Northern Ireland ke jamiin ke border [[Republic of Ireland]] se hae aur iske alaawa iske sab taraf samundar hae; [[Atlantic Ocean]], [[North Sea]], [[ENglish Channel]], [[Celtic Sea]] aur [[Irish Sea]]. Iske abaadi, 2022 me  60 million rahaa. Iske, aur England ke capital, aur sab se barraa city, [[London]] hae, jiske mtropolitan area, [[Europe]] me sab se barra hae aur iske abaadi 14.9 million hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations|title=Major Agglomerations|access-date=16 October 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; Scotland ke capital hae [[Edinburgh]], Wales ke capital hae [[Cardiff]] aur Northern Ireland ke capital hae [[Belfast]]

UK me [[Neolithic]] samay se log rahe hae. [[Roman]] log 43 AD UK ke aapan niche kare lagin aur 400 saal talak raj karin. Roman army ke laute ke kuchh saal baad [[Anglo-Saxon]] log aae ke UK me base lagin. 1066 me Normans log UK me raj kare ke suruu karin. 16th century talak Wales aur Scotland, England ke niche aae gais aurBritish Empire suruu bhais. 17th century me English raja ke taagat ke aur kamti kar dewa gais. 1707 me Kingdom aur Kindom of Scotland jurr ke Kingdom of Great Britain ban gais. 1800 me Kingdom of Ireland ke jorr ke Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland banaawa gais. 1992 me Ireland ke jaada hissa UK se alag hoe gais aur 1927 me abhi ke UK banaa.

UK [[dunia]] ke pahila des rahaa jon industrialise bhais rahaa. 1815 se 1914 talak ii dunia ke sab se taagatwar des rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mathias |first=P. |title=The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/firstindustrialn00unse |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-26672-7 |location=London}}; {{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Niall |url= https://archive.org/details/empire00nial |title=Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power |publisher=Basic Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-465-02328-8 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[1920s]] me British Empire dunia ke 25% jamiin me faela rahaa aur 25% log pe raj karat rahaa, Dui World War ke baad iske taagat kamtii hoe lagaa aur dhire dhire colonies ajaad hoe gain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Judith |last=Brown |author-link=Judith M. Brown |title=The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924679-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC |ref=refOHBEv4 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-date=3 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103114315/http://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC |url-status=live }} p. 319&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Wm. Roger |last=Louis |title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84511-347-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC |ref=refLouis2006 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222045215/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC |url-status=live }} p. 337&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=David |last=Abernethy |title=The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-300-09314-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC |ref=refAbernethy2000 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214082531/http://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC |url-status=live }} p. 146&lt;/ref&gt;

United Kingdom ek constitutional monarchy aur parliamentary democracy hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=What is the UK Constitution? |date=9 August 2018 |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/what-uk-constitution/what-uk-constitution |publisher=The Constitution Unit of UCL |access-date=6 February 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107060057/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/whatis/uk-constitution |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; UK me tiin alag sarkar hae; England aur Wales, Scotland aur Northern Ireland.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Dewart |first1=Megan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_EtwEACAAJ |title=The Scottish Legal System |date=2019 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-5265-0633-7 |location=UK |page=57 |quote= |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-date=4 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230704040048/https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_EtwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=The justice system and the constitution |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/jud-acc-ind/justice-sys-and-constitution/#:~:text=The%20United%20Kingdom%20has%20three,of%20Union%201707%20and%201800. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521180341/https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/jud-acc-ind/justice-sys-and-constitution/ |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=13 June 2023 |publisher=Courts and Tribunals Judiciary |quote= }}&lt;/ref&gt; 1999 se Scotland, Wales aur Northern Ireland ke aapan sarkar aur parliament hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |access-date=17 April 2013 |publisher=United Kingdom Government |quote= |archive-date=18 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718065448/https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Country Overviews: United Kingdom |url=http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404062853/http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archive-date=4 April 2010 |access-date=28 March 2010 |publisher=Transport Research Knowledge Centre }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Jaada log English me baat kare hae lekin kuchh log native bhasaa me bhi baat kare hae, jaise ki Wales me Welsh, Cornwall me Cornish , Scotland me Scottish (Gaelic) aur Scots in , Northern Ireland me Irish aur Channel Islands me French. Hian pe immigrants logan ke aawe ke kaaran 270 aur bhasa bola jaawe hae, jaise ki [[Panjabi bhasa|Panjabi]], [[Bengali bhasa|Bengali]], [[Urdu]], Cantonese, [[Greek bhasa]], Southwestern Caribbean Creole.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=United+Kingdom Languages of the UK&lt;/ref&gt; UK ke national anthem God Save the King hae. Inke raja aur pradhan mantri hote hai aur cabinet aur political parties bhi hota hai. 
 
Maharaja: King, Charles ||| (Raja Charles |||) 
 
Maharani: Camilla (Queen Camilla)&lt;ref&gt;Coronation of Charles and Camilla on the 6th of May, 2023&lt;/ref&gt;
 
Pradhan Mantri: [[Keir Starmer]]

=== Ethnicity ===
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right; font-size:100%;&quot;
|-
!width=&quot;200px&quot;| Ethnic group!! [[Population]]!! % of total*
|-
| align = &quot;left&quot;| White &lt;td&gt; 54153898 &lt;/td&gt;|| 92.1% &lt;/tr&gt;
| align = &quot;left&quot;| Black &lt;td&gt;1148738 &lt;/td&gt;|| 2.0% &lt;/tr&gt;
| align = &quot;left&quot;| Mixed race &lt;td&gt; 677117 &lt;/td&gt;|| 1.2% &lt;/tr&gt;
| align = &quot;left&quot;| Indian &lt;td&gt; 1053411 &lt;/td&gt;|| 1.8% &lt;/tr&gt;
| align = &quot;left&quot;| Pakistani &lt;td&gt;747285 &lt;/td&gt;|| 1.3% &lt;/tr&gt;
| align = &quot;left&quot;| Bangladeshi &lt;td&gt; 283063 &lt;/td&gt;|| 0.5% &lt;/tr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; |
|
|| align = &quot;left&quot;| Other Asian (non-Chinese) &lt;td&gt; 247644 &lt;/td&gt;|| 0.4% &lt;/tr&gt;
| align = &quot;left&quot;| Chinese &lt;td&gt; 247403 &lt;/td&gt;|| 0.4% &lt;/tr&gt;
| align = &quot;left&quot;| Other || 230615 || 0.4% &lt;/tr&gt;
|}
 
=== Desh ke dharam ===
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Religion/Denomination!!Current religion&lt;br /&gt;!!Percent&lt;br /&gt;%
|-
|Christian|| align=&quot;right&quot; |42,079,000||align=&quot;right&quot;|71.6
|-
|No religion|| align=&quot;right&quot; |9,104,000||align=&quot;right&quot;|15.5
|-
|[[Muslim]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|1,591,000||align=&quot;right&quot;|2.7
|-
|[[Hindu]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|559,000||align=&quot;right&quot;|1.0
|-
|[[Sikh]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|336,000||align=&quot;right&quot;|0.6
|-
||Jewish|| align=&quot;right&quot; |267,000||align=&quot;right&quot;|0.5
|-
|Buddhist|| align=&quot;right&quot; |152,000||align=&quot;right&quot;|0.3
|-
|Other Religion||align=&quot;right&quot;|179,000||align=&quot;right&quot;|0.3
|-
|'''All religions'''||align=&quot;right&quot;|'''45,163,000'''||align=&quot;right&quot;|'''76.8'''
|-
|Not Answered||align=&quot;right&quot;|4,289,000||align=&quot;right&quot;|7.3
|-
|'''No religion +&lt;br /&gt;Not Answered'''||align=&quot;right&quot;|'''13,626,000'''||align=&quot;right&quot;|'''23.2'''
|-
|'''Base'''||align=&quot;right&quot;|'''58,789,000'''||align=&quot;right&quot;|'''100'''
|}
&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
 
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{commons|United Kingdom}}

[[vibhag:United Kingdom| ]]
[[vibhag:Commonwealth ke member]]
[[vibhag:European Union ke member]]
[[vibhag:NATO ke member]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Islam</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="13099" sha1="fjhjbkxf07332oawingbtcsbynrjv14" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox religion
| native_name        = {{lang|ar|{{Script|Arab|ٱلْإِسْلَام}}}}&lt;br/&gt;{{transliteration|ar|al-Islām}}
| image              = The Kaaba during Hajj.jpg
| imagewidth         = 275px
| caption            = [[Kaaba]] jon [[Masjid al-Haram]], [[Mecca]], Saudi Arabia me hae, Islam ke holiest site hae. 
| type               = 
| main_classification = [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]]
| scripture          = [[Quran]]
| theology           = [[Tawhid|Monotheistic]]
| area               = [[Middle East]], [[Africa]], [[Central Asia]], [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], [[Caucasus]], [[Southeastern Europe]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Center |first=Pew Research |date=2013-04-30 |title=The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion &amp; Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025124036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/the_spread_of_islam_in_west_africa_containment_mixing_and_reform_from_the_eighth_to_the_twentieth_century#:~:text=While%20the%20motivations%20of%20early,intensified%20the%20Trans%2DSaharan%20trade | title=The Spread of Islam in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| language           = [[Classical Arabic|Quranic Arabic]]
| territory          = [[Muslim world]]
| founder            = [[Muhammad]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Welch |first1=Alford T. |last2=Moussalli |first2=Ahmad S. |last3=Newby |first3=Gordon D. |date=2009 |title=Muḥammad |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| founded_date       = 610 CE
| founded_place      = [[Jabal al-Nour]]&lt;!-- Beginnings are understood to be where Muhammad is said to have received his first ever revelation, which was inside a cave in this mountain --&gt;, [[Mecca Province|Mecca]], [[Hejaz]], [[Arabian Peninsula]]
| number_of_followers = {{est.}} 1.9 billion&lt;ref name=&quot;pewresearch.orgReligion&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |access-date=2024-03-09 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion &amp; Public Life Project |date=21 December 2022 |archive-date=28 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128120036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{increase}} (individually referred to as [[Muslims]], collectively referred to as the {{transliteration|ar|[[Ummah]]}})
| separations        = {{hlist|[[Bábism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |year=1999 |article=Bāb |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |first=A. |last=Bausani}}&lt;/ref&gt;|[[Baháʼí Faith]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Van der Vyer |first=J. D. |year=1996 |title=Religious human rights in global perspective: religious perspectives |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |isbn=90-411-0176-4 |page=449 |url=https://archive.org/details/religioushumanri0000unse |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt;|[[Druze Faith]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of American Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199862634_s2g7 |first=Yvonne |last=Yazbeck Haddad |year=2014 |isbn=9780199862634 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199862634_s2g7/page/142 142]|publisher=Oxford University Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; }}
}}
[[File:World Muslim Population Pew Forum.png|right|thumb|Dunia bhar ke muslim population by percentage]]
'''Islam''' ([[Arbii bhasa|Arbii]]: '''إسلام''') uu dharam hae jiske [[Muhammad]], [[Saudi Arabia|Arabia]] me 7th century me suruu karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt; &quot;Muhammad: Biography, Prophet, Founder of Islam&quot;. Biography. 10 April 2024. Retrieved 29 November 2024.&lt;/ref&gt;Jon log ii dharam ke maane hae ke Muslim bola jaawe hae. Uu logan ek bhagwaan jiske Arbii me ''[[Allah]],'' bolaa jaawe hae ke maane hae. Muslim log ii biswas kare hae ki Muhammad bhagwaan ke aakhri [[prophet]] rahaa. Muslim log ke holy book [[Quran]] hae. Muslim log dui aur book [[Sunnah]] aur [[Hadith]] ke bhi parrrhe hae. 

Islam [[Mecca]] me 610 CE me suruu bhais rahaa jab Muhammed ke pahila revelation mila. Muhammed ke maut talak, Arabian Peninsul ake jaada log Muslim ban gae rahin. Rashidun Caliphate ayr Umayyad Caliphate ke niche islam [[Iberian Peniinsula]] se Indus Valley talak fael gais rahaa. Abbasid Caliphate ke niche Muslim world me scientific, economic aur cultural pragati bhais rahaa.

Islam ke dui khaas sect hae [[Sunni Islam]] (85-90%) aur [[Shia Islam]] (10 - 15%). Shia aur Sunni ke biich ke vibajin Muhammed ke succession ke kaaran suruu bhais rahaa. Duuno me ek aur khaas antar hae ki jab Sunni dadith me chhe book hae, tab Shia hadith me chaar book hae.

[[Dunia]] bhar me 1.9 billion Muslim hae aur ii, Christianity ke baad, sab se barra majhab hae. Muslim log 49 des me majority me hae.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center&quot;. 21 December 2022. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 27 November 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; Dunia ke lagbhag 12% Muslim log [[Indonesia]] me rahe hae aur ii sab se barraa Muslim majority waala des hae. 31% Muslim log South Asia me rahe hae, 20% Middle East me rahe hae aur 15% Sub-Saharan Africa me rahe hae. Muslim log Americas, China aur Europe me bhi rahe hae. Islam, dunis ke sab se jorr barrhe waala dharam hae, jiske ke kaaram high fertility rate hae.

==Articles of faith==
Islam me chhe articles me biswas karaa jaae hae: Allah, farista (angel), ilhaam (revelation), nabi (prophet), Day of Resurrection aur divine predestination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality|publisher=New World Library|pages=68–9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&amp;pg=PA68|editor-first=Joel|editor-last=Beversluis|year=2011|isbn=9781577313328|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022948/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&amp;pg=PA68#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Allah===
[[File:Istanbul,_Hagia_Sophia,_Allah.jpg|thumb| [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]] me calligraphy sabd [[Allah]] ke [[Arabii]] me dekhae hae]]
Islam ke khaas idea hae ki khaali ek Allah hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |title=Tawhid |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107041300/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvc |last=Gimaret|first=D.|year=2012|c=Tawḥīd |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7454}}&lt;/ref&gt; Islam ii sikhae hae ki universe me sab chij ke Allah ke command se banaa hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schimmel&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |title=Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504201633/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Farista===
[[File:Rashid al-Din Tabib - Jami al-Tawarikh, f.45v detail - c. 1306-15.png|thumb|Muhammad ke farista, Gabriel, revelation de hae. Ek 1307 ke  manuscript se]]
Farista ke baare me Quran aur hadith me likha hae. Iske Allah banais hae aur ii Allah ke revelation ke log talak pahunchae hae.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur Nūr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423085030/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur |date=23 April 2022 }}.&quot; ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]''. – via ''[[Encyclopedia.com]]''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvc|last1=Hartner, W.|last2=Tj Boer |year=2012 |c=Nūr |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvc |last=Elias |first=Jamal J. |year=2003|c=Light |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 'fire' (''nār'').&lt;ref&gt;{{harvc |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar |c=Nar |in=Martin |year=2004}}. – via [[Encyclopedia.com]].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvc|last=Fahd, T. |year=2012 |c=Nār |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvc |last=Toelle |first=Heidi |year=2002 |c=Fire |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Scriptures===
[[File:Qur'an_and_Rehal.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Quran]] manuscript resting on a [[Rehal (book rest)|rehal]], a book rest for the holy text]]
Islam ke khaas kitab [[Quran]] hae. Muslim log ii biswas kare hae ki Quran ke Muhammed ke farista Gabriel, 610 aur 632 ke biich me, reveal karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;610CE&quot;&gt;{{harvc|c=Muhammad|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|last2=Welch|first2=A.T.|last1=Buhl|first1=F.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&amp;pg=PA5 |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |date=2003 |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |pages=5 |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022949/https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Nabi===
[[File:Medieval Persian manuscript Muhammad leads Abraham Moses Jesus.jpg|thumb|left|A 15th century&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=BnF. Département des Manuscrits. Supplément turc 190 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/view3if/ga/ark:/12148/btv1b8427195m/f16 |publisher=[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] |access-date=7 September 2023 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909130407/https://gallica.bnf.fr/view3if/ga/ark:/12148/btv1b8427195m/f16 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Persian miniature]] dekhae hae [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]] and duusra prophets ke prayer me lead kare hae]]
Muslim log biswas kare hae ke Allah, prophet ke divine message ke preach kare ke khaatir chunis hae. Muslims biswas kare hae ki prophet insaan hae aur sab prophet Allah ke ekke message ke preach kare hae. Quran me dher prophet ke naam hae, jaise ki [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Jesus]]. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Reeves |first=J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |title=Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2004 |isbn=90-04-12726-7 |location=[[Leiden]] |page=177 |access-date=21 August 2019 |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Muslims biswas kare hae ki Muhammed aakhri prophet hae.&lt;ref&gt;Esposito, John L. 2009. &quot;Islam.&quot; In ''{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 quick reference] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110124812/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 |date=10 January 2021 }}.) &quot;Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

===Resurrection aur judgement===
[[Image:Syria, Damascus, The Umayyad Mosque.jpg|thumb|The [[Umayyad Mosque]] [[Damascus]] me, jahan pe Islamic tradition ke anusaar Judgement day me Jesus appear hoi.]]

==Divine predestination==

== Ii bhi dekho ==
* [http://www.alahazrat.net/islam/al-quran-(arabic-urdu,english).php Learn Islam and Quran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908132020/http://www.alahazrat.net/islam/al-quran-(arabic,urdu,english).php |date=2015-09-08 }}
* [https://quraninhindi.wordpress.com/tag/kanzul-iman-in-hindi/ Quran in Hindi]
* [http://www.ahlus-sunna.com/ Sunni Islam] 
* [http://islamicacademy.org/ Learn about Islam]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[Category:Islam| ]]
[[Category:I]]</text>
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      <text bytes="15591" sha1="d5yx3r0icghozcrupnmyw84ye04ytiy" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City
|official_name          = Athens
|native_name            = Αθήνα
|nickname               = 
|motto                  = 
|image_skyline          = Parthenon from West with deep blue sky.jpg
|imagesize              = 
|image_caption          = Athens me Parthenon
|image_flag             = 
|image_seal             = 
|image_map              = Athens map.png
|mapsize                = 
|map_caption            = Athens ke location
|subdivision_type       = Country
|subdivision_name       = [[Greece]]
|subdivision_type1      = Periphery
|subdivision_name1      = Attica
|subdivision_type2      = Prefecture
|subdivision_name2      = Athens
|leader_title           = Mayor
|leader_name            = Nikitas Kaklamanis
|leader_title1          =  &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
|leader_name1           = 
|leader_title2          =
|leader_name2           =
|leader_title3          =
|leader_name3           = 
|established_title      =  &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
|established_date       = 
|established_title2     =  &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
|established_date2      = 
|established_title3     =  &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
|established_date3      = 
|area_magnitude         = 
|area_total             = 38.96
|TotalArea_sq_mi        = 15
|area_land              = 
|LandArea_sq_mi         = 
|area_water             = 
|WaterArea_sq_mi        = 
|area_water_percent     = 
|area_urban             = 
|UrbanArea_sq_mi        = 
|area_metro             = 411.72
|MetroArea_sq_mi        = 159
|abaadi_as_of       = 2001
|abaadi_note        = 
|abaadi_total       = 745,514
|abaadi_density     = 19,133 
|abaadi_density_mi2 = 49,555 
|abaadi_metro       = 3,758,000
|abaadi_density_metro_km2 = 9,128
|abaadi_density_metro_mi2 = 23,640
|abaadi_urban       = 
|timezone               = Eastern European Time
|utc_offset             = +2
|timezone_DST           = Eastern European Summer Time
|utc_offset_DST         = +3
|latd= 37|latm=58 |lats= |latNS=N
|longd= 23|longm= 43|longs= |longEW=E
|elevation              = 70 - 338 
|elevation_ft           = 230 - 1109 
|postal_code_type       = Postal code
|postal_code            = 10x xx, 11x xx, 120 xx
|website                = [http://www.cityofathens.gr|www.cityofathens.gr]
|footnotes              = 
}}
'''Athens''', [[Greece]] ke [[capital]] [[city]] hae. Ii dunia ke ek sab se jaada jaana maana city hae. Ii city ke naam [[Athena]] se aais hae, jon ki Greek mythology me goddess of war aur wisdom hae.   Athens ke [[abaadi]] tiin million log se jaada hae.

== Athens ke itihaas ==
Greece ke attica jagha me bahut pahile se basti hae lekin ii nai jaana jaawe hae ki kab usme se ek apne ke Athens bole lagaa. Plato ke writing me Greece ke naam ke 9600 BC se batawa jaawe hae.

== Jagha ==
[[File:Athene-sat.JPG|thumb|View of the ''Attica Basin'' from space.]]

Athens, Attica ke central plains me hae, jiske west me  Mount Aegaleo, north me  Mount Parnitha, northeast me Mount Penteli aur east me  Mount Hymettus hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Focus on Athens&quot;&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.urbanheatisland.info/images/newsletter/UHI_newsletter_Issue_1.pdf| title=Focus on Athens| accessdate=18 March 2011| work=UHI Quarterly Newsletter, Issue 1, May 2009, page 2| publisher=www.urbanheatisland.info| archive-date=22 July 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722204815/http://www.urbanheatisland.info/images/newsletter/UHI_newsletter_Issue_1.pdf| url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
Athens kuchh pahaarr pe banaa hae. is built around a number of hills. [[Mount Lycabettus|Lycabettus]] is one of the tallest hills of the city proper and provides a view of the entire Attica Basin. The geomorphology of Athens is deemed to be one of the most complex in the world due to its mountains and causes a [[inversion (meteorology)|temperature inversion]] phenomenon which, along with the failure of the Greek Government to control industrial pollution, is responsible for the air pollution problems the city has recently faced.&lt;ref name=tung/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.minenv.gr/1/12/122/12204/e1220400.html |work=Hellenic Ministry of the Environment and Public Works |title=Daily Report on Air Pollution Levels |accessdate=26 January 2007 |publisher=www.minenv.gr}}&lt;/ref&gt; This issue is not characteristic of Athens alone; for intsance, [[Los Angeles]] and [[Mexico City]] also suffer from similar geomorphology inversion problems.&lt;ref name=tung&gt;{{cite book |last=Tung |first=Anthony |chapter=The City the Gods Besieged |title=Preserving the World's Great Cities: The Destruction and Renewal of the Historic Metropolis |url=https://archive.org/details/preservingworlds00anth |year=2001 |location=New York |publisher=Three Rivers Press |isbn=0-609-80815-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/preservingworlds00anth/page/266 266]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Mausam ===
Athens ke mausam ke khaas feature iihae ki hian pe chaahe  lambaa, jhuura summer nai ti saadharan, bhija winter rahe hae.&lt;ref&gt;Founda D. (2011). &quot;Evolution of the air temperature in Athens and evidence of climatic change: A review&quot;. Advances in Bulding Energy Research, 5,1, 7-41, http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/earthscan/aber/2011/00000005/00000001/art00001.&lt;/ref&gt; Hian pe saal bhar ke barsaat ke biich waala [[aankrraa]] (average) {{convert|414.1|mm|in}} hae, jon ki jaada kar ke October aur april ke mahina ke biich me gire hae.  July aur August sab se jhuura mahina hae, jab ke baadal, mahina me khaali ek nai to dui time garrje hae.  Winters, kuchh thanda rahe hae aur paani barse hae, aur January ke  average {{convert|8.9|C|1}} hae; [[Nea Filadelfeia]] me aur{{convert|10.3|C|1}}  [[Hellinikon]]me. Hian pe barf bahut kamtii gire hae, lekin jab ii gire hae tab logan ke rahan sahan me bahut baadha pahunche hae. .&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12674491 visited may 6, 2011]&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Parnitha|Mount Parnitha]], AThens ke uppar ek [[rainshadow]] bichhae he, jiske kaaran hian pe paani, des ke dusra jagha se kamtii rahe hae. July me sab se jaada average garmi {{convert|33.5|C|1}} [[Nea Filadelfeia]] weather station me naapa gais hae, lekin city ke aur duusra jagha aur jaada garam rahe hae, jaada kar ke city ke western hissa jahaan pe dher industry hae.&lt;ref&gt;Κωνσταντίνος Μαυρογιάννης, Αθήναι (1981).''Παρατηρήσεις επί του κλίματος των Αθηνών και της ενεργείας αυτού επί της ζωϊκής οικονομίας'' σελ 29.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=ΕΡΓΟ ΕΚΣΥΓΧΡΟΝΙΣΜΟΥ - ΑΝΑΒΑΘΜΙΣΗΣ﻿ ∆ΙΥΛΙΣΤΗΡΙΟΥ ΕΛΕΥΣΙΝΑΣ﻿ ΜΕΛΕΤΗ ΠΕΡΙΒΑΛΛΟΝΤΙΚΩΝ ΕΠΙΠΤΩΣΕΩΝ |url=http://www.eib.org/attachments/pipeline/20090584_eia_el.pdf |access-date=2026-02-07 |website=www.eib.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Giannopoulou K., Livada I., Santamouris M., Saliari M., Assimakopoulos M., Caouris Y.G. (2011). &quot;On the characteristics of the summer urban heat island in Athens, Greece&quot;. Sustainable Cities and Society, 1, pp. 16-28.&lt;/ref&gt; Athens ke temperatures  city's ke heatwaves ke time {{convert|38|°C|°F|0}} se jaada rahe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Focus on Athens&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://esciencenews.com/articles/2009/08/29/esa.helps.make.summer.city.more.bearable|title=European Space Agency to help Athens become bearable in summer|accessdate=17 April 2010|archive-date=11 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411003922/http://esciencenews.com/articles/2009/08/29/esa.helps.make.summer.city.more.bearable|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Athens city me [[urban heat island]] ke bhi asar rahe hae jiske kaaran insaan ke kartutu hae,&lt;ref&gt;Giannakopoulos C., Hatzai M., Kostopoulou E., McCarty M., Goodess C. (2010). &quot;The impact of climate change and urban heat islands on the occurrence of extreme events in cities. The Athens case&quot;. Proc. of the 10th International Conference on Meteorology, Climatology and Atmospheric Physics, Patras, Greece, May 25th–28th, 2010, pp. 745–752.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;esciencenews.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://esciencenews.com/articles/2009/08/29/esa.helps.make.summer.city.more.bearable|title=European Space Agency ESA helps make summer in the city more bearable|accessdate=7 November 2010|archive-date=11 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411003922/http://esciencenews.com/articles/2009/08/29/esa.helps.make.summer.city.more.bearable|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; altering its temperatures compared to the surrounding rural areas,&lt;ref name=&quot;Katsoulis B.D. 1985&quot;&gt;Katsoulis B.D., Theoharatos G.A. (1985). &quot;Indications of the Urban Heat Island in Athens, Greece&quot;. Journal of Applied Meteorology, vol. 24, Issue 12, pp.1296–1302&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Stathopoulou M., Cartalis C., Andritsos A. (2005).&quot;Assessing the thermal environment of major cities in Greece&quot;. International Conference &quot;Passive and Low Energy Cooling for the Built Environment&quot;, May 2005, Santorini, Greece, pp. 108–112.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kassomenos P.A. and Katsoulis B.D. (2006). &quot;Mesoscale and macroscale aspects of the morning Urban Heat Island around Athens, Greese&quot;, Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 94, pp. 209–218.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Santamouris M., Papanikolaou N., Livada I., Koronakis I., Georgakis A., Assimakopoulos D.N. (2001). &quot;On the impact of urban climate on the energy consumption of buildings&quot;. Solar Energy, 70 (3): pp. 201–216.&lt;/ref&gt; that has detrimental effects on energy usage, expenditure for cooling,&lt;ref&gt;Santamouris M. (1997). &quot;Passive Cooling and Urban Layout&quot;. Interim Report, POLIS Research Project, European Commission, Directorate General for Science, Research and Development.&gt; and human wellbeing and health.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Santamouris M., Papanikolaou I., Livada I., Koronakis C., Georgakis C, Assimakopoulos D.N. (2001). &quot;On the impact of Urban Climate to the Energy Consumption of Buildings&quot;. Solar Energy, 70, 3, pp. 201–216.&lt;/ref&gt; and health.&lt;ref name=&quot;esciencenews.com&quot;/&gt; The urban heat island of the city has been found partially responsible also for alterations of the climatological temperature time-series of specific Athens meteorological stations due to its impact on the temperatures and the temperatures trends recorded by some meteorological stations.&lt;ref&gt;Katsoulis B. (1987). &quot;Indications of change of climate from the Analysis of air temperature time series in Athens, Greece&quot;. Climatic Change, 10, 1, pp- 67–79.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Repapis C. C, Metaxas D. A. (1985). &quot;The Possible influence of the urbanization in Athens city on the air temperature climatic fluctuations at the National Observatory&quot;. Proc. of the 3rd Hellenic-British Climatological Congress, Athens, Greece 17–21 April 1985, pp.188–195.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Philandras C.M, Metaxas D.A., Nastos P.T. (1999). &quot;Climate variability and Urbanization in Athens&quot;. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 63, Issue 1–2, pp.65–72.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Philandras C.M, Nastos P.T. (2002). &quot;The Athens urban effect on the air temperature time series of the National Observatory of Athens and New Philadelphia stations&quot;. Proc. of the 6th Hellenic Conference on Meteorology, Climatology and Atmospheric Physics, Ioannina Greece, 25–28 September 2002, pp.501–506.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Repapis C.C., Philandras C.M., Kalabokas P.D., Zerefos C.S. (2007). &quot;Is the last years abrupt warming in the National Observatory of Athens records a Climate Change Manifestation?&quot;. Global NEST Journal, Vol 9, No 2, pp. 107–116.&lt;/ref&gt; On the other hand specific meteorological stations such as the National Garden station and Thiseio meteorological station are less affected or do not experience the urban heat island&lt;ref name=&quot;Katsoulis B.D. 1985&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Livada I., Santamouris M., Niachou K., Papanikolaou N., Mihalakakou G. (2002). &quot;Determination of places in the great Athens area where the heat island effect is observed&quot;. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 71, Numbers 3–4, 219–230.&lt;/ref&gt;

Athens holds the [[World Meteorological Organisation]] record for the highest temperature ever being recorded in Europe of {{convert|48.0|C|F|1}} which was recorded in [[Eleusina|Elefsina]] and Tatoi suburbs of Athens on 10 July 1977.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://wmo.asu.edu/europe-highest-temperature|title=Europe's highest temperature|accessdate=3 April 2009|archive-date=29 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629061515/http://wmo.asu.edu/europe-highest-temperature|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Below are the meteorological data for the northern suburb of Nea Filadelfeia

{{Weather box
|location = Athens
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|Jan high C = 12.5
|Feb high C = 13.5
|Mar high C = 15.7
|Apr high C = 20.2
|May high C = 26.0
|Jun high C = 31.1
|Jul high C = 33.5
|Aug high C = 33.2
|Sep high C = 29.2
|Oct high C = 23.3
|Nov high C = 18.1
|Dec high C = 14.1
|year high C = 22.5
|Jan mean C = 8.9
|Feb mean C = 9.5
|Mar mean C = 11.2
|Apr mean C = 14.9
|May mean C = 20.0
|Jun mean C = 24.7
|Jul mean C = 27.2
|Aug mean C = 27.0
|Sep mean C = 23.3
|Oct mean C = 18.4
|Nov mean C = 14.0
|Dec mean C = 10.5
|year mean C = 17.4
|Jan low C = 5.2
|Feb low C = 5.4
|Mar low C = 6.7
|Apr low C = 9.6
|May low C = 13.9
|Jun low C = 18.2
|Jul low C = 20.8
|Aug low C = 20.7
|Sep low C = 17.3
|Oct low C = 13.4
|Nov low C = 9.8
|Dec low C = 6.8
|year low C = 12.3
|Jan precipitation mm = 56.9
|Feb precipitation mm = 46.7
|Mar precipitation mm = 40.7
|Apr precipitation mm = 30.8
|May precipitation mm = 22.7
|Jun precipitation mm = 10.6
|Jul precipitation mm = 5.8
|Aug precipitation mm = 6.0
|Sep precipitation mm = 13.9
|Oct precipitation mm = 52.6
|Nov precipitation mm = 58.3
|Dec precipitation mm = 69.1
|year precipitation mm = 414.1
|Jan precipitation days = 12.6
|Feb precipitation days = 10.4
|Mar precipitation days = 10.2
|Apr precipitation days = 8.1
|May precipitation days = 6.2
|Jun precipitation days = 3.7
|Jul precipitation days = 1.9
|Aug precipitation days = 1.7
|Sep precipitation days = 3.3
|Oct precipitation days = 7.2
|Nov precipitation days = 9.7
|Dec precipitation days = 12.1
|year precipitation days = 87.1
|Jan sun = 130.2
|Feb sun = 139.2
|Mar sun = 182.9
|Apr sun = 231.0
|May sun = 291.4
|Jun sun = 336.0
|Jul sun = 362.7
|Aug sun = 341.0
|Sep sun = 276.0
|Oct sun = 207.7
|Nov sun = 153.0
|Dec sun = 127.1
|year sun = 2778.2
|source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organization]] ([[United Nations|UN]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 |url=http://www.worldweather.org/063/c00177.htm
 |title=Weather Information for Athens
 |accessdate=}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Hong Kong Observatory]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.weather.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/europe/gr_tu/athens_e.htm &quot;Climatological Information for Athens, Greece&quot;] – Hong Kong Observatory&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;for data of sunshine hours&lt;/small&gt;
|date=August 2010
}}

== Ghatna ==
* [[1896]] - Olympic Games 
* [[2004]] - Olympic Games

== Chapa ke gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:The Parthenon at the Acropolis in 2004.jpg|Acropolis
File:Olympian Stadium in Athens.JPG|Athens ke Olympic Stadium
File:Old Greek parliament hall.jpg|Athens me museum
File:Athens burning02.jpg|Athens me aagi
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==

&lt;references /&gt;
{{reflist}}

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://www.cityofathens.gr City of Athens official website]
* [http://www.athensinfoguide.com/gallery.htm Photos of Athens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514033122/http://www.athensinfoguide.com/gallery.htm |date=2008-05-14 }}
* [http://www.anagnosis.gr/index.php?pageID=54&amp;la=eng An Online History of Athens]
* [http://www.greece-travel-guide.net/ Athens travel guide]
* [http://athens.arounder.com/ Athens Virtual Tour]

[[vibhag:Greece]]
[[vibhag:Capital cities]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Champions versus Champions (Fiji)</title>
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      <id>337703</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-24T10:19:42Z</timestamp>
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        <username>KaiRewa</username>
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      <text bytes="5767" sha1="pno9sbl4p4lmf6fh58ec2axueh5zy6i" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox sporting event organization
|name         =Champions versus Champions 
|image        =FFALogo.jpg
|size         =
|caption      =Fiji Football Association ke jhanda
|abbreviation = IDC
|motto        = 
|formation    = 1992
|recurrence   = Ek saal 
|purpose      = [[Fiji]] ke sab district ke super premier division ke football club ke mukaabla hae.
|headquarters = Suva, Fiji
|leader_title = President 
|leader_name  = Rajesh Patel
|website      = [http://www.fijifootball.com.fj/]
|remarks      =
}}

'''Champions versus Champions''' (CVC), [[Fiji]]ke ek football tournament hae jiske [[Fiji Football Association]] organise kare hae.  Ii tournament jaada kar ke saal ke suruu me khela jaawe hae pichle saal ke [[National Football League (Fiji)|National Football League]] ke winner aur [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji)|Inter-district Championship]] ke winner. Agar ii duuno ek hi team hae tab [[Battle of the Giants (Fiji)|Battle of the Giants]] ke winner khele hae. Agar fir bhi duuno winner ek hi team hae tab [[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament]] ke winnerkhele hae. Agar fir bhi duuno winner ek hi team hae tab Inter-district Championship ke runners-up khele hae.
    
== Champion versus Champion Roll of Champions ==
{| border =&quot;2&quot; cellpadding =&quot;2&quot;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; 
!Width=&quot;60&quot;|Year
!Width=&quot;120&quot;|National League Vijayeta
!Width=&quot;120&quot;|Dusra Champion
!Width=&quot;80&quot;|Score 1
!Width=&quot;80&quot;|Score 2
!Width=120&quot;|CVC Vijayeta
!Width=&quot;250&quot;|Notes
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1992 || Ba || Labasa|| 0 - 0 ||0 - 1||Labasa||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1993||Nadroga||Ba||1 - 0||0 - 2||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1994 || Ba || Labasa|| 1 - 1 ||1 - 0||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1995 || Ba || Tavua|| 4 - 1 ||0 - 0||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1996 || Suva || Ba|| 1 - 3 ||0 - 2||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1997 || Suva || Ba|| 0 - 5 ||1 - 2||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1998 || Ba || Nadi|| 3 - 0 ||1 - 2||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1999 || Ba || Nadi|| 2 - 1 ||0 - 1||Ba||Ba protest se jitis
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2000 || Nadi || Ba|| 0 - 3 ||1 - 0||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2001 || Ba || Rewa|| 0 - 0 ||4 - 1||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2002 || Ba || Nadi|| 3 - 0 ||4 - 1||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2003 || Ba || Rewa|| 2 - 2 ||2 - 0||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2004 || Ba || Rewa|| 2 - 1 ||1 - 1||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2005 || Ba || Lautoka|| 1 - 0 ||1 - 1||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2006 || Ba || Suva|| 1 - 1 ||6 - 2||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2007 || Ba|| Labasa|| 0 - 1 ||1 - 2|||Labasa||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2008|| Ba|| Lautoka|| 1 - 0 ||4 - 2|||Ba||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2009||Navua &lt;br&gt;Lautoka &lt;br&gt; Ba             
|Lautoka&lt;br&gt;Ba &lt;br&gt;Navua                  
||1-1&lt;br&gt;0-2&lt;br&gt;0-1
||0-1&lt;br&gt;7-0&lt;br&gt;0-3
||Lautoka
||'''2009 Champions:'''
National League - Lautoka

Battle of the Giants - Ba

Fiji FACT &amp; IDC - Navua
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2010
||Rewa&lt;br&gt;Rewa&lt;br&gt;Rewa&lt;br&gt;Navua&lt;br&gt;Navua&lt;br&gt;Ba   ||Navua&lt;br&gt;Ba&lt;br&gt;Lautoka&lt;br&gt;Ba&lt;br&gt;Lautoka&lt;br&gt;Lautoka   
||2-1&lt;br&gt;2-2&lt;br&gt;2-2&lt;br&gt;1-2&lt;br&gt;1-0&lt;br&gt;0-0
||0-1&lt;br&gt;2-0&lt;br&gt;5-4&lt;br&gt;2-1&lt;br&gt;1-2&lt;br&gt;1-0
||Rewa
||'''2010 Champions:'''
National League - Lautoka

Battle of the Giants - Rewa&lt;br /&gt;
Fiji FACT - Ba

IDC - Rewa
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2011
||Ba&lt;br&gt;Ba&lt;br&gt;Ba&lt;br&gt;Suva&lt;br&gt;Suva&lt;br&gt;Rewa   ||Suva&lt;br&gt;Rewa&lt;br&gt;Labasa&lt;br&gt;Rewa&lt;br&gt;Labasa&lt;br&gt;Labasa 
||1-0&lt;br&gt;2-0&lt;br&gt;2-0&lt;br&gt;3-1&lt;br&gt;1-0&lt;br&gt;1-0
||&amp;nbsp;
||Ba
||'''2011 Champions:'''
National League - Ba

Battle of the Giants (winner)- Rewa&lt;br /&gt;
Battle of the Giants (runner up) - Suva

Fiji FACT - Rewa

IDC - Labasa
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2012
||Ba 
||Suva
||1-0
||5-1
||Ba
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2013
||Ba 
||Nadi
||1-1
||1-1&lt;br&gt;2-1
||Ba
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2014
||Ba 
||Suva
||5-3
||2-1
||Ba
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2015
||Nadi 
||Suva
||1-0
||1-1
||Nadi
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2016
||Lautoka 
||Ba
||1-0
||0-0
||Lautoka
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2017
||Lautoka
||Labasa
||0-0
||0-1
||Labasa
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2018
||Lautoka
||Ba
||1-2
||0-1
||Ba
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2019
||Ba
||Labasa
||0-0
||1-2
||Labasa
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2020
||Suva
||Labasa
||1-1
||1-2
||Labasa
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2021
|| -
|| -
|| -
|| -
|| -
|| Not held
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2022
||Rewa
||Suva
||0-0
||1-2
||Suva
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2023
||Lautoka
||Ba
||2-1
||2-2
||Lautoka
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2024
||Rewa
||Labasa
||3-0
||1-0
||Rewa
||
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2025
||Rewa
||Labasa
||1-0
||0-0
||Rewa
||
|}

== Jiite waala team ke suchi ==
{| border =&quot;2&quot; cellpadding =&quot;2&quot;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; 
!Team  
!Number of Wins   
!Number of times in Champions League
!Notes
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Ba Football Association|Ba]]||20||25|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]]||5||8|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Lautoka Football Association|Lautoka]]||3||5|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Rewa Soccer Association|Rewa]]||3||8|| - 
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Nadi Soccer Association|Nadi]]||1||5|| - 
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Suva Soccer Association|Suva]]||1||8|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Nadroga Soccer Association|Nadroga]]||0||1|| - 
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Navua Soccer Association|Navua]]||0||2|| - 
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Tavua Soccer Association|Tavua]]||0||1|| - 
|}

== Bahaari jorr ==
* [http://www.rsssf.com/tablesf/fijicuphist.html The Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation.]
* [http://www.fijilive.com/sports/football/news/2009/03/06/8320.Fijilive Ba reclaims CVC title]
* [http://www.fijidailypost.com/news.php?section=3&amp;fijidailynews=22212 Ba takes first blood]
== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
----
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Champion versus Champion - Fiji| ]]</text>
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| name               = Moscow
| native_name        = Москва
| native_name_lang   = ru
| subdivision_type   = Country
| settlement_type    = Capital city aur federal city
| image_skyline      = {{multiple image
 |perrow             = 1/2/2/1
 |border             = infobox
 |total_width        = 300
 |caption_align      = center
 |image1             = Saint Basil's Cathedral and the Red Square.jpg
 |caption1           = Red Square, jisme Spasskaya Tower left me dekhae hae, Saint Basil's Cathedral rightme  aur Ostankino Tower background me
 |image2             = Cathedral of Christ the Saviour-1.jpg
 |caption2           = Christ the Savior ke Cathedral
 |image3             = Moscow_(52078730783).jpg
 |caption3           = Moscow-City aur Third Ring Road
 |image4             = Moscow_Gorky_Park_main_portal_08-2016_img1.jpg
 |caption4           = Gorky Park
 |image5             = Moscow-Bolshoi-Theare-1.jpg
 |caption5           = Bolshoi Theatre
 |image6             = Moscow_International_Business_Center7.jpg
 |caption6           = Moskva River Naddi se view, jisme with Kremlin right me aur Moscow International Business Center left me
 |color              = white
}}
| image_flag         = Flag of Moscow, Russia.svg
| flag_size          = 120px
| flag_link          = Flag of Moscow
| image_shield       = Coat of Arms of Moscow.svg
| shield_size        = 75px
| shield_link        = Coat of arms of Moscow
| anthem             = &quot;[[Moya Moskva|My Moscow]]&quot;&lt;br/&gt;{{center|}}
| image_map          = {{Infobox mapframe|wikidata=yes|stroke-width=1|shape-fill-opacity=0|geomask=Q649|zoom=7|frame-height=200|frame-coord={{coord|55.6|37.6}}|marker=city|id=Q649}}
| pushpin_map        = Russia#Europe
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Russia##Location in Europe
| pushpin_relief     = 1
| coordinates        = {{coord|55|45|21|N|37|37|04|E|region:RU-MOW|display=it}}
| coor_pinpoint      = 
| subdivision_type2  = [[Federal districts of Russia|Federal district]]
| subdivision_name2  = [[Central Federal District|Central]]
| subdivision_type3  = [[Economic regions of Russia|Economic region]]
| subdivision_name3  = [[Central economic region|Central]]
| established_title  = First mentioned
| established_date   = 1147&lt;ref name=&quot;dolgorukiy&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://faculty.oxy.edu/richmond/csp8/history_of_moscow.htm |title=The History of Moscow |publisher=Occidental College |last=Comins-Richmond |first=Walter |access-date=3 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060517163858/http://faculty.oxy.edu/richmond/csp8/history_of_moscow.htm |archive-date=17 May 2006 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| governing_body     = [[Moscow City Duma|City Duma]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Moscow Statute |url=http://old.mos.ru/wps/portal/EnglishVersion?rubricId=14215&amp;documentId=118572 |work=Moscow City Duma |publisher=Moscow City Government |access-date=29 September 2010 |date=28 June 1995 |quote=The supreme and exclusive legislative (representative) body of the state power in Moscow is the Moscow City Duma. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823154646/http://old.mos.ru/wps/portal/EnglishVersion?rubricId=14215&amp;documentId=118572 |archive-date=23 August 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| leader_title       = [[Mayor of Moscow|Mayor]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mayor&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://old.mos.ru/wps/portal/EnglishVersion?rubricId=14107 |title=The Moscow City Mayor |publisher=Government of Moscow |access-date=18 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823154527/http://old.mos.ru/wps/portal/EnglishVersion?rubricId=14107 |archive-date=23 August 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| leader_name        = [[Sergey Sobyanin]]&lt;ref name=&quot;mayor&quot;/&gt;
| total_type         = total
| area_total_sq_mi   = 
| area_total_km2     = 2561.5&lt;ref name=&quot;InfostatArea&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Общая площадь Москвы в длинну и ширину |url=https://rosinfostat.ru/ploshhad-moskvy/ |publisher=RosInfoStat |access-date=2 June 2021 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203140325/https://rosinfostat.ru/ploshhad-moskvy/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area_urban_km2     = 
| area_metro_km2     = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi  = 
| elevation_m        = 
| population_rank    = [[List of cities and towns in Russia by population|1st]]
| population_density_km2 = 
| population_density_urban_km2 = 
| population_density_metro_km2 = 450
| population_as_of   = [[Russian Census (2021)|2021 Census]]
| population_total   = 13010112
| population_footnotes = &lt;ref name=2021Census&gt;{{cite web |title=Оценка численности постоянного населения по субъектам Российской Федерации |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/tab-5_VPN-2020.xlsx |publisher=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Federal State Statistics Service]] |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901194902/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/tab-5_VPN-2020.xlsx |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_urban_footnotes = &lt;ref name=&quot;Urban&quot; /&gt;
| population_urban   =  19,100,000
| population_metro_footnotes = &lt;ref&gt;[[Moscow metropolitan area]]&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_metro   =  21,534,777&lt;ref&gt;Including [[Moscow Oblast]] (8,524,665)&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_demonym = Muscovite
| demographics_type2 = GDP
| demographics2_footnotes = &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/VRP_s_1998.xlsx |title=Валовой региональный продукт по субъектам Российской Федерации в 2016-2022гг. |website=rosstat.gov.ru |access-date=21 August 2023 |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331184235/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/VRP_s_1998.xlsx |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| demographics2_title1 = Total
| demographics2_info1 = [[Russian ruble|₽]]{{FXConvert|RUS|28507|b|lk=on}} (2022)
| demographics2_title2 = Per capita
| demographics2_info2 = ₽{{FXConvert|RUS|2182863|lk=on}} (2022)
| timezone1          = [[Moscow Time|MSK]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?docbody=&amp;prevDoc=102483854&amp;backlink=1&amp;&amp;nd=102148085 |script-title=ru:&quot;Об исчислении времени&quot;. Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации |language=ru |access-date=19 January 2019 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622151333/http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?docbody=&amp;prevDoc=102483854&amp;backlink=1&amp;&amp;nd=102148085 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| blank_name         = [[OKTMO]] ID
| blank_info         = 45000000
| iso_code           = RU-MOW
| registration_plate = 77, 177, 777; 97, 197, 797; 99, 199, 799, 977&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Автомобильные коды регионов России-2022: таблица с последними изменениями |url=https://ria.ru/20221116/avtokody-1831987874.html |access-date=28 November 2022 |website=РИА Новости |date=16 November 2022 |language=ru |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128050947/https://ria.ru/20221116/avtokody-1831987874.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| utc_offset         = +3
| website            = {{URL|https://www.mos.ru/en|mos.ru}}
}}

'''Moscow''' ([[Russian bhasa]]: Москва, Moskva)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Wells |first=John C. |year=2008 |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia0000unse |edition=3rd |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Roach |first=Peter |year=2011 |title=Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary |edition=18th |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-15253-2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Russia]] ke [[capital]] [[city]] hae. Iske abaadi 12.5 million hae jiske kaaran ii [[Europe]] ke sab se barraa city hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Urban&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations |title=Major Agglomerations of the World - Population Statistics and Maps |access-date=2 May 2023 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707123157/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; aur 21.5&amp;nbsp;million se jaada log iske  metropolitan area me rahe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Megapolis&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://strelkamag.com/en/article/moscow-agglomeration |title=A 3-Hour Commute: A Close Look At Moscow The Megapolis |work=Strelka Mag |first=Alexander |last=Akishin |date=17 August 2017 |access-date=23 May 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417121056/https://strelkamag.com/en/article/moscow-agglomeration |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii city ke area {{Convert|2511|km2|mi2|abbr=|sp=us}} hae, jab urban area {{Convert|5891|km2|mi2|abbr=|sp=us}} cover kare hae,&lt;ref name=&quot;Urban&quot;/&gt; and the metropolitan area covers over {{Convert|26000|km2|mi2|abbr=|sp=us}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;Megapolis&quot;/&gt; Moscow, [[dunia]] ke sab se barraa city me se ek hae.  [[Istanbul]], jiske kucch hissa Europe me hae, aur barraa hae aur iske two-thirds population of 15 million Europe me rahe hae,&lt;ref name=&quot;Urban&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Megapolis&quot;/&gt; aur European continent ke sab se barraa city hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Planète Énergies&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.planete-energies.com/en/medias/close/moscow-city-undergoing-transformation |title=Moscow, a City Undergoing Transformation |work=Planète Énergies |date=11 September 2017 |access-date=27 May 2020 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027055122/https://www.planete-energies.com/en/medias/close/moscow-city-undergoing-transformation |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Moscow ke baare me pahila dafe 1147 me likha gais rahaa aur ii 15th century me Grand Principality of Moscow ke capital banaa rahaa. Jab 1547 me Tzar log rule kare lagin tab ii political aur economic centre rahaa. [[Peter the Great]] ke time capital ke [[Saint Petersburg]] me 1712 me kar dewa gais rahaa. 1918 me Russian Revolution ke baad, capital ke ke fir se Moscow ke karaa gaus rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;[[1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union]] - Section VIII, Article 172: &quot;The Capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is the city of Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Moscoe Russian Federation ke bhi capital rahaa.

Dunia ke barraa city me se Moscow sab se north me hae aur sab se thandaa hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.mos.ru/en/city/about/ |title=A glimpse into history |website=mos.ru |access-date=21 September 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007105652/https://www.mos.ru/en/city/about/ }}&lt;/ref&gt;, jahan pe ii Russia aur eastern Europe ke political, economic, cultural aur scientific centre hae. Moscow ke sab se barra urban economy hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Brade |first1=Isolde |last2=Rudolph |first2=Robert |title=Moscow, the Global City? The Position of the Russian Capital within the European System of Metropolitan Areas |journal=Area |jstor=20004359 |volume=36 |number=1 |pages=69–80 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |date=2004 |doi=10.1111/j.0004-0894.2004.00306.x |bibcode=2004Area...36...69B |issn=0004-0894 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Moscow me dunia ke duusra sab se jaada billionaire hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Grosser |first=Annikka |title=The Cities With The Most Billionaires 2024 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/annikagrosser/2024/04/26/the-cities-with-the-most-billionaires-2024/ |access-date=1 December 2024 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=4 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604161409/https://www.forbes.com/sites/gigizamora/2023/04/08/the-cities-with-the-most-billionaires-2023/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Moscow International Business Center dunia ke sab se barraa financial centre hae aur isme Europe ke sab se uunchaa building hae. 1980 me Summer Olympics, Moscow me bhais rahaa aur 2018 ke FIFA Worls Cup bhi.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=FIFA World Cup kicks off in Russia |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/fifa-world-cup-2018/fifa-worldcup-2018-news/2018/jun/14/fifa-world-cup-kicks-off-in-russia-1828219.html |access-date=20 March 2021 |website=The New Indian Express |archive-date=2 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802231006/https://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/fifa-world-cup-2018/fifa-worldcup-2018-news/2018/jun/14/fifa-world-cup-kicks-off-in-russia-1828219.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;


== Chapa ke gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:RedSquare (pixinn.net).jpg|Red Square

File:Red_Square_in_Moscow_(1801)_by_Fedor_Alekseev.jpg|1802 ke Red Square ke painting
File:Fire of Moscow 1812.jpg|1812 me French invasion ke timeke aagi
File:Moscow satellite image.jpeg|Moscow ke satellite map
File:Ost.jpg|Ostankino Tower
&lt;/gallery&gt;

{{Commons|Moscow}}

[[Category:Capital cities]]
[[Category:Russia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Rome</title>
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      <text bytes="10978" sha1="hgw2j3ecwht03x4nj6epwvi6ctjhn5r" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Settlement
|official_name = Comune di Roma
|established_title = Founded
|established_date = [[21 April]], 753 BC
|nickname = The Eternal City
|motto = ''Senātus Populusque Rōmānus''&amp;nbsp;([[SPQR]]){{spaces|2}}&lt;small&gt;([[Latin]])&lt;/small&gt;
|website = [http://www.comune.roma.it comune.roma.it]
|image_skyline = Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg
|image_flag = Flag of Rome.svg
|image_seal =
|image_map = Italyrome.png
|map_caption = Location of the city of Rome
|subdivision_type = [[Regions of Italy|Region]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces of Italy|Province]]
|subdivision_name = [[Lazio]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Province of Rome|Rome]] (RM)
|leader_title = [[Mayor of Rome|Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Gianni Alemanno|Giovanni Alemanno]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total_sq_mi = 496.1
|area_total_km2 = 1,285
|population_footnotes =&lt;ref&gt;http://demo.istat.it/bilmens2006/index.html- [[Istituto Nazionale di Statistica|ISTAT]] demographics&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_as_of = December 2006
|population_total = 2,705,603 ([[Largest 100 Cities of Italy by Population|1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt;]])
|population_urban = 4,013,057
|area_urban_km2 = 5,352
|area_urban_sq_mi = 2,066
|population_metro = 5,493,308
|population_density_km2 = 2,105.5
|population_density_sq_mi = 4,664.8
|timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
|utc_offset = +1
|timezone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +2
|latd=41 |latm=54 |lats= |latNS=N |longd=12 |longm=30 |longs= |longEW=E
|elevation_m = +20
|elevation_ft = 66
|postal_code_type = Postal codes
|postal_code = 00121 to 00199
|area_code = 06
|blank_name =Patron saints
|blank_info =[[Saint Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]
|footnotes =
}}
[[file:LocationRoma.jpg|thumb|Rome in [[Europe]]]]

'''Rome''' ([[Italian bhasa|Italian]] ''Roma''), Italy ke sab se barraa city aur [[capital]] [[city]] hai. Ii [[Tiber]] [[Naddi]]  pe hai aur iske population 2.8 million inhabitants log hai aur iske area {{cvt|1285|km2|mi2|1}}. [[Vatican City]] ii city ke north-west hissa me hai.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://www.history.com/news/what-is-the-smallest-country-in-the-world |title=What is the smallest country in the world? |work=History.com |access-date=27 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927125308/https://www.history.com/news/what-is-the-smallest-country-in-the-world |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rome, Europe ke tiisra sab se barraa aabaadi waala city hae. Ii city ke puura metropolitan area me 4,355,725 log rahe hae, jiske matlab hae ki ii Italy ke sab se barraa metropolitan area hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;citypop&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html |title=Principal Agglomerations of the World |publisher=Citypopulation |date=January 2017 |access-date=6 April 2012 |archive-date=4 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704112702/http://www.citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rome ke &quot;City of Seven Hills&quot; bola jaae hae, kaaheki ii jagha me sat pahaarr hae, aur iske &quot;Eternal City&quot; bhi bola jaae hae. Rome western civilization ke suruu hoe waala jagha jaana jaawe hae aur ii [[Catholic Church]] ke rajdhani hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Understanding China Today: An Exploration of Politics, Economics, Society, and International Relations |first=Silvio |last=Beretta |year=2017 |isbn=9783319296258 |page=320 |publisher=Springer |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=	Christianity: Religions of the World |first=Ann Marie |last=B. Bahr |year=2009 |isbn=9781438106397 |page=139 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Rome in America: Transnational Catholic Ideology from the Risorgimento to Fascism |url=https://archive.org/details/romeinamericatra0000dago |first=Peter |last=R. D'Agostino |year=2005 |isbn=9780807863411 |page= |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rome ke itihaas 2,800 saal puraana hae aur 753 BC me Rome ke suruwaat se suruu hoe hae, lekin hian pe [[insaan]] aur pahile se rahe hae aur ii Europe ke sab se puraana city hae jisme sab time log rahat rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;Heiken, G. 2005&quot;&gt;Heiken, G., Funiciello, R. and De Rita, D. (2005), ''The Seven Hills of Rome: A Geological Tour of the Eternal City''. Princeton University Press.&lt;/ref&gt; City ke suruwaat ke abaadi Latins, Etruscans aur Sabines ke mixture rahaa. Baad me ii city Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic aur [[Roman Empire]] ke capital rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.historytoday.com/mary-harlow/old-age-ancient-rome |title=Old Age in Ancient Rome – History Today |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612210546/https://www.historytoday.com/mary-harlow/old-age-ancient-rome |archive-date=12 June 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske sab se pahile Roman kavi, Tibullus, 1st century BC me &quot;The Eternal City&quot; bolis rahaa aur baad me iske duusra lekhak bhi kaam me laae rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Stephanie Malia Hom |title=Consuming the View: Tourism, Rome, and the Topos of the Eternal City |journal=Annali d'Igtalianistica |date=28 May 2024 |volume=28 |pages=91–116 |jstor=24016389 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Andres Perez |first=Javier |title=Approximación a la Iconografía de Roma Aeterna |url=http://www.elfuturodelpasado.com/elfuturodelpasado/Ultimo_numero_files/023.pdf |work=El Futuro del Pasado |access-date=28 May 2014 |pages=349–363 |year=2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923235403/http://www.elfuturodelpasado.com/elfuturodelpasado/Ultimo_numero_files/023.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Roman Empire ke khalaas hoe ke baad, jiske [[Middle Ages]] ke suruwaat bhi maana jaae hae, Rome dhire dhire Pope ke influence ke niche hoe gais aur 8th century me ii Papal Staes ke capital banaa, aur ii 1870 talak rahaa. [[Renaissance]] ke suruwaat se, Pope Nicholas (1447-1455) ke baad, agle 400 saal talak Rome ke [[dunia]] ke artistic aur sankritic centre banae ke kosis karin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Giovannoni |first1=Gustavo |title=Topografia e urbanistica di Roma |date=1958 |publisher=Istituto di Studi Romani |location=Rome |pages=346–347 |language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii rakam se Rome Renaissance ke ek khaas jagha banaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rome, city, Italy |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |edition=6th |year=2009 |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=117042793 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324095132/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=117042793 |archive-date=24 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuchh famous artists, painters, sculptures aur architects Rome se aapan kaam karin. 1871 me Rome Kingdom of Italy ke capital banaa, jon 1946 me Talian Republic banaa.

2019 Rome dunia ke 14th sab se jaada tourist waala jagha rahaa, jahan pe 8.6 million tourist aae rahin, European Union ke tiisra sab se barra tourist waala jagha aur Italy ke sab se popular tourist waala jagha rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/01/29/travel/gallery/most-visited-cities-euromonitor/index.html |title=World's most visited cities |publisher=CNN |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307203514/http://www.cnn.com/2015/01/29/travel/gallery/most-visited-cities-euromonitor/index.html |archive-date=7 March 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Iske itihaasik jagha ke [[UNESCO]], World Heritage site list karis hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;whc.unesco.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/91 |work=[[UNESCO]] World Heritage Centre |access-date=8 June 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110224124311/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/91 |archive-date=24 February 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii 1960 Summer Olympics ke host city rahaa aur hian pe [[United NAtiona]] ke kuchh agencies ke headquarters hae, jise [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), the [[World Food Programme]] (WFP), the [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] (IFAD) aur [[UN System Network on Rural Development and Food Security]]. Ii city me Union of Mediterranean ke Secretariat ke seat hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/italy/2018/07/13/rome-chosen-as-seat-of-euro-med-assembly-secretariat_1915c82d-78f2-41e3-9bd7-69b0ba27ee6c.html |website=ANSAmed |title=Rome chosen as seat of Euro-Med Assembly secretariat – Italy |date=13 July 2018 |access-date=2 December 2018 |archive-date=2 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202155058/http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/italy/2018/07/13/rome-chosen-as-seat-of-euro-med-assembly-secretariat_1915c82d-78f2-41e3-9bd7-69b0ba27ee6c.html |url-status=dead }} &lt;/ref&gt; Hian pe dher Italian multinational company ke headquarters hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.italia.it/en/travel-ideas/culture-and-entertainment/cinecitta-dream-factory.html |website=Italian Tourism  |title=Cinecittà: Dream Factory |date=23 March 2015 |language=en |access-date=20 May 2019 |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418213709/http://www.italia.it/en/travel-ideas/culture-and-entertainment/cinecitta-dream-factory.html  }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Naam==
Puraana Rome ke founding myth ke anusaar,&lt;ref name=&quot;livy1797&quot;&gt;{{cite book |publisher=Printed for A.Strahan |last=Livy |others=George Baker (trans.) |title=The history of Rome |year=1797}}&lt;/ref&gt; Roma naam city ke founder Romulus se aais hae.&lt;ref name=britannica&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/509038/Romulus-and-Remus |title=Romulus and Remus |encyclopedia=Britannica |date=25 November 2014 |access-date=9 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317100831/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/509038/Romulus-and-Remus |archive-date=17 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Lekin ii hoe sake hae ki Romulus naam, Rome se aais hae.&lt;ref&gt;Cf. Jaan Puhvel: ''Comparative mythology.'' The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London 1989, p. 287.&lt;/ref&gt; 4th century se, Roma naam ke orgin ke dher theory hae. Dher theory me jhagha ke bhasa ke uppar stress karaa jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;Claudio Rendina: ''Roma Ieri, Oggi, Domani''. Newton Compton, Roma, 2007, p. 17.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Duusra naam aur chinh===
Rome ke puraana time me &quot;Urbs&quot; (central city),&lt;ref name=&quot;Vergari Marco Luberti Pica Del Monte 2020 pp. 6–17&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Vergari | first1=Francesca | last2=Marco Luberti | first2=Gian | last3=Pica | first3=Alessia | last4=Del Monte | first4=Maurizio | title=Geomorphology of the historic centre of the ''Urbs'' (Rome, Italy) | journal=Journal of Maps | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=17 | issue=4 | date=2020-05-18 | issn=1744-5647 | doi=10.1080/17445647.2020.1761465 | pages=6–17| s2cid=219441323 | doi-access=free | hdl=11573/1503575 | hdl-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; bola jaawat rahaa

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[vibhag:R]]
[[vibhag:Italy ke city]]


&lt;!--  --&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Tokyo</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>3158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>337573</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-23T17:41:04Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="6209" sha1="204qjp8ix31ore8r68ue0r6ky725n9x" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City
|official_name          = Tokyo
|native_name            = 東京都
|nickname               = 
|motto                  = 
|image_skyline          = Skyscrapers of Shinjuku 2009 January.jpg
|imagesize              = 300px
|image_caption          = Japan ke skyscrapers
|image_flag             = PrefSymbol-Tokyo.svg
|image_seal             = 
|image_map              = Location TokyoJapan.jpg
|mapsize                = 300px
|map_caption            = Location of Tokyo in Japan
|subdivision_type       = Country
|subdivision_name       = [[Japan]]
|subdivision_type1      = 
|subdivision_name1      = 
|subdivision_type2      = 
|subdivision_name2      = 
|leader_title           = Governor
|leader_name            = Shintarō Ishihara
|leader_title1          =  &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
|leader_name1           = 
|leader_title2          =
|leader_name2           =
|leader_title3          =
|leader_name3           = 
|established_title      =  &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
|established_date       = 
|established_title2     =  &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
|established_date2      = 
|established_title3     =  &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
|established_date3      = 
|area_magnitude         = 
|area_total             = 2,187.08 
|TotalArea_sq_mi        = 621.81
|area_land              = 
|LandArea_sq_mi         = 
|area_water             = 
|WaterArea_sq_mi        = 
|area_water_percent     = 1.0
|area_urban             = 
|UrbanArea_sq_mi        = 
|area_metro             = 
|MetroArea_sq_mi        = 
|abaadi_as_of       = [[1 October]] [[2007]]
|abaadi_note        = 
|abaadi_total       = 14,190,090
|abaadi_density     = 5,847 
|abaadi_density_mi2 = 
|abaadi_metro       =
|abaadi_density_metro_km2 =
|abaadi_density_metro_mi2 =
|abaadi_urban       = 
|timezone               = 
|utc_offset             = 
|timezone_DST           = 
|utc_offset_DST         = 
|latd= 35|latm= 41|lats= |latNS=N
|longd= 139|longm= 45|longs= |longEW=E
|elevation              = 
|elevation_ft           = 
|postal_code_type       =  &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
|postal_code            =
|website                = [http://www.metro.tokyo.jp/ENGLISH/ metro.tokyo.jp]
|footnotes              = 
}}

'''Tokyo''' (東京), [[Japan]] ke [[capital]] yanni ki rajdhani  hae.  Japan ke das percent (10%) log Tokyo me rahe hae, aur biis percent (20%) log tokyo ke lage rahe hae. 2007 me Tokyo ke abaadi 14,190,090 rahaa. Tokyo, Japan ke business, trade, aur industry ke center hae. 

Tokyo, Japan ke Kanto plain me hae aur Tokyo bay ke face kare hae. Dui [[naddi]] Tokyo me se jaawe hae. Ii hae Sumida Naddi, jon ki north se south Tokyo Bay me flow hoe hae. Duusra hae Tama Naddi, jon ki west se east flow hoe hae. Tama Naddi Tokyo aur Kawasaki ke border hae. 

Tokyo ke matlab, Japanese me, &quot;the Eastern capital&quot; hae. Tokyo, Japan ke capital It became the capital 19th century ke biich me banaa, jab iske naam badal ke &quot;Edo&quot; se &quot;Tokyo&quot; karaa gais. Isse pahile Kyoto, Japan ke capital rahaa.  

[[1923]] me Tokyo aagi lage ke kaaran barbaad hoe gais rahaa. [[World War II]] ke time ii Allied bomb ke kaaran Tokyo fir se barbaad hoe gais. 

[[1964]] me Tokyo me [[Olympic Games]] khelaa gais rahaa. 

==Etymology==
Tokyo ke pahile '''Edo''' ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa, jiske matlab khaarri hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;placenames&quot;&gt;Room, Adrian. ''Placenames of the World''. McFarland &amp; Company (1996), [http://books.google.com/books?id=PzIer-wYbnQC&amp;pg=PA360&amp;sig=X75YRM_z45rzt4ZcemXMFhn9uWs p360]. ISBN 0786418141.&lt;/ref&gt; Iske naam ke badal ke Tokyo (''Tōkyō'': ''tō'' (east) + ''kyō'' (capital)) uu time pe karaa gais jab ki ii 1868 me imperial capital banaa.&lt;ref name=placenames/&gt;  Meiji period ke suruu waala time me ii city ke  &quot;Tōkei,&quot;  ke naam se bhi jaana jaawat rahaa kaahe ki iske likhe me wahii Chinese characters kaam me lawa jaawe hae jissee ki &quot;Tokyo&quot; likha jaawe hae.  Kuch purana English bhasa waala documents &quot;Tokei&quot; naam use kare hae&lt;ref name=&quot;Tōkei&quot;&gt;{{cite book
  |title=Japanese Capitals in Historical Perspective: Place, Power and Memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo
  |url=https://archive.org/details/japanesecapitals0000unse
  |last=Waley
  |first=Paul
  |publisher=[[Routledge]]
  |year=2003
  |page=[https://archive.org/details/japanesecapitals0000unse/page/253 253]
  |isbn=070071409X
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lekin abhi ii pronunciation nai kaam me lawa jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.soumu.metro.tokyo.jp/01soumu/archives/0715tokei.htm &quot;明治東京異聞～トウケイかトウキョウか～東京の読み方&quot; Tokyo Metropolitan Archives (2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006151436/http://www.soumu.metro.tokyo.jp/01soumu/archives/0715tokei.htm |date=2008-10-06 }}. Retrieved on 13 September 2008. {{ja icon}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Japanese script ==
japanese sikhne ka 3 padao hae pehla :hiragana dusra:katakana Tisra:kanji jab ham ye likhne ka madhyam se ham agar samajh jayenge to ham normal japaneses yani ki tokyo me araam se batchit kar sakte hai

== Chapa ke gallery ==
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Tokugawa_Ieyasu2.JPG|Tokugawa Ieyasu, 1603 me pahila military government ke leader
File:Tokyo Metropolitan Goverment Building no1 Tocho 09 7 December 2003.jpg|Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building
File:ShinjukuStreet02.JPG|Shinjuku Street, raat me
File:ShikinePortTyoJpDec04-01.jpg|Shikinejima Island
File:Hachijo-jima.JPG|Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park
File:Bank of Japan headquarters in Tokyo, Japan.jpg|Bank of Japan
File:The_Tokyo_Stock_Exchange_-_main_room_3.jpg|Tokyo Stock Exchange
File:JR-Central-Tokyo-STA Shinkansen-Home N700.jpg|Shinkansen train, Tokyo Station me
File:Yasuda Auditorium, Tokyo University - Nov 2005.JPG|University of Tokyo
File:Old Keio University Library 3.jpg|Keio University
File:Tokyo National Museum, Honkan 2010.jpg|Tokyo National Museum
File:Tokyo Dome night.jpg|Tokyo Dome
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Duusra websites ==
*[http://wiki.worldflicks.org/tokyo.html WorldFlicks in Tokyo: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420021338/http://wiki.worldflicks.org/tokyo.html |date=2009-04-20 }}

[[Category:Japan]]</text>
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|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; |'''[[Inter-District Championship (Fiji)|Inter-District Championship]]'''
|-
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1938|1938]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1939|1939]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1940|1940]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1941|1941]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1942|1942]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1943|1943]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1944|1944]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1945|1945]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1946|1946]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1947|1947]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1948|1948]]
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| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1952|1952]]
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| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1954|1954]]
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| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1961|1961]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1962|1962]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1963|1963]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1964|1964]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1965|1965]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1966|1966]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1967|1967]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1968|1968]]
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| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1976|1976]]
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| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1978|1978]]
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| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1982|1982]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1983|1983]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1984|1984]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1985|1985]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1986|1986]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1987|1987]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1988|1988]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1989|1989]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1990|1990]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1991|1991]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1992|1992]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1993|1993]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1994|1994]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1995|1995]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1996|1996]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1997|1997]]
|-
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1998|1998]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1999|1999]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2000|2000]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2001|2001]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2002|2002]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2003|2003]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2004|2004]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2005|2005]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2006|2006]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2007|2007]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2008|2008]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2009|2009]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2010|2010]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2011|2011]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2012|2012]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2013|2013]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2014|2014]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2015|2015]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2016|2016]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2017|2017]]
|-
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2018|2018]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2019|2019]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2020|2020]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2021|2021]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2022|2022]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2023|2023]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2024|2024]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2025|2025]]
| [[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 2026|2026]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; |'''[[National Football League (Fiji)|National Football League]]'''
|-
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 1977|1977]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 1978|1978]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 1979|1979]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 1980|1980]]
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|-
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 1997|1997]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 1998|1998]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 1999|1999]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2000|2000]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2001|2001]]
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|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2004|2004]]
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|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2007|2007]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2008|2008]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2009|2009]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2010|2010]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2011|2011]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2012|2012]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2013|2013]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2014|2014]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2015|2015]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2016|2016]]
|-
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2017|2017]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2018|2018]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2019|2019]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2020|2020]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2021|2021]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2022|2022]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2023|2023]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2024|2024]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2025|2025]]
|[[National Football League (Fiji) 2026|2026]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; |'''[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji)|Battle of the Giants]]'''
|-
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1978|1978]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1979|1979]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1980|1980]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1981|1981]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1982|1982]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1983|1983]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1984|1984]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1985|1985]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1986|1986]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1987|1987]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1988|1988]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1989|1989]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1990|1990]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1991|1991]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1992|1992]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1993|1993]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1994|1994]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1995|1995]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1996|1996]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1997|1997]]
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|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1998|1998]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 1999|1999]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2000|2000]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2001|2001]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2002|2002]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2003|2003]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2004|2004]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2005|2005]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2006|2006]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2007|2007]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2008|2008]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2009|2009]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2010|2010]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2011|2011]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2012|2012]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2013|2013]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2014|2014]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2015|2015]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2016|2016]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2017|2017]]
|-
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2018|2018]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2019|2019]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2020|2020]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2021|2021]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2022|2022]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2023|2023]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2024|2024]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2025|2025]]
|[[Battle of the Giants (Fiji) 2026|2026]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; |'''[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament]]'''
|-
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 1991|1991]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 1992|1992]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 1993|1993]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 1994|1994]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 1995|1995]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 1996|1996]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 1997|1997]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 1998|1998]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 1999|1999]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2000|2000]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2001|2001]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2002|2002]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2003|2003]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2004|2004]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2005|2005]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2006|2006]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2007|2007]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2008|2008]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2009|2009]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2010|2010]]
|-
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2011|2011]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2012|2012]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2013|2013]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2014|2014]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2015|2015]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2016|2016]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2017|2017]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2018|2018]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2019|2019]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2020|2020]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2021|2021]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2022|2022]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2023|2023]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2024|2024]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2025|2025]]
|[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2026|2026]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; |'''[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji)|Champion versus Champion]]'''
|-
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 1992|1992]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 1993|1993]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 1994|1994]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 1995|1995]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 1996|1996]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 1997|1997]]
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|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2000|2000]]
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|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2020|2020]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2021|2021]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2022|2022]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2023|2023]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2024|2024]]
|[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2025|2025]]
|}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:FFA Tournaments Template|*]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament</title>
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      <text bytes="5015" sha1="annwm0uqftxw65f0gzsfwfc7unveg2c" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox sporting event organization
|name         =Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament
|image        =FFALogo.jpg
|size         =
|caption      =Fiji Football Association ke jhanda
|abbreviation = IDC
|motto        = 
|formation    = 1991
|recurrence   = Ek saal 
|purpose      = [[Fiji]] ke sab district ke super premier division ke football club ke mukaabla hae.
|headquarters = Suva, Fiji
|leader_title = President 
|leader_name  = Rajesh Patel
|website      = [http://www.fijifootball.com.fj/]
|remarks      =
}}

'''Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament''' (Fiji FACT), [[Fiji]] ke  [[Fiji Football Association]] ke organise karaa gais ek tournament hae. Ii tournament ke suruu kare waala, uu time ke Secretary, [[J. D. Maharaj]], rahaa, jon ki ii tournament ke pahile ii kaaran se organise karis rahaa jisse ki Association khatir kuchh paisa banawa jaawe sake. Ii tournament ke 1991 se har saal khela jaawe hae.

== Fiji FACT Roll of Champions ==
{| border =&quot;2&quot; cellpadding =&quot;2&quot;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; 
!Width=&quot;60&quot;|Saal
!Width=&quot;240&quot;|Jagha
!Width=&quot;120&quot;|Jiite Waala
!Width=&quot;120&quot;|Runner-up
!Width=&quot;80&quot;|Score
!Width=&quot;250&quot;|Notes
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1991 || Ba || Ba|| Labasa ||1 - 0||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1992||Labasa||Labasa||Nadroga||1 - 0||-
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|1993||Nadi||Nadroga||Tavua||2 - 0 || -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|1994||Rewa||Tavua||Suva||1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|1995||Labasa||Suva||Labasa||4 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|1996||Nadi||Nadi||Lautoka||4 - 0
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|1997||Rewa||Ba/Labasa||-|| 0 - 0|| Joint winners
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|1998||Rewa||Ba||Nadi||3 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|1999||Labasa||Labasa||Lautoka||2 - 1|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2000||Nadi||Lautoka||Nadroga||2 - 0 || -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2001||Nadroga||Nadroga||Labasa||7 - 6|| Penalty kicks
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2002||Lautoka||Lautoka||Nasinu||3 - 2|| Penalty kicks
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2003||Rewa||Navua||Rewa||1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2004||Nadi||Ba||Navua||2 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2005||Nadi||Ba||Nadi||1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2006||Suva||Ba||Labasa||3 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2007||Ba ||Ba||Labasa||1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2008||Nadi || Navua|| Labasa|| 1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2009||Suva || Navua|| Lautoka|| 2 - 1|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2010||Lautoka || Ba|| Navua|| 1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2011||Lautoka || Rewa|| Labasa|| 1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2012||Ba || Suva|| Ba|| 1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2013||Suva, Nadi || Nadi|| Ba|| 3 - 1|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2014||Nausori || Nadi|| Suva|| 1 - 0|| aet
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2015||Nadi || Labasa|| Rewa|| 2 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2016||Labasa, Suva || Nadi|| Suva|| 3 - 0|| pen kicks
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2017||Ratu Cakobau Park || Rewa|| Nadi|| 1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2018||Ratu Cakobau Park/ Churchill Park || Rewa|| Labasa|| 5 - 3|| pen kicks
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2019||[[Churchill Park (Fiji)|Churchill Park]], Lautoka || Nadi|| Suva|| 2 - 1|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2020||[[Churchill Park (Fiji)|Churchill Park]], [[Lautoka]]/[[Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]] || Suva|| Nadi|| 1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2021||- || -|| -|| -|| COVID19 ke kaaran Tournament nai bhais
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2022||[[ANZ Stadium (Fiji)|ANZ Stadium, Suva]]/[[Lawaqa Park]], Sigatoka  || Suva|| Labasa|| 2 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2023||HFC Bank Stadium (Fiji)|HFC Bank Stadium, Suva  || Lautoka|| Rewa|| 2 - 1|| aet
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2024||Subrail Park, Labasa  || Lautoka|| Navua|| 1 - 0|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2025||HFC Bank Stadium, Suva || Labasa|| Rewa|| 3 - 1|| pen
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|2026||Subrail Park, Labasa  || Ba|| Navua|| 3 - 1|| aet, pen
|}

== Jiite waala team ke suchi ==
{| border =&quot;2&quot; cellpadding =&quot;2&quot;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; 
!Team  
!Number of Wins   
!Number of times runner-up
!Notes
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Ba Football Association|Ba]]||9||2|| One title shared
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Nadi Soccer Association|Nadi]]||5||4|| - 
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]]||5||9|| One title shared
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Suva Soccer Association|Suva]]||4||5|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Lautoka Football Association|Lautoka]]||4||3|| -
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Rewa Soccer Association|Rewa]]||3||4|| - 
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Navua Soccer Association|Navua]]||3||2|| - 
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Nadroga Soccer Association|Nadroga]]||2||2|| - 
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Tavua Soccer Association|Tavua]]||1||1|| - 
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Nasinu Football Association|Nasinu]]||0||1|| - 

|}

== Bahaari jorr ==
* [http://www.fijilive.com/soccer/show/FijiFACT/honour.htm Fiji FACT Roll of Honour]
* [http://www.rsssf.com/tablesf/fijicuphist.html The Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation.]
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}
&amp;nbsp;
----
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament| ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Tanganyika Talaab</title>
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      <text bytes="2715" sha1="65n08b1gfrzrk73dryv3erc9e2gnrjj" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox body of water
| name               = Tanganyika Talaab
| native_name        = {{native name|rn|Ikiyaga ca Tanganyika}}
| image              = STS51G-034-0012_Lake_Tanganyika_June1985.jpg
| alt                = Satellite image of Lake Tanganyika on Earth in center and left, space in upper right.
| caption            = Lake Tanganyika space se, June 1985
| image_bathymetry   = Lake Tanganyika map.png
| caption_bathymetry = Lake Tanganyika map
| alt_bathymetry     = Long rift lake with outflow to Congo River in the middle of western shore.
| coords             = {{Coord|6.1|S|29.5|E|format=dms|type:waterbody_scale:2500000}}
| lake_type          = [[Ancient lake]], [[Rift Valley Lake]]
| inflow             = [[Ruzizi River]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Malagarasi River]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Kalambo River]]
| outflow            = [[Lukuga River]]
| catchment          = {{cvt|231000|km2|sqmi}}
| basin_countries    = [[Burundi]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], [[Tanzania]],&lt;br/&gt; and [[Zambia]]
| length             = {{cvt|673|km|mi}}
| width              = {{cvt|72|km|mi}}
| area               = {{cvt|32900|km2|sqmi}}
| depth              = {{cvt|570|m|ft|}}
| max-depth          = {{cvt|1470|m|ft}}
| volume             = {{cvt|18750|km3|cumi}}
| residence_time     = 5500 years&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Yohannes |first=Okbazghi |title=Water resources and inter-riparian relations in the Nile basin |url=https://archive.org/details/waterresourcesin0000yoha |year=2008 |publisher=SUNY Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/waterresourcesin0000yoha/page/127 127]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| shore              = {{cvt|1828|km|mi}}
| elevation          = {{cvt|773|m|ft}}&lt;ref name=asdf/&gt;
| islands            = 
| cities             = [[Kigoma]], Tanzania&lt;br/&gt;[[Rukwa]], Tanzania&lt;br/&gt;[[Kalemie]], the DRC&lt;br/&gt;[[Bujumbura]], Burundi&lt;br/&gt;[[Mpulungu]], Zambia
| pushpin_map        = Africa
| pushpin_label_position = 
| pushpin_map_caption = 
| pushpin_map_alt    = Located in East African rift between Tanzania and the DRC.
| website            = 
| reference          = &lt;ref name=asdf&gt;{{cite web |url=https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Display/html/3587 |title=LAKE TANGANYIKA |work=World Lake Database, International Lake Environment Committee Foundation |access-date=January 12, 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| embedded           = 
}}
{{commons|Category:Lake Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika}}
'''Tanganyika Talaab''', central [[Africa ke barraa talaab]] me se ek  hae. Ii lake chaar [[des]] me hae – [[Burundi]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), [[Tanzania]] aur [[Zambia]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tanganyika, Lake}}

[[vibhag:T]]
[[vibhag:Burundi]]
[[vibhag:Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[vibhag:Tanzania]]
[[vibhag:Zambia]]
[[vibhag:Africa ke talaab]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alexander Pushkin</title>
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      <text bytes="11504" sha1="deezchc1aobj7p81yqsyg5csrbmavq8" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox writer
| name             = Alexander Pushkin
| image            = Orest Kiprensky - Портрет поэта А.С.Пушкина - Google Art Project.jpg
| caption          = Portrait by [[Orest Kiprensky]], 1827
| native_name      = Александр Пушкин
| native_name_lang = ru
| birth_date       = {{birth date|df=y|1799|06|06}}
| birth_place      = Moscow, Russia
| death_date       = {{death date and age|df=y|1837|02|10|1799|06|06}}
| death_place      = Saint Petersburg, Russia
| occupation       = {{cslist|Poet|novelist|playwright}}
| parents          = 
| spouse           = {{marriage|[[Natalia Pushkina|Natalia Goncharova]]|1831}}
| children         = 4
| genre            = {{cslist|Novel|novel in verse|poem|drama|short story|fairytale}}
| language         = Russian, French
| movement         = {{plainlist|
* [[Romanticism]]
* [[Literary realism|Realism]]
* [[Classicism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004484054_007 | doi=10.1163/9789004484054_007 | chapter=Pushkin between Classicism, Romanticism and Realism | title=Two Hundred Years of Pushkin, Volume III | date=2004 | last1=Weststeijn | first1=Willem G. | pages=47–56 | isbn=978-90-04-48405-4 }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
| notableworks     = {{cslist|''[[Eugene Onegin]]''|''[[The Captain's Daughter]]''|''[[Boris Godunov (play)|Boris Godunov]]''|''[[Ruslan and Ludmila]]''}}
| period           = [[Golden Age of Russian Poetry]]
| alma_mater       = [[Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum]]
| signature        = Pushkin Signature.svg
| image_size       =
}}
'''Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin''' (Janam: [[6 June]], [[1799]], [[Moscow]]; maut: [[10 February]] [[1837]], [[St Petersburg]]) ek [[Russia]]n  [[poet]] , [[novel]]ist, [[drama]]tist aur [[writer|short stories]] ke [[writer]]   rahaa. Log soche hae ki Pushkin Russia ke sab se barraa poet rahaa. Uu Russian [[literature]] promote karisrahaa. Pushkin uu rakam se likhat rahaa jon ki uu time talak koi Russian nai likhe rahaa. Uu Russian me uu rakam likhat rahaa jaise ki baat kaeaa jaawe hae.

==Palwaar==
[[File:Pushkin_Coat_of_arms.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Pushkin palwaar ke coat of arms]]
[[File:PuschkinSL.JPG|thumb|180px|Pushkin ke pitaji, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin]]
[[File:A.S. Pushkin in youth.png|thumb|180px|Alexander Pushkin aapan jawaani me]]
Pushkin  ke pitaji, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin (1767–1848), Russian nobility ke ek jaana-maana palwar se descended rahaa  aur aapan  ancestry ke [[12th century]] talak trace kare hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Saint Petersburg 2007&quot;&gt;Н.К. Телетова [N.K. Teletova] (2007).&lt;/ref&gt; Pushkin ke amma, Nadezhda (Nadya) Ossipovna Gannibal (1775–1836), aapan naani ke bagal se [[German nobility|German]] aur [[List of nobles and magnates within Scandinavia in the 13th century|Scandinavian nobility]] se decsendant rahii.&lt;ref name=&quot;Лихауг Lihaug 2006 31–38&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Лихауг [Lihaug]| first = Э.Г. [E.G.]| title = Предки А.С. Пушкина в Германии и Скандинавии(предположительно): происхождение Христины Регины Шёберг (Ганнибал) от Клауса фон Грабо из Грабо [Ancestors of A.S. Pushkin in Germany and Scandinavia: Descent of Christina Regina Siöberg (Hannibal) from Claus von Grabow zu Grabow]| journal=Генеалогический вестник |trans-journal=Genealogical Herald |location=Saint Petersburg| volume = 27| pages = 31–38|date=November 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lihaug 2007 32–46&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Lihaug| first = Elin Galtung| title = Aus Brandenburg nach Skandinavien, dem Baltikum und Rußland. Eine Abstammungslinie von Claus von Grabow bis Alexander Sergejewitsch Puschkin 1581–1837| journal=Archiv für Familiengeschichtsforschung| volume = 11| pages = 32–46|year=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu f Ossip Abramovich Gannibal (1744–1807) aur uske aurat, Maria Alekseyevna Pushkina (1745–1818) ke larrki rahii.

Ossip Abramovich Gannibal ke pitaji, Pushkin ke par-aaja, [[Abram Petrovich Gannibal]] (1696–1781), ek African [[Page (occupation)|page]] rahaa jiske apharan kar ke  [[Constantinople]] lae jaawa gais rahaa, [[Ottoman Sultan]] ke gift khaatir aur baad me  Russia transfer karaa gais rahaa [[Peter the Great]] ke tofaa ke ruup me. Abram ek chtthii Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Great's ke larrki ke lage likhis rahaa, ki Gannibal &quot;Lagon&quot; town se rahaa, ii jaada kar ke saait ek banaawati  biography jiske Gannibal ke damaad, Rotkirch likhis rahaa.

==Bachpan ke din==
Pushkin ke janam Moscow me bhais rahaa jahaan pe uske nursemaids aur French tutors dekhat rahin, aur uu das saal ke umar talak jaada kar ke [[French bhasa]] me baat karat rahaa. Uu [[Russian bhasa ghar ke naukar aur aapan  nanny, Arina Rodionovna, jiske uu aapan maiyaa se jaada pyar karat rahaa, se sikhis rahaa.

Jab uu 15 saal ke rahaa tab uu aapan pahila kavita ke chaapis rahaa. Jab uu aapan school ke khalaas karis , as part of the first graduating class of the prestigious [[Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum|Imperial Lyceum]] [[Tsarskoye Selo]] me, Saint Petersburg ke lage, tab talak uske  talent ke Russian literary scene me jaana jaawat rahaa. Lyceum me, uu David Mara, jiske Russia ke {{ill|David de Boudry|fr}} jaana jaawe hae, French revolutionary [[Jean-Paul Marat]] ke chhotaa bhaiyaa rahaa, ke student rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Goetz&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://docplayer.fr/14907605-Jean-paul-marat-notice-generale-etapes-de-vie-action-journaux-livres-theorie-politique.html|author=Goëtz-Nothomb, Charlotte|language=fr|page=9|title=Jean-Paul Marat - Notice Generale}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; School ke baad, Pushkin,  St. Petersburg ke vibrant aur raucous intellectual youth culture me kuud gais rahaa. 1820 me uu aapan pahila lambaa kavita,  ''[[Ruslan and Ludmila]]'' ke chaapis rahaa, jiske subject aur style ke baare me dher  controversy rahaa.

==Samaj sudhaar==
Jab uu Lyceum me rahaa, tab Pushkin,  [[Alexander Kunitsyn]] ke [[Kant]]ian [[liberalism|liberal]] individualist teachings se kaafi influenced rahaa, jiske Pushkin baad me aapan kavita ''19 October'' me commemortae karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Schapiro |first1=Leonard |title=Rationalism and Nationalism in Russian Nineteenth Century Political Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/rationalismnatio0000scha_w5i9 |date=1967 |publisher=Yale University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rationalismnatio0000scha_w5i9/page/48 48]–50 |quote=Schapiro writes that Kunitsyn’s influence on Pushkin’s political views was 'important above all.' Schapiro describes Kunitsyn's philosophy as conveying 'the most enlightened principles of past thought on the relations of the individual and the state,' namely, that the ruler’s power is 'limited by the natural rights of his subjects, and these subjects can never be treated as a means to an end but only as an end in themselves.'}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pushkin apne ke  French [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] me bhi involve karis rahaa, jisse uu permanently indebted rahaa aapan jindagi bhar, khaas kar ke  [[Voltaire]], jiske uu describe karis rahaa  as &quot;the first to follow the new road, and to bring the lamp of philosophy into the dark archives of history&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kahn |first1=Andrew |title=Pushkin's Lyric Intelligence |date=2008 |publisher=OUP Oxford |page=283}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Pushkin |first1=Alexander |title=The Letters of Alexander Pushkin |url=https://archive.org/details/lettersofalexand0000push |date=1967 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/lettersofalexand0000push/page/164 164]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Pushkin dhire-dhire samaj sudhar me lag gais aur literary radicals ke spokesman banaa rahaa. Isse sarkar khus nai rahaa aur uske capital se   May 1820 me transfer kar diis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Wight |first=C. |title=Pushkin, poet and troublemaker - the early years |url=https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/blackeuro/pushkinpoet.html |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=www.bl.uk |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828075943/https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/blackeuro/pushkinpoet.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu [[Caucasus]] gais aur fir [[Crimea]] aur iske baad [[Kamianka, Cherkasy Oblast|Kamianka]] aur [[House-Museum of Alexander Pushkin|Chișinău in Bessarabia]].

Uu [[Filiki Eteria]] ke join karis rahaa, ek secret organization jon  [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] ke raaj  [[Greece]] me ke overthrow kar ke ek  independent Greek state banae maangat rahaa. Uske [[Greek Revolution]]  inspire karis rahaa aur jab  Ottoman Empire ke virod me larrai suruu bhais rahaa, uu ek diary rakkhis rahaa jahan pe uu national uprising ke record rakkhis rahaa.

==Aage barrnaa==
[[File:Pushkin derzhavin.jpg|thumb|Pushkin ek kavita parrhe hae [[Gavrila Derzhavin]] ke khaatir ek exam me Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum me, 8 January 1815 me. Painting ke [[Ilya Repin]] (1911) me karis rahaa]]
[[File:Анна Петровна Керн.jpg|left|thumb|180px|Pushkin premi [[Anna Petrovna Kern]] se saadi karis rahaa, jiske khaatir saait uu likhis rahaa [[wikisource:To*** Kern|most famous love poem]] Russian me]]
Uu Chișinău me 1823 talak rahaa aur dui  [[Romanticism|Romantic]] kavita likhis rahaa jiske kaaran uske barrai karaa gais rahaa: ''[[The Prisoner of the Caucasus (poem)|The Prisoner of the Caucasus]]'' aur ''[[The Fountain of Bakhchisaray]]''. 1823 me, Pushkin [[Odessa]] gais, jahan uske takkar fir se sarkar se bhais, jon uske exile me uske maiyaa ke rural estate [[Mikhaylovskoye Museum Reserve|Mikhailovskoye]],  [[Pskov]] ke lage, 1824 se 1826 talak bhejis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;''Images of Pushkin in the works of the black &quot;pilgrims&quot;.'' Ahern, Kathleen M. [[The Mississippi Quarterly]] p. 75(11) Vol. 55 No. 1 {{ISSN|0026-637X}}. 22 December 2001.&lt;/ref&gt;

Mikhailovskoye me, 1825 me, Pushkin ek kavita likhis ''To***''. Ii maana jaawe hae ki uu ii kavita ke  [[Anna Petrovna Kern|Anna Kern]] ke dedicate karis rahaa, lekin duusra jan aur kuchh soche hae. Poet Mikhail Dudin biswas karat rahaa ki ii kavita  naukar Olga Kalashnikova ke dedicated rahaa.&lt;ref name=VNLS&gt;{{in lang|ru}} [http://www.lych.ru/online/0ainmenu-65/32--s32008/96-n-- Vadim Nikolayev. To whom «Magic Moment» has been dedicated?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002133033/http://www.lych.ru/online/0ainmenu-65/32--s32008/96-n-- |date=2 October 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Pushkin studies|Pushkinist]] Kira Victorova biswas karat rahaa ki ii kavita  Empress Elizaveta Alekseyevna ke dedicated rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{in lang|ru}} [http://esdek.narod.ru/48/pushkin.htm In an interview with Kira Victorova] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507083421/http://esdek.narod.ru/48/pushkin.htm |date=7 May 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Vadim Nikolayev bahas karis ki e Empress ke baare me idea biswas kare laayak nai rahaa aur iske baare discuss nai karis , jab uu try karat rahaa prove kare ki ii kavita Tatyana Larina,  ''Eugene Onegin'' ke heroine ke dedicated rahaa.&lt;ref name=VNLS /&gt; Wahii saal me (1825) Pushkin likhis rahaa ki  ii ek mashuur play hoe jaai , the drama ''[[Boris Godunov (play)|Boris Godunov]]'', jab uu aapan maiyaa ke estate me rahaa. Lekin uske iske chaape ke ijaajat nai milaa, paaanch saal baad talak. Ii drama ke original aur uncensored version ke kkhaali 2007 stage karaa jaawe sakaa rahaa.

{{BD|1799|1837|Pushkin, Alexander}}

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  <page>
    <title>Frida Kahlo</title>
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      <text bytes="10151" sha1="njdia029btvs9lzvfkvb8kzdnwbb7r2" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Artist
| name = Frida Kahlo
| image = Frida Kahlo Diego Rivera 1932.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| caption = Frida Kahlo aur Diego Rivera
| birthname =Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón
| birthdate = [[6 July]] [[1907]]
| location = Coyoacán, [[Mexico]]
| deathdate = [[13 July]] [[1954]]
| deathplace = Coyoacán, [[Mexico]]
| nationality = [[Mexico|Mexican]]
| field = [[Painting]]
| training = Self–taught
| movement = Surrealism
| works = '''in museums''':&lt;br /&gt;
* Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York
* Fundación Proa, [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]]
* Frida Kahlo Museum, [[Mexico City]]
* Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin
* Madison Museum of Contemporary Art, Wisconsin
* Museo Dolores Olmedo, Xochimilco, Mexico City
* Museo de Arte Moderno, Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, Mexico City
* Museum of Modern Art, [[New York City]]
* Phoenix Art Museum, Phoenix, Arizona
* San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, California
| patrons = '''and friends''':&lt;br /&gt;
* Julian Levy Gallery, New York City
* Renou &amp; Colle Gallery, [[Paris]]
* Nickolas Muray
* Lola Alvarez Bravo
* [[Marcel Duchamp]]
* André Breton
| awards =
}}

'''Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón ''' ([[6 July]] [[1907]] – [[13 July]] [[1954]]), jiske jaada kar ke '''Frida Kahlo'''ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa, ek [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[painter]] rahaa. Uske aapan personal works me surreal khatir jaana jaawe hai. Uske saadi Diego Rivera, ek aur painter, se saathe bhais rahaa.

== Jawani ke din aur palwaar ==
Frida Kahlo ke janam 6 July 1907 ke uske mai-baap ke khar, ''La Casa Azul'' (The Blue House), Coyoacán me bhais rahaa. Uu time pe ii [[Mexico City]] ke bahaar ek chota town rahaa.

Uske pitaji, Guillermo Kahlo (1871-1941), ke janam Carl Wilhelm Kahlo ke naam se Pforzheim, [[Germany]] me Henriette Kaufmann aur Jakob Heinrich Kahlo se bhais rahaa. Jab ki Frida apne batawat rahii ki uu Hungarian-Jewish hae,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Herrera | first = Hayden | authorlink = Hayden Herrera | title = A Biography of Frida Kahlo | url = https://archive.org/details/fridabiographyof00herr_0 | publisher = HarperCollins | date = 1983 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0060085896 | page = [https://archive.org/details/fridabiographyof00herr_0/page/6 5]}}&lt;/ref&gt; research kare waala log ii paain hae ki uu Jewish nai lekin [[Lutheran]] [[Germans]] ancestory ke rahii.&lt;ref name=&quot;jerpost1&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Ronnen|first=Meir|coauthors=|title=Frida Kahlo's father wasn't Jewish after all|pages=|publisher=The Jerusalem Post|date=2006-04-20|url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1143498883340&amp;pagename=JPArticle%2FShowFull|accessdate=2009-09-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713125036/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1143498883340&amp;pagename=JPArticle%2FShowFull |date=2011-07-13 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Guillermo Kahlo 1891 me Mexico gais jab ki uu 19 saal ke rahis aur huan pe pahunchhte aapan German forename, Wilhelm,ke badal ke Spanish equivalent, 'Guillermo' kar diis.

Frida's ke maiya, Matilde Calderón y Gonzalez, ek devout Catholicrahii, jon ki jaada kar ke[[indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]], aur Spanish descent ke rahii.&lt;ref name=&quot;Frida Kahlo (1907-1954), Mexican Painter&quot;&gt;{{cite web | title=Frida Kahlo (1907-1954), Mexican Painter | work=Biography, www.fridakahlo.com | url=http://www.fridakahlo.com/bio.shtml | accessdate=2007-06-02 | archive-date=2004-03-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040324203411/http://www.fridakahlo.com/bio.shtml | url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Artistic career ==
=== Suruu ke career ===
[[File:Guillermo Kahlo - Frida Kahlo, June 15, 1919 - Google Art Project (restored).jpg|thumb|Kahlo 15 June 1919 me, 11 saal ke umar me]]
Kahlo chhotaa se art like karat rahii, aur uske sikhaae waala  printmaker Fernando Fernández (jon uske pitaji ke dost rahaa) rahaa aur notebook me skeches ke banae ke milaa rahaa. {{sfn|Zamora|1990|p=20}} 1925 me, uu school se bahaare  kaam kare lagi aapan palwaar ke madat kare ke khaatir.{{sfn|Zamora|1990|p=21}} Kuchh din talak [[stenographer]] ke kaam kare ke baad, uu Fernández ke khaatir paid engraving apprentice ban gais.{{sfn|Herrera|2002|pp=26–40}} Uu Kahlo ke talent se impressed rahaa,{{sfn|Kettenmann|2003|p=12}} lekin ii time Kahlo art me career ke baare me nai sochat rahii. {{sfn|Zamora|1990|p=20}}

18 saal ke umar me ek kharaab  bus accident ke baad,  Kahlo ke jindagi bhar pirraa howat rahaa. Jab uu accident ke baad tiin mahina talak khatiyaa me rahi, tab Kahlo paint kare ke suruu kar diis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;www.frida-kahlo-foundation.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Frida Kahlo Biography {{!}} Life, Paintings, Influence on Art {{!}} frida-kahlo-foundation.org |url=https://www.frida-kahlo-foundation.org/biography.html |access-date=6 July 2020 |website=www.frida-kahlo-foundation.org |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407013542/https://www.frida-kahlo-foundation.org/biography.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu ek  [[Medical illustration|medical illustrator]] ke kaam ke baare me bhi soche rahii, jisse uu aapan interest science aur art me, ke combine kare sakat rahii. Uske maiyaa uske ek  specially-made [[easel]] diis rahaa, jisse uu khatiyaa me paint kare saket rahii, aur uske pitaji uske aapan kuchh puraana oil paints ke diis rahaa. Uu easel ke uppar ek sisaa rakkhis rahaa, jisse uu apne ke dekhe sakat rahii.&lt;ref name=&quot;www.frida-kahlo-foundation.org&quot; /&gt; Chitrkaar se , Kahlo aapan identity aur  existence ke explore kare sakat rahii.  Uu batais ki, &quot;I paint myself because I am often alone and I am the subject I know best.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;www.frida-kahlo-foundation.org&quot; /&gt; Uu  baad me batais ki uske  accident aur isolating recovery period ke kaaran uu maangat rahii  &quot;to begin again, painting things just as [she] saw them with [her] own eyes and nothing more.&quot;{{sfn|Herrera|2002|p=75}}

Ii time jon painting Kahlo banaae rahii usme se jaada wahii ke aur uske  bahini log ke aur school ke friends ke portrait rahaa. Uske pahila chitrkaari aur chitthi  dekhae hae ki uu  European artists se inspiration liis rahaa, khaas kar ke  Renaissance masters jaise [[Sandro Botticelli]] aur [[Bronzino]] aur ''[[avant-garde]]'' movements se, jaisr [[Neue Sachlichkeit]] aur [[Cubism]].
1929 me aapan admii, [[Diego Rivera]] ke saathe  Morelos jaae ke baad, 1929 me, Kahlo  city of [[Cuernavaca]] se inspired rahii, jahaan uu log rahat rahin.{{sfn|Udall|2003|p=11}} Uu aapan  artistic style ke badal ke jaada kar ke  inspiration Mexican folk art se liis rahii.{{sfnm|1a1=Dexter|1y=2005|1pp=15–17|2a1=Kettenmann|2y=2003|2pp=20–25}} Art ke historian,Andrea Kettenmann ii batais hae ki, uske   [[Adolfo Best Maugard]] ke treatise on the subject se influenced rahii, kahaeki uu  characteristics that he outlined&amp;nbsp; ke aapan paintings me incorporate kare rahii– jaisr ki koi  perspective nai aur  pre-Columbian  colonial periods of Mexican art ke jorr ke.{{sfn|Kettenmann|2003|pp=24–25}} Uu apne ke ''[[La Raza]]'' se identify kre rahii, jon Mexico ke log rahin, aur uske thos interest iske  sanskriti uske art ke hissa uske jindagi bhar rahaa 

=== United States me kaam ===
[[Image:Frida Kahlo - 1926 WaPo.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Kahlo in 1926]]
Jab Kahlo aur Rivera, 1930 me  San Francisco gay rahin, tab Kahlo ke American artists jaise [[Edward Weston]], [[Ralph Stackpole]], [[Timothy L. Pflueger]], aur [[Nickolas Muray]] se mile ke mauka milaa. Jon chhe mahina uu San Francisco me rahii, Kahlo ke khaatir ek productive time rahaa,{{sfnm|1a1=Herrera|1y=2002|1pp=117–125|2a1=Zamora|2y=1990|2pp=42–43|3a1=Kettenmann|3y=2003|3p=32}} jon aapan folk art style ke aur develop karis . Portraits banae ke alaawa uske dher nawaa dost banais.{{sfnm|1a1=Herrera|1y=2002|1pp=118–125|2a1=Kettenmann|2y=2003|2p=27}} Uu ''[[Frieda and Diego Rivera (painting)|Frieda and Diego Rivera]]'' (1931), ek double portrait jon wedding photograph pe based rahaa,{{sfnm|1a1=Herrera|1y=2002|1pp=124–127|2a1=Kettenmann|2y=2003|2p=31|3a1=Ankori|3y=2002|3pp=140–145}} aur ''The Portrait of [[Luther Burbank]]'' (1931), jon dekhae hae eponymous horticulturist insaan aur paudha ke biich ke ek hybrid.{{sfn|Herrera|2002|pp=123–125}} Jab uu apne ke  publicly khaali Rivera's spouse bataawat rahii, ek artist nai ,{{sfnm|1a1=Herrera|1y=2002|1pp=117–125|2a1=Marnham|2y=1998|2pp=234–235}} uu pahils dafe ek exhibition me bhaag liis rahaa, jab ''Frieda and Diego Rivera'' ke Sixth Annual Exhibition of the San Francisco Society of Women Artists in the [[Legion of Honor (museum)|Palace of the Legion of Honor]] me jorraa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.sfwomenartists.org/SFWAArchives2014.pdf |title=SFWA History Timeline |publisher=San Francisco Women Artists |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804210151/http://www.sfwomenartists.org/SFWAArchives2014.pdf |archive-date=4 August 2014 |url-status=dead |access-date=20 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/weta/fridakahlo/life/timeline_1930.html |title=Timeline |date=March 2005 |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |access-date=20 July 2016 |archive-date=19 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819033412/http://www.pbs.org/weta/fridakahlo/life/timeline_1930.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;


Uske janam Coyoacán, Mexico me bhais rahaa. Ek motar ke dhakka ke kaaran uske aapan medical career ke chhorr ke painting le ke parraa. 


== Chapa ke gallery ==

&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:PhotoOneCasaAzul.JPG
Image:PatioCasaAzulDetail.JPG
Image:WalkwayCasaAzul.JPG
Image:CafeCasaAzul.JPG
Image:StairwayCasaAzul.JPG
File:2013-12-22 Grabmal Frida Kahlo Museum Mexico City anagoria.JPG
File:Kahlo Museum interior.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

== Dusra websites ==
'''For a complete biography, photos, paintings, chronology, books and films visit:'''
* [http://www.fridakahlofans.com/ The Life and Art of Frida Kahlo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724084112/https://fridakahlofans.com/ |date=2023-07-24 }}


== References ==

&lt;references/&gt;

{{BD|1907|1954|Kahlo, Frida}}

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    <title>Andy Warhol</title>
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      <comment>Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="12131" sha1="060xsf4umy7a6p5ky9bae4o8ldigpdm" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Artist
| name          = Andy Warhol
| image         = Andy Warhol 1977.jpg
| imagesize     = 200px
| caption       = Warhol ke chapa 1977 me
| birthname     = Andrew Warhola
| birthdate     = {{birth date|1928|8|6}}
| location      = Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania [[United States|U.S.]]
| deathdate     = {{death date and age|1987|2|22|1928|8|6}}
| deathplace    = [[New York City]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| nationality   = American (United States)
| field         = Painting, Cinema
| training      = Carnegie Mellon University
| movement      = Pop art
| works  = ''Chelsea Girls'' (1966), ''Exploding Plastic Inevitable'' (1966), ''Campbell's Soup Cans'' (1962),
}}
'''Andy Warhol''' (paidais waala naam '''Andrew Warhola''', [[6 August]] [[1928]] - [[22 February]] [[1987]]) [[United States|American]] ke ek sab se jaada jaana maana [[artist]] rahaa. Uske janam [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]] me bhais rahaa. Uu suruu me ek [[Advertisement|commercial]] artist ke kaam karis rahaa. Uu dukaan khatir [[advertisement]] aur [[window]] display banais rahaa. Kuch din baad uu ek artist ban gais aur aapan [[Pop Art]], jisme sab object aur image ke repeat karaa jaawe hae, khatir jaana maana hoe gais. Uske sab se jaada jaana maana painting American [[movie]] star, [[Marilyn Monroe]] ke rang bharaa [[portrait]] rahaa.

== Bachpan (1928–48) ==
Andy Warhol ke janam [[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]] me [[6 August]] [[1928]] me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://warholfoundation.org/legacy/biography.html |title=Andy Warhol: Biography |publisher=Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts |year=2002 |access-date=2010-12-26 |archive-date=2010-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724192941/http://www.warholfoundation.org/legacy/biography.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu Andrij Warhola (maut: 1942) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.warhola.com/biography.html |title=Biography |publisher=Warhola.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur [[Julia Warhola|Julia]] (née Zavacka, 1892–1972),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.warhola.com/andysmother.html |title=Mother |publisher=Warhola.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ke chutha larrka rahaa. Uske mai-baap [[Rusyns]] (nai to [[Lemkos]]) emigrants from [[Miková|Mikó]] (now called Miková), located in today’s northeastern [[Slovakia]], part of the former [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] ke immigrant rahin. Warhol ke pitaji 1914 me [[US]] aais rahaa au uske maiya, and 1921 me, Andy Warhol ke grandparents ke maut ke baad, uske join karis. Warhol ke pitaji ek coal mine me kaam karis rahaa. Uske palwaar 55 Beelen Street aur baad me 3252 Dawson Street, [[Oakland (Pittsburgh)|Oakland]], Pittsburgh me rahat rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bockris&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|first=Victor |last=Bockris |authorlink=Victor Bockris |title=The life and death of Andy Warhol |url=https://archive.org/details/lifedeathofandyw00bock |publisher=[[Bantam Books]] |location=New York City |year=1989 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lifedeathofandyw00bock/page/4 4]–5 |isbn=0-553-05708-1 |oclc=19631216}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske palwaar [[Ruthenian Catholic Church|Byzantine Catholic]] rahin aur [[St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church (Pittsburgh)|St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church]] jaawat rahin. Andy Warhol ke lage dui bhaeya, Ján aur Pavol, rahaa jon ki aaj ke [[Slovakia]] me pide bhae ahin. Pavol ke lark, [[James Warhola]], ek safal  children's book illustrator banaa rahaa.

Jab uu [[third grade]] me rahaa, tab Warhol ke [[Chorea (disease)|chorea]] pakarr liis rahaa. Uu [[hypochondriac]] ban gais, aur aspatal aur doctor log se dare lagaa.  Uu aapan bachpam ke time jaada kar ke bed-ridden  rahaa aur school me duusra larrkan se uske patat nai rahaa, lekin aapan maiyake dulara rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|first=Fred Lawrence |last=Guiles |title=Loner at the ball: the life of Andy Warhol |url=https://archive.org/details/loneratballlifeo0000guil |publisher=[[Bantam Books]] |location=London |year=1989 |pages= |isbn=0-593-01540-1 |oclc=19455278}}{{Page needed|date=August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kabhi kabhi jab uu khatia me parraa rahaa tab uu radio ke sunat rahaa aur movire star ke chhapa batora rahaa.  Warhol baad me tais ki ii time uske jindagi m bahut important rahaa. Jab Worhol 13 saal ke rahaa tab uske pitaji ke maut k miar ke accident me hoe gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/popart/Andy-Warhol.html |title=The Prince of Pop Art |publisher=Arthistoryarchive.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===1950s===
Warhol ke barraa-barraa fashion magazines hire karis rahaa, jisme rahaa ''Glamour'', ''[[Mademoiselle (magazine)|Mademoiselle]]'', ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'', aur [[Harper's Bazaar|''Harper's Bazaar'']], aur uu [[1950s]] me iilog ke khaatis dher  advertisements banais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=February 1953 |title=Moving into a Country Flat |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_glamour_1953-02_28_6/mode/2up?q=warhol |journal=Glamour |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=120}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=December 1954 |title=Gift ideas for the girl of action |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_glamour_1954-12_32_4/page/98/mode/2up?q=warhol |journal=Glamour |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=98–99}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=August 15, 1955 |title=Shoe news here |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_vogue_1955-08-15_126_3/page/n83/mode/2up?q=warhol |journal=Vogue |volume=126 |issue=3 |pages=83}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=August 1957 |title=The long-distance shoes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mademoiselle_1957-08_45_4/page/284/mode/2up?q=warhol |journal=Mademoiselle |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=204–205}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii time me, gallerist [[Alexander Iolas]] ke  Worhol ke paawe ke khaatir  credit karaa gais hae aur pahila organized his first solo exhibition, ''Andy Warhol: Fifteen Drawings Based on the Writings of Truman Capote'',  [[Hugo Gallery]]  New York me 1952 me organise karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Baboulias-2017&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Baboulias |first=Yiannis |date=August 9, 2017 |title=The Man Who Discovered Warhol |url=https://www.frieze.com/article/man-who-discovered-warhol |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120121822/https://www.frieze.com/article/man-who-discovered-warhol |archive-date=January 20, 2022 |access-date=April 11, 2024 |website=frieze}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Gopnik|2020|p=131}}

Warhol dher covers  ''Interiors'' magazine khaatir 1953 aur 1954 ke biich me banais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Lot - WARHOL, ANDY; et al. Interiors &amp; Industrial Design. |url=https://www.swanngalleries.com/auction-lot/warhol-andy-et-al.-interiors-industrial-desig_0C7462CB3F |access-date=2026-01-03 |website=www.swanngalleries.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Sirabella |first=Sylvia |date=July 21, 2017 |title=Rediscovering Olga Gueft, Foremother of Interior Design |url=https://metropolismag.com/profiles/rediscovering-olga-gueft-foremother-interior-design/ |access-date=2026-01-03 |website=Metropolis |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1954 me, Warhol aapan kaam ke dekhais rahaa, dher dafe,  Vito Giallo's Loft Gallery, New York me.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Dwyer |first=Kate |date=2022-04-05 |title=He Worked for Warhol, but That's Just Part of the Story |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/05/style/nyc-antiques-vito-giallo-warhol.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250704070304/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/05/style/nyc-antiques-vito-giallo-warhol.html |archive-date=2025-07-04 |access-date=2026-01-03 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[ARTnews]]'' ii batais hae ki  Warhol  &quot;developed an original style of line drawing,&quot; ii note karte  &quot;the effect of the reverse side of a negative, although his lines are broken and the spaces not clouded.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Guest |first=Barbara |date=Jun–Aug 1954 |title=Reviews and previews |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_artnews_june-august-1954_53_4/page/74/mode/2up?q=warhol |journal=ARTnews |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=75}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske &quot;blotted line&quot; technique printmaking aur graphite drawing on paper techniques ke jorris rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Benstock2&quot; /&gt; Ek saal me, Warhol, jon uu time aapan railroad apartment East 34th Street se kaam karat rahaa, Giallo ke invite karis ki uu uske pahila  paid studio assistant bane.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;

1955 me, Warhol juuta ke  manufacturer [[Israel Miller]] ke khaatir advertisement ke design kare lagaa rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Curley |first=John J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fXS0AAAAQBAJ&amp;dq=Miller+warhol+1955&amp;pg=PA67 |title=A Conspiracy of Images: Andy Warhol, Gerhard Richter, and the Art of the Cold War |date=December 3, 2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-18843-1 |pages=67}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Gray |first=Christopher |date=February 10, 2008 |title=A Little Jewel Box of a Shoe Store |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/10/realestate/10scap.html |access-date=January 19, 2025 |newspaper=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=May 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518034006/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/10/realestate/10scap.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Chitrkaar [[John Coplans]] yaad kare hae ki &quot;nobody drew shoes the way Andy did. He somehow gave each shoe a temperament of its own, a sort of sly, [[Toulouse-Lautrec]] kind of sophistication, but the shape and the style came through accurately and the buckle was always in the right place.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Coplans |first=John |url=http://archive.org/details/andywarhol0000copl |title=Andy Warhol |date=1970 |publisher=New York Graphic Society |isbn=978-0-8212-0397-2 |location=Greenwich, Conn |pages=8}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1956 talak, Warhol ke anokha  style ke kaaran uske ek achchhaa fashion illustrator maana jaawe lagaa rahaa. Uske chitr,  L. Miller ke khaatir, ke dher attention milaa rahaa, aur uu etna busy rahaa ki uske dher kaam ke nai kare ke parraa rahaa. &lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=McClean |first=Margaret |date=August 1956 |title=Mlle picks 20 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mademoiselle_1956-08_43_4/mode/2up?q=warhol |journal=Mademoiselle |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=258}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1956 ke ek interview ''Mademoiselle'' se, Warhol aapan  approach ke commercial aur fine art ke jorrnaa batais rahaa: &quot;Every time I draw a shoe for a job, I do an illustration for myself.&quot; Uu ii maanis ki &quot;you almost have to specialize to get assignments,&quot; lekin ii note karis rahaa ki jaada New York art directors maangat rahin  &quot;give you a chance to do things.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; Warhol ke aapan personal chitr whimsical juuta ke design me   [[gold leaf]] rahaa, aur har ek koi jaana-maana jan jaise [[Truman Capote]], [[Kate Smith]], [[James Dean]], [[Julie Andrews]], [[Elvis Presley]], aur [[Zsa Zsa Gabor]] rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Life-1957&quot;&gt;{{Cite magazine |date=January 21, 1957 |title=Crazy Golden Slippers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFQEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA13 |magazine=Life (Magazine) |pages=12–13 |access-date=July 3, 2025 |archive-date=February 19, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219130209/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFQEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA13 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Mugrabi |first=Colby |date=March 13, 2019 |title=The Shoes of Andy Warhol |url=https://www.minniemuse.com/articles/musings/the-shoes-of-andy-warhol |access-date=January 19, 2025 |website=Minnie Muse |archive-date=March 28, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328022014/https://www.minniemuse.com/articles/musings/the-shoes-of-andy-warhol |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii sab  $50 se $225 ek kar ke bikaa rahaa, jab uske   [[Bodley Gallery]], New York me December 1956 me dekhaawa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Life-1957&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Tyler |first=Parker |date=December 1956 |title=Reviews and previews |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_artnews_1956-12_55_8/page/58/mode/2up?q=warhol |journal=ARTnews |volume=55 |issue=8 |pages=59}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

{{BD|1928|1987|Warhol, Andy}}
{{Bio-stub}}

[[Category:A]]
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[[Category:Painters]]
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  <page>
    <title>Frank Lloyd Wright</title>
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      <text bytes="78931" sha1="rwwhrwdwdkyyix03k16vybkqxei5lez" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Architect
|image=Frank Lloyd Wright LC-USZ62-36384.jpg
|name=Frank Lloyd Wright
|caption=Frank Lloyd Wright ke chapa 1926 me
|Gender= Male
|mother=Anna Lloyd Jones
|father=William Russell Cary Wright
|nationality= American
|birth_date={{birth date|mf=yes|1867|6|8}}
|birth_place= Richland Center, Wisconsin
|death_date={{death date and age|mf=yes|1959|4|9|1867|6|8}}
|death_place= Phoenix, Arizona
|significant_buildings=Robie House&lt;br /&gt;Fallingwater&lt;br /&gt;Johnson Wax Building&lt;br /&gt;Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum&lt;br /&gt;Westcott House
|significant_projects=Florida Southern College
|awards=
|}}
'''Frank Lloyd Wright''' ([[8 June]] [[1867]] – [[9 April]] [[1959]]) early [[1900]]'s ke ek jaana maana [[architect]] rahaa. Uu dher rakam ke buildings, jisme banks, holiday resorts, office buildings, churches, ek [[synagogue]], ek [[gas station]], ek beer garden aur ek art museum rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.pbs.org/flw/buildings/index.html
|title=Frank Lloyd Wright . Life and Work
|3=PBS
|publisher=www.pbs.org
|accessdate=2009-05-18
|last=
|first=
|archive-date=2009-06-08
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608005525/http://www.pbs.org/flw/buildings/index.html
|url-status=dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu American style ke building design ke suruu karis rahaa aur 20th century ke sab se barraa architect maana jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.wrightplus.org/flw/flw.html
|title=About Frank Lloyd Wright
|publisher=www.wrightplus.org
|accessdate=2009-05-18
|last=
|first=
|archive-date=2009-04-03
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403025924/http://www.wrightplus.org/flw/flw.html
|url-status=dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

== Bachpan ke din ==
Frank Lloyd Wright ke janam ek kheti waala town, [[Richland Center, Wisconsin]], United States me, 1867 me, bhais rahaa. Suruu me uske naam Frank Lincoln Wright rahaa, lekin uu aapan mai-baap ke divorce ke baad me, aapan maiya ke palwaar ke honour kare ke khai, ii naam ke badal liis.  Uske pitaji, William Carey Wright (1825–1904) ek locally admired orator, music teacher, occasional lawyer aur itinerant minister rahaa. William Wright, Anna Lloyd Jones (1838/39 – 1923), jon ki ek a county school teacher rahii, ke uu time milis jab uu [[Richland County, Wisconsin|Richland County]] me superitendent of school rahaa. William Wright, originally [[Massachusetts]] se aais rahaa,  jahan pe uu ek [[Baptist]] minister rahaa lekin baad me uu aapan aurat ke palwaar ke [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] ke join kar liis. Anna ek barraa aur dhani Lloyd Jones family of Unitarians ke member rahii, jon ki [[Wales]] se Spring Green, Wisconsin immigrate bhae rahin. Anna ke ek bhaiyaa, [[Jenkin Lloyd Jones (minister)|Jenkin Lloyd Jones]], Unitarian faith in me Western United States me ek khaas admii rahaa. 

Wright family ke paisa ke tangais rahaa aur uu logan [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]] laur gain, jahan pe Lloyd Jones, William ke kaam paae ke khatir madat karis. Uu logan [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] me settle hoe gain, jahan pe William  music parhaat rahaa aur Unitarian society ke matri rahaa.

Jab Wright 14 saal ke rahaa, tab uske mai-baap separate hoe gain, kaahe ki Anna aapan admi ke paisa kamae ke dikkat se khusi nai rahii.  Ii divorce 1885 me finalise bhais jab William , Anna ke uppar lack of physical affection ke khatir mukadma kais. Iske baad William  Wisconsin chorr ke chal diis aur Wright uske fir nai dekhis.&lt;ref&gt;''An Autobiography,'' by Frank Lloyd Wright, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, New York City, 1943, p. 51&lt;/ref&gt; Ii time Wright ke middle name  ke badal ke Lloyd se  Lincoln kar dewa gais.

== Kaam ke suchi ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+Completed Works table
|-
! Name !! City !! State/Country !! Designed || Built || Other Information || Image
|-
| [[Unity Chapel]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|43.1325444|-90.0614333|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1886 || 1886 || Collaboration with [[Joseph Lyman Silsbee]] || [[File:Unity Chapel.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Hillside Home School I]] || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1887 || 1887 || Collaboration with [[Joseph Lyman Silsbee]]&lt;br /&gt;Demolished 1950 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio|Frank Lloyd Wright Home]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1889 || 1889 || Playroom and kitchen addition 1895&lt;br /&gt;Remodeled 1911&lt;br /&gt;Restored 1974-1987 || [[File:Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio (west side zoom).JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[William Storrs MacHarg House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1890 || 1891 || Remodeled 1903 by [[Louis Sullivan]]&lt;br /&gt;Demolished 1926 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Louis Sullivan Bungalow]] || [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi|Ocean Springs]] || [[Mississippi]] || 1890 || 1890 || Destroyed by [[Hurricane Katrina]] ||
|-
| [[James A. Charnley Bungalow]] || [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi|Ocean Springs]] || [[Mississippi]] || 1890 || 1890 || Heavily damaged by [[Hurricane Katrina]] 2005 [http://www.franklloydwrightinfo.com/Katrina.html (Photographs)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061026092426/http://www.franklloydwrightinfo.com/Katrina.html |date=2006-10-26 }}&lt;br /&gt;Undergoing reconstruction 2009 [http://misspreservation.com/2009/09/02/katrina-survivors-charnley-houses/ (Photographs)] ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[James Charnley House|James A. Charnley House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1891 || 1892 || Collaboration with [[Louis Sullivan]] || [[File:James Charnley Residence HABS ILL,16-CHIG,12-1.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Dr. Allison W. Harlan House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8146661|-87.599777|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1891 || 1892 || Destroyed by fire 1963 ||
|-
| [[Warren McArthur House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8063254|-87.5939459|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1892 || 1892 || Remodeled 1900 || [[File:Warren McArthur House Front Elevation View.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[George Blossom House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8061975|-87.5939539|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1892 || 1892 || Garage added 1907 || [[File:George Blossom House Corner View Through Trees.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Robert G. Emmond House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8120033|-87.8652245|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[La Grange, Illinois|La Grange]] || [[Illinois]] || 1892 || 1892 || || [[File:RGEmmondHouse.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Thomas H. Gale House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1892 || 1892 || || [[File:Oak Park Il Thomas Gale House2.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Robert P. Parker House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1892 || 1892 || || [[File:Oak Park Il Parker House1.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Albert Sullivan House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8114755|-87.5942838|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1892 || 1892 || Collaboration with [[Louis Sullivan]]&lt;br /&gt;Demolished 1970 || [[File:Albert Sullivan House HABS.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[W. Irving Clark House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.810234|-87.8690332|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[La Grange, Illinois|La Grange]] || [[Illinois]] || 1892 || 1893 || || [[File:WIClarkHouse.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Walter Gale House|Walter H. Gale House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1893 || 1893 || || [[File:Oak Park Il Walter Gale House4.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Robert M. Lamp Cottage]]&lt;br /&gt;(Rocky Roost)&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|43.1253016|-89.4035947|format=dms|type:landmark}} per {{cite web|title=Wright Studies: Robert M. Lamp Cottage, Rocky Roost, Lake Mendota, Wisc. (1893) (S.021) Remodel (1901)|url=http://www.steinerag.com/flw/Artifact%20Pages/PhRtS021.htm|work=The Wright Library|accessdate=8 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1893 || 1893 || Additions and alterations 1901&lt;br /&gt;Destroyed by fire 1934 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Lake Mendota Boathouse]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|43.0787939|-89.3917313|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1893 || 1893 || Demolished 1926 ||
|-
| [[Francis J. Woolley House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1893 || 1893 || || [[File:Oak Park Il Woolley House2.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[William H. Winslow House]] || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1893 || 1894 || ||
|-
| [[Peter Goan House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8119893|-87.8658253|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[La Grange, Illinois|La Grange]] || [[Illinois]] || 1893 || 1894 || || 
|-
| [[Roloson Houses|Robert W. Roloson Houses]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1894 || 1894 || || [[File:Robert W Roloson Houses (Adjusted).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Frederick Bagley House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.801072|-87.9169375|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Hinsdale, Illinois|Hinsdale]] || [[Illinois]] || 1894 || 1894 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e9def2&quot;
| [[Henry and Lily Mitchell House]] || [[Racine, Wisconsin|Racine]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1894 || 1894 || May be the work of Cecil Corwin,&lt;ref&gt;
{{Cite book
  | last = Hertzberg
  | first = Wright
  | title = Wright in Racine: The Architect's Vision for One American City
  | url = https://archive.org/details/wrightinracinear0000hert
  | publisher = Pomegranate
  | year = 2004
  | location = Korea
  | page = 84
  | isbn = 0764928902 }}&lt;/ref&gt; or a collaboration between Corwin and Wright&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
  | last = Storrer
  | first = William A.sizes/o/
  | title = Henry and Lily Mitchell Residence in Racine, Wisconsin
  | work = FLlW Update
  | url = http://www.franklloydwrightinfo.com/mitchell.html
  | accessdate = 11 June 2010
  | archive-date = 13 April 2010
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100413061327/http://www.franklloydwrightinfo.com/mitchell.html
  | url-status = dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt; ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Dr. H. W. Bassett House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8863843|-87.7946395|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1894 || 1894 || Remodel &lt;br /&gt; Demolished 1922 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Francisco Terrace Apartments]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8858631|-87.6986432|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1895 || 1895 || Demolished 1974&lt;br /&gt;Facade reconstructed and relocated&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8883611|-87.7911472|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; to [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]], [[Illinois|IL]] in 1977 || [[File:Francisco Terrace Entrance Arch.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Waller Apartments|Edward C. Waller Apartments]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1895 || 1895 || One unit destroyed by fire 1968 || [[File:Edward C Waller Apts East End.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Francis Apartments]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8164922|-87.6130848|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1895 || 1895 || Demolished 1971 || [[File:Francis Apartments, cropped, (HABS ILL,16-CHIG,74-4).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Chauncey L. Williams House]] || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1895 || 1895 || || [[File:Chauncey L Williams House Front.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot; {{Anchor|Nathan G. Moore House I}}
| [[Nathan G. Moore House|Nathan G. Moore House I]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1895 || 1895 || Partially destroyed by fire 1922&lt;br /&gt;Rebuilt and redesigned 1923 ''(see [[List of Frank Lloyd Wright works#Nathan Moore House II|Nathan Moore House II]])'' || [[File:Nathan G. Moore House I (East View).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Harrison P. Young House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1895 || 1895 || Remodel || [[File:Oak Park Il Young House2.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[George W. Smith House (Oak Park, Illinois)|George W. Smith House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1895 || 1898 || || [[File:Oak Park Il Smith House1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Romeo and Juliet Windmill]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|43.1358171|-90.073514|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1896 || 1896 || Rebuilt 1938 || [[File:Romeo and Juliet Windmill (Cropped).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Heller House|Isidore H. Heller House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1896 || 1897 || || [[File:Isidore Heller House - East (front) and North elevations - HABS ILL,16-CHIG,48-1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Harry C. Goodrich House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8957632|-87.7894112|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1896 || 1896 || || [[File:Harry C. Goodrich House 2.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Charles E. Roberts House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8923835|-87.7931173|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1896 || 1896 || Remodel || [[File:Charles E. Roberts House.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Charles E. Roberts Stable]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1896 || 1896 || Remodel&lt;br /&gt;Converted to living quarters 1903-05&lt;br /&gt;Moved to present location 1929 || [[File:Oak Park Il Roberts Stable5.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[George Furbeck House|George W. Furbeck House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1897 || 1897-98 || || [[File:Oak Park Il G Furbeck House3.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Rollin Furbeck House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8951268|-87.7884758|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1897 || 1897 || Remodeled 1907 || [[File:Rollin Furbeck House Front.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Thomas H. Gale Cottage]] || [[Whitehall, Michigan|Whitehall]] || [[Michigan]] || 1897 || || || [[File:Thomas H. Gale Cottage.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[River Forest Golf Club]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8892996|-87.8056848|format=dms|type:landmark}} (precise location in this block surrounded by Bonnie Brae, Quick, Harlem, and Lake uncertain)&lt;/ref&gt; || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1898 || || Demolished ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio|Frank Lloyd Wright Home (studio addition)]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1897 || 1898 || Interior and exterior modifications 1905&lt;br /&gt;Remodeled 1911&lt;br /&gt;Restored 1982-1987 || [[File:Frank LLoyd Wright Studio Chicago Frontage.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Joseph and Helen Husser House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.958784|-87.6484215|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1899 || || Demolished 1926 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Edward C. Waller House]] || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1899 || || Remodel &lt;br /&gt; Demolished 1939 ||
|-
| [[William and Jessie M. Adams House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1900 || 1900-01 || || [[File:William M Adams House Front.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[S. A. Foster House and Stable]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1900 || 1900 || || [[File:Stephen A. Foster House and Stable.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[B. Harley Bradley House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Glenlloyd)&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.1119434|-87.861515|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Kankakee, Illinois|Kankakee]] || [[Illinois]] || 1900 || || ||
|-
| [[Warren Hickox House]] || [[Kankakee, Illinois|Kankakee]] || [[Illinois]] || 1900 || 1900 || ||
|-
| [[E.H. Pitkin Cottage]] || Sapper Island,&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|46.3155616|-83.9588499|format=dms|type:landmark}}(precise location on island uncertain)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Desbarats, Ontario|Desbarats]], [[Ontario]] || [[Canada]] || 1900 || || ||
|-
| [[Henry Wallis Cottage]] || [[Delavan, Wisconsin|Delavan]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1900 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Edward C. Waller Gates, Poultry House, and Stables]] || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1901 || || Poultry House demolished 1939&lt;br /&gt;Stables demolished early 1970s&lt;br /&gt;Gate posts and fence reused as entrance to a modern subdivision || [[File:Edward C Waller Gates (Cropped).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Fred B. Jones House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Penwern) || [[Delavan, Wisconsin|Delavan]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1901 || 1902 || ||
|-
| [[Willits House|Ward Winfield Willits House]] || [[Highland Park, Illinois|Highland Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1901 || || || [[File:Willits House.jpg|150px|]]
|-
| [[F.B. Henderson House|F. B. Henderson House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8921359|-87.9380505|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Elmhurst, Illinois|Elmhurst]] || [[Illinois]] || 1901 || 1901 || || [[File:Frank B. Henderson House (Elmhurst, Illinois) 01.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[William G. Fricke House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8961979|-87.7877355|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1901 || || || [[File:William G Fricke House Iowa Street View.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Buffalo Exposition Pavilion for the Universal Portland Cement Company]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|42.9360036|-78.8714504|format=dms|type:landmark}} (fairground, precise location within fairground uncertain)&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] || [[New York]] || 1901 || 1901 || Temporary structure&lt;br /&gt;Demolished ||
|-
| [[Frank Thomas House|Frank W. Thomas House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1901 || 1901 || || [[File:Oak Park Il Thomas House4.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[E. Arthur Davenport House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8904327|-87.8159342|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1901 || || || [[File:E Arthur Davenport House Front.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[William E. Martin House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8977068|-87.78944|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1902 || || || [[File:William E Martin House Front.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Lake Delavan Yacht Club]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|42.5999457|-88.5995972|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;!-- Per historic map --&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Delavan, Wisconsin|Delavan]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1902 || || ||
|-
| [[Hillside Home School II]] || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1902 || || || [[File:Taliesin600.jpg|150px|]]
|-
| [[Francis W. Little House I]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|40.693207|-89.616215|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]] || [[Illinois]] || 1902 || 1902 || Stable added 1909 || [[File:Francis W Little House I (Modified).jpg|150px|]]
|-
| [[Arthur Heurtley House|Arthur B. Heurtley House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1902 || 1902 || || [[File:Oak Park Il Heurtley House4.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Arthur B. Heurtley Summer House]] || [[Marquette Island]] || [[Michigan]] || 1902 || 1902 || Remodel ||
|-
| [[Mrs. George Gerts Double House, Bridge Cottage]] || [[Whitehall, Michigan|Whitehall]] || [[Michigan]] || 1902 || || || [[File:Mrs. George Gerts Double House, Bridge Cottage.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Dana-Thomas House]] || [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] || [[Illinois]] || 1902 || 1902-04 || || [[File:Dana Thomas Windows.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Walter Gertz Bridge Cottage]] || [[Whitehall, Michigan|Whitehall]] || [[Michigan]] || 1902 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Alfred W. Hebert House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1902 || || Remodel &lt;br /&gt; Partially destroyed by fire 1959; all Wright elements were removed in reconstruction||
|-
| [[George W. Spencer House]] || [[Delavan, Wisconsin|Delavan]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1902 || || ||
|-
| [[Charles S. Ross House]] || [[Delavan, Wisconsin|Delavan]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1902 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e9def2&quot;
| [[Mosher House|John A. Mosher House]] || [[Wellington, Ohio|Wellington]] || [[Ohio]] || 1902 || 1903-04 || Original unbuilt house designed for Mosher in [[Willmette, Illinois|Willmette]], Illinois. No drawings exist at Taliesin for this house as built.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation
  | last = Pfieffer
  | first = Bruce Brooks
  | last2 = Futagawa
  | first2 = Yuko
  | title = Frank Lloyd Wright Monograph 1902-1906
  | place = Tokyo
  | publisher = A.D.A. Edita
  | year = 1989
  | volume = 2
  | page = 64
  | url = http://www.savewright.org/wright_chat/viewtopic.php?t=3184&amp;postdays=0&amp;postorder=asc&amp;start=15&amp;sid=96bab247ca5374c7298ac25f167b33d3
  | isbn = 487140515X
  | access-date = 2012-02-28
  | archive-date = 2011-07-19
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110719231851/http://www.savewright.org/wright_chat/viewtopic.php?t=3184&amp;postdays=0&amp;postorder=asc&amp;start=15&amp;sid=96bab247ca5374c7298ac25f167b33d3
  | url-status = dead
  }}&lt;/ref&gt; It is also not included in several complete lists of Wright works.&lt;ref&gt;Sources where structure is not listed include:&lt;br /&gt;
{{Cite book
  | last = Clayton
  | first = Marie
  | title = Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide
  | publisher = Running Press
  | year = 2002
  | location = Philadelphia
  | isbn = 0-7624-1324-7}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{Cite book
  | last = Thomson
  | first = Iain
  | title = Frank Lloyd Wright: A Visual Encyclopedia
  | url = https://archive.org/details/franklloydwright0000thom_h7q2
  | publisher = PRC Publishing Ltd
  | year = 2002
  | location = London
  | isbn = 1-85648-533-1}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{Cite web
  | title = Chronology of Selected Events in Frank Lloyd Wright's Life
  | work = Wright's Life + Work
  | publisher = Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation
  | year = 2010
  | url = http://www.franklloydwright.org/fllwf_web_091104/Chronology.html
  | accessdate = 10 June 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[File:John A. Mosher House, April 2011.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[George Barton House|George F. Barton House]] || [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] || [[New York]] || 1902 || 1903-04 || || [[File:Frank Lloyd Wright - Barton House.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[J. J. Walser, Jr. Residence|Joseph J. Walser, Jr. House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1903 || || || [[File:Joseph J Walser Jr House 2.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Horse Show Fountain]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1903 || 1909 || Rebuilt 1969 || [[File:Oak Park Il Horse Show Fountain2.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Abraham Lincoln Center]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8229277|-87.6093739|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1903 || || Design completed by [[Dwight Perkins]] || [[File:Abraham Lincoln Center from Corner.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Robert M. Lamp House]] || [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1903 || 1903 || || [[File:Robert M. Lamp House.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Darwin D. Martin House|Darwin D. Martin Carriage House, Conservatory, and Pergola]]  || [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] || [[New York]] || 1903 || 1903-05 || Demolished 1962&lt;br /&gt;Reconstructed 2004-2007 || [[File:Darwin Martin Carriage House and Conservatory.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Darwin D. Martin House]]  || [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] || [[New York]] || 1903 || 1904-05 || Restored 2004-2010 || [[File:Darwin Martin House Front Zoom.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Edwin H. Cheney House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1903 || || || [[File:2010-04-10 3000x2000 oakpark edwin h cheney house.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Larkin Administration Building]] || [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] || [[New York]] || 1904 || || Demolished 1950 || [[File:LarkinAdministrationBuilding1906.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Unity Temple]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1904 || 1905-08 || || [[File:UnityTempleOakHill.jpg|150px|]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Westcott House (Springfield, Ohio)|Burton J. Westcott House]] || [[Springfield, Ohio|Springfield]] || [[Ohio]] || 1904 || 1908 || || [[File:Westcott house.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[William R. Heath House]] || [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] || [[New York]] || 1904 || 1904-05 || || [[File:2. PLATE ^78, MAIN ELEVATION, VIEW FROM ROADWAY - W. R. Heath House, 76 Soldiers Place, Buffalo, Erie County, NY - LOC - hhh.ny0914.photos.116293p.jpg|150px|]]
|-
| [[F. F. Tomek House|Ferdinand F. Tomek House]] &lt;br /&gt; (The Ship House) || [[Riverside, Illinois|Riverside]] || [[Illinois]] || 1904 || 1904-06 || || [[File:TomekHouse.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Harvey P. Sutton House]] || [[McCook, Nebraska|McCook]] || [[Nebraska]] || 1905 || 1905 || || [[File:Sutton House (McCook, Nebraska) from SE 2.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Hiram Baldwin House]] || [[Kenilworth, Illinois|Kenilworth]] || [[Illinois]] || 1905 || 1905 || || [[File:Hiram Baldwin House.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Mary W. Adams House]] || [[Highland Park, Illinois|Highland Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1905 || 1905 || ||
|-
| [[William A. Glasner House]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1905 || 1905 || ||
|-
| [[Charles A. Brown House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|42.0630609|-87.7077091|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]] || [[Illinois]] || 1905 || || || [[File:Charles A Brown House Front Zoom.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Frank L. Smith Bank]] || [[Dwight, Illinois|Dwight]] || [[Illinois]] || 1905 || 1905 || || [[File:Frank L. Smith Bank1.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[E. W. Cummings Real Estate Office]] || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1905 || || Demolished 1925 ||
|-
| [[E-Z Polish Factory]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1905 || 1905 || || [[File:E-Z Polish Factory Chicago.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Lawrence Memorial Library]] || [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] || [[Illinois]] || 1905 || || ||
|-
| [[A. P. Johnson House]] || [[Delavan, Wisconsin|Delavan]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1905 || 1905 || ||
|-
| [[Thomas P. Hardy House]] || [[Racine, Wisconsin|Racine]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1905 || 1905 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Darwin D. Martin House|Darwin D. Martin Gardener’s Cottage]] || [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] || [[New York]] || 1905 || 1909 || || [[File:Martin Complex - Gardener's Cottage 2007.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Mrs Thomas H. Gale Cottage I, II &amp; III]] || [[Whitehall, Michigan|Whitehall]] || [[Michigan]] || 1905 || 1909 || || [[File:Mrs Thomas H. Gale Cottage III.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Rookery Building]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1905 || 1907 || Lobby remodeling || [[File:Rookery Building interior view, Chicago USA.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Pettit Memorial Chapel|William H. Pettit Mortuary Chapel]] || [[Belvidere, Illinois|Belvidere]] || [[Illinois]] || 1906 || 1907 || || [[File:Belvidere Il Pettit Chapel1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Peter A. Beachy House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1906 || 1906 || Remodel || [[File:Oak Park Il Beachy House1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Frederick D. Nichols House]] || [[Flossmoor, Illinois|Flossmoor]] || [[Illinois]] || 1906 || || ||
|-
| [[River Forest Tennis Club]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8913043|-87.8144825|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1906 || || Moved&lt;ref&gt;From vicinity of {{coord|41.8897868|-87.8057384|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1920 to present location. || [[File:RF Tennis Club.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Edward R. Hills House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1906 || 1906 || Remodel &lt;br /&gt; Reconstructed after fire 1977 || [[File:Oak Park Il Hills House2.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[P. D. Hoyt House]] || [[Geneva, Illinois|Geneva]] || [[Illinois]] || 1906 || || ||
|-
| [[Mrs. A. W. Gridley House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Ravine House) || [[Batavia, Illinois|Batavia]] || [[Illinois]] || 1906 || 1906 || || [[File:Mrs. A. W. Gridley House (Batavia, IL) 02.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Grace Fuller House]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1906 || || Uncertainty if ever built ||
|-
| [[K. C. DeRhodes House]] || [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] || [[Indiana]] || 1906 || 1906 || || [[File:K. C. DeRhodes House, May 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[George Madison Millard House|George M. Millard House]] || [[Highland Park, Illinois|Highland Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1906 || 1906 || ||
|-
| [[Tan-Y-Deri]] &lt;br /&gt; (Andrew T. Porter House)&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|43.1362007|-90.073691|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1907 || 1907 || Based on &quot;[[A Fireproof House for $5000]]&quot; || [[File:Tan Y Deri December 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Coonley House|Avery Coonley House]] || [[Riverside, Illinois|Riverside]] || [[Illinois]] || 1907 || Complex completed 1912 || || [[File:Avery Coonley House, 300 Scottswood Road, 281 Bloomingbank Road, Riverside (Cook County, Illinois).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Stephen M. B. Hunt House I]] || [[La Grange, Illinois|La Grange]] || [[Illinois]] || 1907 || 1907 || Based on &quot;[[A Fireproof House for $5000]]&quot; || [[File:SMHuntHouse.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Fabyan Villa|Col. George Fabyan Villa]] || [[Geneva, Illinois|Geneva]] || [[Illinois]] || 1907 || 1907 || Remodel || [[File:Fabyan FLWright 1907.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Fox River Country Club]] || [[Geneva, Illinois|Geneva]] || [[Illinois]] || 1907 || || Remodel &lt;br /&gt; Destroyed by fire 1910 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Larkin Company Exhibition Pavilion]] || [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] || [[Virginia]] || 1907 || 1907 || Temporary structure&lt;br /&gt;Demolished ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Pebbles &amp; Balch Office]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1907 || 1907 || Remodel &lt;br /&gt; Demolished by 1942 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Robie House|Frederick C. Robie House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1908 || 1909-10 || || [[File:Robie House.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Dr. G.C. Stockman House|G. C. Stockman House]] || [[Mason City, Iowa|Mason City]] || [[Iowa]] || 1908 || 1908 || Based on &quot;[[A Fireproof House for $5000]]&quot; || [[File:G C Stockman House Front-Left.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Raymond W. Evans House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1908 || || || [[File:Raymond W Evans House.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Browne’s Bookstore]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1908 || || Interior design &lt;br /&gt; Demolished 1912 (redesigned for a new tenant) ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[L. K. Horner House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1908 || || Demolished 1952 ||
|-
| [[Eugene A. Gilmore House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Airplane House) || [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1908 || 1908 || || [[File:Eugene A. Gilmore House.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Edward E. Boynton House]] || [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]] || [[New York]] || 1908 || 1908 || || [[File:Edward E. Boynton House Aug 2007.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Walter V. Davidson House]] || [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] || [[New York]] || 1908 || 1908 || || [[File:Walter V. Davidson House.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Isabel Roberts House]] || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1908 || 1908 || || [[File:ARCHITECTURAL PLAN OF ISOBEL ROBERTS HOUSE.gif|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Meyer May House]] || [[Grand Rapids, Michigan|Grand Rapids]] || [[Michigan]] || 1908 || 1908-09 || || [[File:Meyer May House, south side, 2009.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[William H. Copeland House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1908 || 1908-09 || Garage 1908 &lt;br /&gt; Remodel 1909 || [[File:Oak Park Il Copeland House1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Park Inn Hotel|City National Bank Building and Park Inn Hotel]] || [[Mason City, Iowa|Mason City]] || [[Iowa]] || 1908-09 || 1909-10 || || [[File:Park Inn Hotel and City National Bank Building from State Street.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Edmund F. Brigham House]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1908–09 || 1915 || ||
|-
| [[Laura Gale House|Mrs. Thomas H. Gale House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1909 || 1909 || || [[File:Oak Park Il Mrs. Gale House4.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Como Orchards Summer Colony One-Room Cottage|Como Orchard Summer Colony]] || [[Darby, Montana|Darby]] || [[Montana]] || 1909 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Bitter Root Inn]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|46.5713541|-114.0558743|format=dms|type:landmark}} per {{cite web|title=Wright Studies: Bitter Root Inn, Bitter Root, Montana near Stevensville (1908) (S.145)|url=http://www.steinerag.com/flw/Artifact%20Pages/PhRtS145.htm|work=The Wright Library|accessdate=13 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Stevensville, Montana|Stevensville]] || [[Montana]] || 1909 || || Destroyed by fire 1924 ||
|-
| [[Frank J. Baker House]] || [[Wilmette, Illinois|Wilmette]] || [[Illinois]] || 1909 || 1909 || || [[File:Frank J. Baker House.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Oscar M. Steffens House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|42.0202825|-87.6657432|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1909 || || Demolished 1963 || [[File:Oscar Steffens House, cropped, (HABS ILL,16-CHIG,64-1).jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[W. Scott Thurber Art Gallery]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1909 || || Interior design &lt;br /&gt; Demolished by 1917 (redesigned for a new tenant) ||
|-
| [[George C. Stewart House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Butterfly Woods) || [[Montecito, California|Montecito]] || [[California]] || 1909 || || ||
|-
| [[J. Kibben Ingalls House]] || [[River Forest, Illinois|River Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1909 || || || [[File:J Kibben Ingalls House Front (Cropped).jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Peter C. Stohr Arcade Building]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.9655971|-87.65782|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1909 || || Demolished 1922 ||
|-
| [[Edward P. Irving House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|39.8425599|-88.9669955|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]] || [[Illinois]] || 1909 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Edward C. Waller Bathing Pavilion]] || [[Charlevoix, Michigan|Charlevoix]] || [[Michigan]] || 1909 || || Destroyed by fire c1922 ||
|-
| [[Jesse R. Zeigler House|Rev. Jessie R. Zeigler House]] || [[Frankfort, Kentucky|Frankfort]] || [[Kentucky]] || 1909 || 1910 || Based on &quot;[[A Fireproof House for $5000]]&quot; || [[File:Jesse R. Zeigler House.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[New York City Exhibition for the Universal Portland Cement Company]] || [[New York City]] || [[New York]] || 1910 || 1910 || Temporary structure&lt;br /&gt;Demolished ||
|-
| [[Ingwald Moe House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.5985848|-87.34558|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]] || [[Indiana]] || 1910 || || ||
|-
| [[Oscar B. Balch House]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1911 || 1911 || || [[File:Oak Park Il Balch House2.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Herbert Angster House]] || [[Lake Bluff, Illinois|Lake Bluff]] || [[Illinois]] || 1911 || || Demolished 1956 ||
|-
| [[Sherman M. Booth Cottage]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1911 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Banff National Park Pavilion]] || [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], [[Alberta]] || [[Canada]] || 1911 || 1913-14 || Demolished 1939 || [[File:Banff National Park Pavilion, circa 1920.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Lake Geneva Hotel]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|42.5907761|-88.4347272|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Lake Geneva, Wisconsin|Lake Geneva]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1911 || || Demolished 1970 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Taliesin (studio)|Taliesin I]] || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1911 || 1911 || Partially destroyed by fire 1914 ||
|-
| [[The Avery Coonley School|The Avery Coonley School Playhouse]] || [[Downers Grove, Illinois|Downers Grove]] || [[Illinois]] || 1911 || 1912 || || [[File:Coonley Playhouse New.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Francis W. Little House II]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|44.9426428|-93.5231084|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Wayzata, Minnesota|Wayzata]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1912 || 1912-14 || Demolished 1972 &lt;br /&gt; Living room displayed at [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|The Met]], [[New York City|NYC]] &lt;br /&gt; Library displayed at [[Allentown Art Museum|The Allentown Art Museum]], [[Pennsylvania|PA]] ||
|-
| [[Observation Platform for Island Woolen Mills]] || [[Baraboo, Wisconsin|Baraboo]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1912 || || ||
|-
| [[William B. Greene House]] || [[Aurora, Illinois|Aurora]] || [[Illinois]] || 1912 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Park Ridge Country Club]] || [[Park Ridge, Illinois|Park Ridge]] || [[Illinois]] || 1912 || 1912 || Remodel &lt;br /&gt; Demolished 1930 ||
|-
| [[Harry S. Adams House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.8983561|-87.7928799|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1913 || || || [[File:Harry S Adams House Oblique Front.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Midway Gardens]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1913 || || Demolished 1929 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Taliesin (studio)|Taliesin II]] || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1914 || || Partially destroyed by fire 1925 ||
|-
| [[Mori Oriental Art Studio]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1914 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Women’s Building at Inter-County Fairgrounds]] || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1914 || || Demolished 1924 ||
|-
| [[American System-Built Homes]] || Various || Locations || 1914–1915 || || ||
|-
| [[Arthur L. Richards Small House]] || [[Milwaukee]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1915 || || (American System-Built Home) ||
|-
| [[Arthur L. Richards Bungalow]] || [[Milwaukee]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1915 || || (American System-Built Home) ||
|-
| [[Lewis E. Burleigh House]] || [[Wilmette, Illinois|Wilmette]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || || (American System-Built Home) || [[File:Lewis E. Burleigh House (J.J. O'Connor House).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Ida and Grace McElwain House]] || [[Lake Bluff, Illinois|Lake Bluff]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || || (American System-Built Home) ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e9def2&quot;
| [[Thomas E. Sullivan House]] || [[Wilmette, Illinois|Wilmette]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || 1916 || (American System-Built Home)&lt;br /&gt;Originally thought to be the work of [[John S. Van Bergen]];&lt;br /&gt;Most recently (in 2008) determined to be a Wright design with addition by Van Bergen.&lt;ref&gt;
{{Cite web
  | last = Storrer
  | first = William A.
  | title = The 29=30 discovered works
  | work = FLlW Update
  | year = 2008
  | url = http://www.franklloydwrightinfo.com/
  | accessdate = 11 June 2010
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Other sources have yet to confirm William A. Storrer's finding. || [[File:Thomas E Sullivan House SE View.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Arthur R. Munkwitz Duplex Apartments]] || [[Milwaukee]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1915 || 1916 || Two structures&lt;br /&gt;(American System-Built Homes) &lt;br /&gt; Demolished 1973 ||
|-
| [[Arthur L. Richards Duplex Apartments]] || [[Milwaukee]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1915 || 1916 || Four structures&lt;br /&gt;(American System-Built Homes) || [[File:Wright System3 Milw Apr09.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Arthur L. Richards Small House]] || [[Milwaukee]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1915 || 1916 || (American System-Built Home) ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Wilbur Wynant House]] || [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]] || [[Indiana]] || 1915 || 1916 || (American System-Built Home) &lt;br /&gt; Destroyed by fire 2006 || [[File:Wynant House Reconstruction NW View.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Stephen M. B. Hunt House II]] || [[Oshkosh, Wisconsin|Oshkosh]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1915 || 1917 || (American System-Built Home) || [[File:Stephen M.B. Hunt House II OshkoshWisconsin.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Guy C. Smith House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || 1917 || (American System-Built Home) || [[File:Guy C Smith House Front.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[H. Howard Hyde House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || 1917 || (American System-Built Home) || [[File:H Howard Hyde House Front.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Oscar A. Johnson House]] || [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || 1917 || (American System-Built Home) || [[File:Oscar A Johnson House Front.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Delbert W. Meier House]] || [[Monona, Iowa|Monona]] || [[Iowa]] || 1915 || 1917 || (American System-Built Home) ||
|-
| [[Charles Heisen House]] || [[Villa Park, Illinois|Villa Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || 1917 || (American System-Built Home) ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[A. D. German Warehouse]] || [[Richland Center, Wisconsin|Richland Center]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1915 || 1921 || ||
|-
| [[Ravine Bluffs Development]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 ||  || ([[Ravine Bluffs Development]]) ||
|-
| [[Ravine Bluffs Development Sculptures]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || || (Ravine Bluffs Development) ||
|-
| [[Ravine Bluffs Development Bridge]] &lt;br /&gt; (Sylvan Road Bridge) || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || || (Ravine Bluffs Development) &lt;br /&gt; Rebuilt 1980s || [[File:Ravine Bluffs Development Bridge, cropped, (HAER, ILL, 16-GLENC, 3-7).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Sherman M. Booth House]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || || (Ravine Bluffs Development) ||
|-
| [[Charles R. Perry House]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || || (Ravine Bluffs Development) ||
|-
| [[Hollis R. Root House]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || || (Ravine Bluffs Development) ||
|-
| [[William F. Kier House]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || ||(Ravine Bluffs Development) ||
|-
| [[William F. Ross House]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || || (Ravine Bluffs Development) ||
|-
| [[Lute F. and Daniel Kissam House]] || [[Glencoe, Illinois|Glencoe]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || || (Ravine Bluffs Development) ||
|-
| [[Emil Bach House]] || [[Chicago]] || [[Illinois]] || 1915 || 1915 || || [[File:Emil Bach House.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Imperial Hotel, Tokyo|Imperial Hotel]] || [[Tokyo]] || [[Japan]] || 1915 || Completed 1923 || Demolished 1968 (Lobby and pool reconstructed in 1976 at [[Meiji Mura]])|| [[File:Imperial Hotel Wright House.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Frederick C. Bogk House]] || [[Milwaukee]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1916 || || || [[File:BogkHouse-frt-Apr09.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Ernest Vosburgh House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.7693212|-86.7991027|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Grand Beach, Michigan|Grand Beach]] || [[Michigan]] || 1916 || || ||
|-
| [[Joseph J. Bagley House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.7739422|-86.796914|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Grand Beach, Michigan|Grand Beach]] || [[Michigan]] || 1916 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[William S. Carr House]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|41.77297|-86.7987889|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Grand Beach, Michigan|Grand Beach]] || [[Michigan]] || 1916 || || Demolished 2004 (The first demolition of a Wright structure in 30 years [http://www.nationaltrust.org/Magazine/archives/arc_news/112304.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517025557/http://www.nationaltrust.org/Magazine/archives/arc_news/112304.htm |date=2008-05-17 }}) ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Henry J. Allen House]] || [[Wichita, Kansas|Wichita]] || [[Kansas]] || 1917 || || ||
|-
| [[Aisaku Hayashi House]] || [[Tokyo]] || [[Japan]] || 1917 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Hollyhock House]] &lt;br /&gt;(Aline Barnsdall House) || [[Little Armenia, Los Angeles, California|Little Armenia, Los Angeles]] || [[California]] || 1917 || 1919-21 || || [[File:Hollyhock House.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Arinobu Fukuhara|Arinobu Fukuhara House]] || [[Kanagawa|Kanagawa-Ken]] || [[Japan]] || 1918 || || Destroyed by [[1923 Great Kantō earthquake|earthquake]] 1923 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Yodokō Guest House|Tazaemon Yamamura House]] || [[Hyogo|Hyogo-Ken]] || [[Japan]] || 1918 || Completed 1924 || || [[File:Yamamura house06s3200.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Imperial Hotel Annex]] || [[Tokyo]] || [[Japan]] || 1919 || || Temporary structure &lt;br /&gt; Demolished 1923 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Barnsdall Residence B]] || [[Little Armenia, Los Angeles, California|Little Armenia, Los Angeles]] || [[California]] || 1920 || || Demolished 1954 ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Jiyu Gakuen Girls’ School]] || [[Tokyo]] || [[Japan]] || 1921 || 1921 || || [[File:Jiyu gakuen myonichikan.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Harper Avenue Studio for Frank Lloyd Wright]] || [[West Hollywood, California|West Hollywood]] || [[California]] || 1922 || || ||
|- {{anchor|Nathan G. Moore House II}}
| [[Nathan G. Moore House|Nathan G. Moore House II]] || [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] || [[Illinois]] || 1923 || 1923 || Reconstruction of [[List of Frank Lloyd Wright works#Nathan Moore House I|Nathan Moore House I]] || [[File:2010-04-10 3000x2000 oakpark nathan g moore house.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Millard House|Alice Millard House]] &lt;br /&gt; (La Miniatura) || [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] || [[California]] || 1923 || 1923 || || [[File:Millard House, Pasadena.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Storer House (Los Angeles, California)|Dr. John Storer House]] || [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] || [[California]] || 1923 || 1923 || || [[File:Storer House, Hollywood 02.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Samuel Freeman House]] || [[Hollywood Hills]] || [[California]] || 1923 || 1923 || || [[File:Samuel Freeman House, Hollywood, California.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Ennis House|Charles Ennis House]] || [[Los Feliz, Los Angeles, California|Los Feliz]] || [[California]] || 1923 || 1924 || || [[File:Ennis House front view 2005.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Taliesin (studio)|Taliesin III]] || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1925 || || || [[File:Looking at Taliesin from Hill Crown.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Graycliff|Graycliff Estate]] &lt;br /&gt; (Isabelle R. Martin House) || [[Derby, New York|Derby]] || [[New York]] || 1926 || 1926-29 || || [[File:Isabelle R. Martin House.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Arizona Biltmore Hotel]] || [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] || [[Arizona]] || 1927 || 1929 || Consulting architect 1928 || [[File:Azbiltmore.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Beach Cottages at Dumyat]] &lt;br /&gt; (Ras-el-Bar) || [[Damietta|Dumyat]] || [[Egypt]] || 1927 || || Uncertainty if ever built ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Ocotillo Desert Camp]] || [[Chandler, Arizona|Chandler]] || [[Arizona]] || 1928 || || Partially destroyed by fire and abandoned 1929||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Chandler Land Improvement Company Camp Cabins]] || [[Chandler, Arizona|Chandler]] || [[Arizona]] || 1929 || || Demolished by 1934 ||
|-
| [[Westhope]] &lt;br /&gt; (Richard L. Jones House) || [[Tulsa, Oklahoma|Tulsa]] || [[Oklahoma]] || 1929 || 1929 || || [[File:WesthopeHomeJac.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Malcolm Willey House|Malcolm E. Willey House]] || [[Minneapolis]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1934 || 1934 || || [[File:2023-0929 Malcolm Willey House.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Fallingwater]] &lt;br /&gt; (Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence) || [[Bear Run (Youghiogheny River)|Bear Run]] || [[Pennsylvania]] || 1935 || 1936-38 || || 
|-
| [[Herbert and Katherine Jacobs First House|Herbert Jacobs House I]] || [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1936 || 1937 || || [[File:Jacobs First House - front.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Abby Beecher Roberts House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Deertrack) || [[Marquette, Michigan|Marquette]] || [[Michigan]] || 1936 || || ||
|-
| [[Johnson Wax Headquarters]] || [[Racine, Wisconsin|Racine]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1936 || 1936-39 || || [[File:Johnsonwax600.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Hanna-Honeycomb House]] || [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] || [[California]] || 1937 || 1937 || At [[Stanford University]] || [[File:Hanna House 10.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Wingspread]] &lt;br /&gt; (Herbert F. Johnson House) || [[Wind Point, Wisconsin|Wind Point]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1937 || 1938-39 || || [[File:WingspreadFrankLloydWrightKenoshaWisconsin.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Ben Rebhuhn House]] || [[Great Neck Estates, New York|Great Neck Estates]] || [[New York]] || 1937 || 1937 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Taliesin West]] || [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]] || [[Arizona]] || 1937 || 1937 || || [[File:Taliesinpan.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Office]] || [[Pittsburgh]] || [[Pennsylvania]] || 1937 || || Relocated &lt;br /&gt; Displayed at [[Victoria and Albert Museum|The V&amp;A]] [[London|London, U.K.]] ||
|-
| [[Suntop Homes]] || [[Ardmore, Pennsylvania|Ardmore]] || [[Pennsylvania]] || 1938 || 1939 || || [[File:Suntop Houses, cropped, (HABS, PA,46-ARD,2-1).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Charles L. Manson House]] || [[Wausau, Wisconsin|Wausau]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1938 || 1938-41 ||  || [[File:Frank-lloyd-wright-wausau.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
|[[Child of the Sun]] || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1938–1954 || || ([[Child of the Sun]]) &lt;br /&gt; At [[Florida Southern College]] || [[File:Child of the Sun, Master plan, 1957, cropped, (HABS FLA,53-LAKE,1-4).jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Child of the Sun|Annie M. Pfeiffer Chapel]]  || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1938 || 1941 || (Child of the Sun) || [[File:Pfeiffer Chapel HABS, FLA,53-LAKE,1A-14.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[John C. Pew House]] || [[Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin|Shorewood Hills]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1939 || || ||
|-
| [[Sidney Bazett House]] || [[Hillsborough, California|Hillsborough]] || [[California]] || 1939 || || ||
|-
| [[Andrew F. H. Armstrong House]] || [[Ogden Dunes, Indiana|Ogden Dunes]] || [[Indiana]] || 1939 || || || [[File:Andrew F. H. Armstrong House, May 2011.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Rosenbaum House|Stanley Rosenbaum House]] || [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] || [[Alabama]] || 1939 || 1940 || || [[File:Rosenbaum House Front Pano.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Lloyd Lewis House]] || [[Libertyville, Illinois|Libertyville]] || [[Illinois]] || 1939 || 1939 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Pope-Leighey House|Loren B. Pope Residence]] || [[Falls Church, Virginia|Falls Church]] || [[Virginia]] || 1939 || 1940 || Relocated to [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]], [[Virginia|VA]] in 2001 || [[File:Pope-Leighey House - North east facade - HABS VA,30-FALCH,2-10.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Goetsch-Winckler House]] || [[Okemos, Michigan|Okemos]] || [[Michigan]] || 1939 || 1940 || || [[File:Goetsch Winckler House, 2009.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Joseph Euchtman House]] || [[Pikesville, Maryland|Pikesville]] || [[Maryland]] || 1939 || || ||
|-
|[[Bernard Schwartz House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Still Bend) || [[Two Rivers, Wisconsin|Two Rivers]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1939 ||1940 || This home is available for rentals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.theschwartzhouse.com/Home.html |title=Archive copy |access-date=2012-02-28 |archive-date=2011-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003133608/http://www.theschwartzhouse.com/Home.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; ||
|-
| [[George Sturges House|George D. Sturges House]] || [[Brentwood, Los Angeles, California|Brentwood Heights]] || [[California]] || 1939 || 1939 || || [[File:052707-032-SturgesHouse.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Clarence Sondern House]] || [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] || [[Missouri]] || 1939 || 1940 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Rose Pauson House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Shiprock ruins) || [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] || [[Arizona]] || 1939 || 1940 || Destroyed by fire 1942 || [[File:Rose Pauson House 1979 cropped (HABS ARIZ,7-PHEN,13-2).jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Child of the Sun|Seminar Buildings I, II, &amp; III]]  || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1940 || 1949 || (Child of the Sun) || [[File:Lakeland FSC Seminar Building01.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Auldbrass Plantation]] &lt;br /&gt; (C. Leigh Stevens House) || [[Yemassee, South Carolina|Yemassee]] || [[South Carolina]] || 1940 || 1940-51 || || [[File:Auldbrass Living Room HABS SC,7-YEMA,1-6.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Gregor S. and Elizabeth B. Affleck House|Gregor S. Affleck House]] || [[Bloomfield Hills, Michigan|Bloomfield Hills]] || [[Michigan]] || 1940 || 1940 || || [[File:Gregor S and Elizabeth B Affleck House Bloomfield Hills MI.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Arch Oboler House Complex]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|34.0995675|-118.8436684|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;br /&gt; (Eaglefeather) || [[Malibu, California|Malibu]] || [[California]] || 1940 || Completed 1955 || ||
|-
| [[Theodore Baird Residence]] || [[Amherst, Massachusetts|Amherst]] || [[Massachusetts]] || 1940 || 1940 || ||
|-
| [[James B. Christie House]] || [[Bernardsville, New Jersey|Bernardsville]] || [[New Jersey]] || 1940 || 1940 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Community Christian Church (Kansas City, Missouri)|Community Christian Church]] || [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] || [[Missouri]] || 1940 || 1940-42 || || [[File:Community Christian Church KCMO.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Child of the Sun|E. T. Roux Library]] || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1941 || 1946 || (Child of the Sun) || [[File:Lakeland FSC Buckner Bldg01.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Stuart Richardson House]] || [[Glen Ridge, New Jersey|Glen Ridge]] || [[New Jersey]] || 1941 || 1951 || ||
|-
| [[Carlton D. Wall House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Snowflake) || [[Plymouth, Michigan|Plymouth]] || [[Michigan]] || 1941 || 1941-47 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Child of the Sun|Industrial Arts Building]] || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1942 || 1952 || (Child of the Sun) || [[File:Lakeland FSC Ordway Bldg01.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] || [[Manhattan]] || [[New York]] || 1943–1956 || Completed 1959 || || [[File:Guggenheim museum exterior.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Herbert and Katherine Jacobs Second House|Herbert Jacobs House II]] || [[Middleton, Wisconsin|Middleton]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1944 || 1946-48 || || [[File:Second Jacobs House driveway.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Child of the Sun|Administration Building]] || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1945 || 1949 || (Child of the Sun) || [[File:Child of the Sun, Admin Building, cropped, (HABS FLA,53-LAKE,1C-2).jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Lowell Walter Residence]] &lt;br /&gt; (Cedar Rock) || [[Quasqueton, Iowa|Qausqueton]] || [[Iowa]] || 1945 || || || [[File:CedarRock LivingRoom.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Arnold Friedman Lodge]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|35.6325612|-105.6804836|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;br /&gt; (Fir Tree) || [[Pecos, New Mexico|Pecos]] || [[New Mexico]] || 1945 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Child of the Sun|Esplanades]] || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1946 || 1946-58 || (Child of the Sun) || [[File:FSC Esplanade HABS.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Melvyn Maxwell and Sara Stein Smith House|Melvyn M. Smith House]] || [[Bloomfield Hills, Michigan|Bloomfield Hills]] || [[Michigan]] || 1946 || 1949 || || [[File:Melvyn Maxwell and Sara Stein Smith House Bloomfield TwpMI B.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Douglas and Charlotte Grant House|Douglas Grant House]] || [[Marion, Iowa|Marion]] || [[Iowa]] || 1946 || 1946 || ||
|-
| [[Alvin Miller House|Alvin L. Miller House]] || [[Charles City, Iowa|Charles City]] || [[Iowa]] || 1946 || 1946 || ||
|-
| [[Chauncey L. Griggs Residence]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|47.1857223|-122.5311043|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]] || [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] || 1946 || || ||
|-
| [[Amy Alpaugh Studio Residence]] || [[Northport, Michigan|Northport]] || [[Michigan]] || 1946 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[First Unitarian Society of Madison|Unitarian Society Meeting House]] || [[Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin|Shorewood Hills]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1947 || 1949-51 || || [[File:1st-Unitarian.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[A. H. Bulbulian Residence]] || [[Rochester, Minnesota|Rochester]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1947 || 1947 || || [[File:AHBulbulianHouse2006-05-16.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Child of the Sun|J. Edgar Wall Water Dome]] || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1948 || 1949 || (Child of the Sun) || [[File:Lakeland FSC Water Dome pool pano01.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[The Acres|Galesburg Country Homes]] &lt;br /&gt; (The Acres) || [[Galesburg, Michigan|Galesburg]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1949 || ([[The Acres|Galesburg Country Homes]]) || [[File:The Acres sign.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[David Weisblat Residence]] || [[Galesburg, Michigan|Galesburg]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1949 || (Galesburg Country Home) ||
|-
| [[Eric and Pat Pratt Residence]] || [[Galesburg, Michigan|Galesburg]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1949 || (Galesburg Country Home) || [[File:Eric and Pat Pratt Residence.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Samuel Eppstein Residence]] || [[Galesburg, Michigan|Galesburg]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1949 || (Galesburg Country Home) || [[File:Samuel Eppstein Residence.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Curtis Meyer Residence]] || [[Galesburg, Michigan|Galesburg]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1949 || (Galesburg Country Home) ||
|-
| [[Herman T. Mossberg Residence]] || [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] || [[Indiana]] || 1948 || 1948 || || [[File:Herman T. Mossberg Residence, May 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Fountainhead (Jackson, Mississippi)|Fountainhead]] &lt;br /&gt; (J. Willis Hughes House) || [[Jackson, Mississippi|Jackson]] || [[Mississippi]] || 1948 || 1950 || ||
|-
| [[Carroll Alsop House]] || [[Oskaloosa, Iowa|Oskaloosa]] || [[Iowa]] || 1948 || 1948 || ||
|-
| [[Jack Lamberson House]] || [[Oskaloosa, Iowa|Oskaloosa]] || [[Iowa]] || 1948 || 1948 || ||
|-
| [[Mrs. Clinton Walker Residence]] || [[Carmel-by-the-Sea, California|Carmel]] || [[California]] || 1948 || || ||
|-
| [[Albert and Edith Adelman House|Albert Adelman House]] || [[Fox Point, Wisconsin|Fox Point]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1948 || 1948 || || [[File:Landmk-0904-adelmann.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Maynard Buehler House|Maynard P. Buehler House]] || [[Orinda, California|Orinda]] || [[California]] || 1948 || 1948 || || [[File:Maynard and Katharine Buehler House (Orinda, CA).JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Charles Weltzheimer Residence|Charles E. Weltzheimer Residence]] || [[Oberlin, Ohio|Oberlin]] || [[Ohio]] || 1948 || 1948-49 || || [[File:Frank Lloyd Wright Weltzheimer Johnson House.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Erling P. Brauner Residence]] || [[Okemos, Michigan|Okemos]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || || || [[File:Erling P. Brauner Residence, 2009.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[V. C. Morris Gift Shop]] || [[San Francisco]] || [[California]] || 1948 || 1948-49 || || [[File:Frank Lloyd Wright - V.C. Morris Gift Shop, SF - 1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Parkwyn Village]] || [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1949–1950 || ([[Parkwyn Village|Parkwyn Village Homes]]) || [[File:Parkwyn Village sign.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Robert and Rae Levin House|Robert Levin House]] || [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1949 || (Parkwyn Village Home) || [[File:Robert Levin House exterior 1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[McCartney Residence]] || [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1949 || (Parkwyn Village Home) ||
|-
| [[Eric V. Brown Residence]] || [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1949 || (Parkwyn Village Home) || [[File:Eric V. Brown Residence.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Robert D. Winn Residence]] || [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]] || [[Michigan]] || 1948 || 1950 || (Parkwyn Village Home) || [[File:Robert D. Winn Residence.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Usonia Homes]] || [[Pleasantville, New York|Pleasantville]] || [[New York]] || 1948 || 1948–1951 || ([[Usonia Homes]]) ||
|-
| [[Sol Friedman House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Toyhill) || [[Pleasantville, New York|Pleasantville]] || [[New York]] || 1948 || 1948 || (Usonia Homes) ||
|-
| [[Edward Serlin House]] || [[Pleasantville, New York|Pleasantville]] || [[New York]] || 1948 || 1949 || (Usonia Homes) ||
|-
| [[Roland Reisley House]] || [[Pleasantville, New York|Pleasantville]] || [[New York]] || 1948 || 1951 || (Usonia Homes) ||
|-
| [[James Edwards Residence]] || [[Okemos, Michigan|Okemos]] || [[Michigan]] || 1949 || || || [[File:James Edwards Residence, 2009.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Howard E. Anthony Residence]] || [[Benton Harbor, Michigan|Benton Harbor]] || [[Michigan]] || 1949 || || || [[File:Howard E. Anthony Residence, 2009.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Kenneth Laurent House]] || [[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]] || [[Illinois]] || 1949 || || ||
|-
| [[Frieda and Henry J. Neils House|Henry J. Neils House]] || [[Minneapolis]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1949 || 1951 || || [[File:061907-NeilHouse01.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Wilbur C. Pearce Residence]] || [[Bradbury, California|Bradbury]] || [[California]] || 1950 || || ||
|-
| [[Thomas Keys Residence|Thomas E. Keys Residence]] || [[Rochester, Minnesota|Rochester]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1950 || 1950 || || [[File:ThomasKeysHouseRochesterMN2006-05-16.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[David Wright Residence]] || [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] || [[Arizona]] || 1950 || || || [[File:David Wright Residence, 2010.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Kraus House|Russell W. Kraus House]] || [[Kirkwood, Missouri|Kirkwood]] || [[Missouri]] || 1950 || 1952-60 || ||
|-
| [[John and Dorothy Haynes House|John Haynes House]] || [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] || [[Indiana]] || 1950 || 1952 || || [[File:John and Dorothy Haynes House, May 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Dr. Richard Davis House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Woodside) || [[Marion, Indiana|Marion]] || [[Indiana]] || 1950 || 1955 || || [[File:Dr. Richard Davis House (Woodside), May 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[J.A. Sweeton Residence|J. A. Sweeton Residence]] || [[Cherry Hill, New Jersey|Cherry Hill]] || [[New Jersey]] || 1950 || 1950 || ||
|-
| [[John O. Carr Residence]] || [[Glenview, Cook County, Illinois|Glenview]] || [[Illinois]] || 1950 || || ||
|-
| [[Donald Schaberg House]] || [[Okemos, Michigan|Okemos]] || [[Michigan]] || 1950 || 1957-58 || || [[File:Schaberg House 2.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Dr. R. Bradford Harper Residence]] || [[St. Joseph, Michigan|St. Joseph]] || [[Michigan]] || 1950 || || || [[File:Dr. R. Bradford Harper Residence, 2009.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Robert Berger Residence]] || [[San Anselmo, California|San Anselmo]] || [[California]] || 1950 || || ||
|-
| [[Arthur C. Mathews Residence]] || [[Atherton, California|Atherton]] || [[California]] || 1950 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Zimmerman House (Manchester, New Hampshire)|Dr. Isadore J. Zimmerman House]] || [[Manchester, New Hampshire|Manchester]] || [[New Hampshire]] || 1950 || || ||
|-
| [[Robert Muirhead Residence]] || [[Plato Center, Illinois|Plato Center]] || [[Illinois]] || 1950 || || ||
|-
| [[Karl A. Staley House]] || [[North Madison, Ohio|North Madison]] || [[Ohio]] || 1950 || 1951 || || [[File:Karl A. Staley House, April 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[S. P. Elam Residence]] || [[Austin, Minnesota|Austin]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1950 || || ||
|-
| [[Richard C. Smith House]] || [[Jefferson, Wisconsin|Jefferson]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1950 || 1950 || || [[File:Richard C. Smith House.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[John Gillin Residence|John A. Gillin Residence]] || [[Dallas]] || [[Texas]] || 1950 || 1958 || ||
|-
| [[Raymond Carlson Residence]] || [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] || [[Arizona]] || 1950 || || || [[File:Raymond Carleson Residence (Carport).JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Seamour and Gerte Shavin House|Seamour Shavin House]] || [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]] || [[Tennessee]] || 1950 || 1952 || ||
|-
| [[Wetmore Auto Service Station]] || [[Ferndale, Michigan|Ferndale]] || [[Michigan]] || 1951 || 1951 || Remodel ||
|-
| [[Patrick Kinney Residence]] || [[Lancaster, Wisconsin|Lancaster]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1951 || || ||
|-
| [[Charles F. Glore Residence]] || [[Lake Forest, Illinois|Lake Forest]] || [[Illinois]] || 1951 || || ||
|-
| [[Nathan Rubin Residence]] || [[Canton, Ohio|Canton]] || [[Ohio]] || 1951 || || || [[File:Nathan Rubin Residence, May 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Benjamin Adelman Residence]] || [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] || [[Arizona]] || 1951 || || || [[File:FLW - Benjamin Adelman House - SEC - 2011-03-05.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Welbie L. Fuller Residence]] || [[Pass Christian, Mississippi|Pass Christian]] || [[Mississippi]] || 1951 || || Destroyed by [[Hurricane Camille]] 1969 ||
|-
| [[Frank Lloyd Wright Field Office]] || [[San Francisco]] || [[California]] || 1951 || || ||
|-
| [[Broad Margin]] &lt;br /&gt; (Gabrielle Austin Residence) || [[Greenville, South Carolina|Greenville]] || [[South Carolina]] || 1951 || 1954 || || [[File:Broad Margin, 9 West Avondale Drive, Greenville (Greenville County, South Carolina).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[A. K. Chahroudi Cottage]] || [[Mahopac, New York|Lake Mahopac]] || [[New York]] || 1951 || || ||
|-
| [[William Palmer Residence]] || [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]] || [[Michigan]] || 1952 || || || [[File:WilliamandMaryPalmerHouseAnnArborMI.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Arthur Pieper Residence]] || [[Paradise Valley, Arizona|Paradise Valley]] || [[Arizona]] || 1952 || || || [[File:Arthur Pieper Residence, 2010.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Brandes House|Ray Brandes House]] || [[Sammamish, Washington|Sammamish]]&lt;ref&gt;Heinz ({{cite book | title=Frank Lloyd Field Guide, West, Volume 3 | publisher=Academy Press | author=Heinz, Thomas | year=1999 | pages=18 | isbn=0471977470}}) and Storrer ({{cite book | title=The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog | url=https://archive.org/details/architectureoffr0003stor | publisher=University of Chicago Press | author=Storrer, William | year=2002 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/architectureoffr0003stor/page/354 354] | isbn=0226776220}}) give the place as [[Issaquah, Washington]], but this address has been within the [http://www.ci.sammamish.wa.us/pdfs/maps/Sammamish%20Vicinity.pdf city limits] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101101956/http://www.ci.sammamish.wa.us/pdfs/maps/Sammamish%20Vicinity.pdf |date=2012-11-01 }} of [[Sammamish, Washington|Sammamish]] [http://www.mrsc.org/govdocs/S35incorppt.pdf since] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527112815/http://www.mrsc.org/govdocs/s35incorppt.pdf |date=2012-05-27 }} the incorporation of that city [http://www.ci.sammamish.wa.us/about/Default.aspx on August 1, 1999] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108191932/http://www.ci.sammamish.wa.us/about/Default.aspx |date=November 8, 2011 }}.&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] || 1952 || 1952 || ||
|-
| [[Quintin Blair House]] || [[Cody, Wyoming|Cody]] || [[Wyoming]] || 1952 || 1952-53 || ||
|-
| [[Archie Teater Studio|Archie B. Teater Studio]] &lt;br /&gt; (Teater's Knoll) || [[Bliss, Idaho|Bliss]] || [[Idaho]] || 1952 || 1952 || ||
|-
| [[R. W. Lindholm Residence]] &lt;br /&gt; (Mäntylä) || [[Cloquet, Minnesota|Cloquet]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1952 || || ||
|-
| [[Frank Sander Residence|Frank S. Sander Residence]] &lt;br /&gt; (Springbough) || [[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]] || [[Connecticut]] || 1952 || 1955 || ||
|-
| [[Anderton Court Shops]] || [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]] || [[California]] || 1952 || 1952 || || [[File:AndertonBeverlyHills.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Lewis House (Tallahassee, Florida)|George Lewis House]] || [[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]] || [[Florida]] || 1952 || 1954 || || [[File:George Lewis House (Spring House).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Marden House|Luis Marden House]] || [[McLean, Virginia|McLean]] || [[Virginia]] || 1952 || Completed 1959 || ||
|-
| [[Price Tower]] || [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma|Bartlesville]] || [[Oklahoma]] || 1952 || 1952-56 || ||[[File:PriceTower.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Child of the Sun|Polk County Science Building]] || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1953 || 1958 || (Child of the Sun) || [[File:Child of the Sun, Science Building, cropped, (HABS FLA,53-LAKE,1F-4).jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Andrew B. Cooke House]] || [[Virginia Beach]] || [[Virginia]] || 1953 || Completed 1959 || ||
|-
| [[Jorgine Boomer Residence]] || [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] || [[Arizona]] || 1953 || || || [[File:FLW - Jorgine Boomer House - SEC - 2011-03-05.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Robert Llewellyn Wright House]] || [[Bethesda, Maryland|Bethesda]] || [[Maryland]] || 1953 || 1957 || ||
|-
| [[Lewis H. Goddard Residence]] || [[Plymouth, Michigan|Plymouth]] || [[Michigan]] || 1953 || || ||
|-
| [[John and Syd Dobkins House]] || [[Canton, Ohio|Canton]] || [[Ohio]] || 1953 || 1954 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Kentuck Knob]] &lt;br /&gt; (I.N. Hagan House) || [[Uniontown, Pennsylvania|Chalkhill]] || [[Pennsylvania]] || 1953 || 1953-56 || || [[File:Kentuck Knob 1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Harold Price Jr. Residence]] || [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma|Bartlesville]] || [[Oklahoma]] || 1953 || || ||
|-
| [[Louis Penfield House|Louis A. Penfield House]] || [[Willoughby Hills, Ohio|Willoughby Hills]] || [[Ohio]] || 1953 || 1955 || (Original plans were for a main and guest house,which only the guest house was built.) This home is available for renting&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Louis Penfield House landingpage |url=https://www.penfieldhouse.com/ |access-date=2026-02-07 |website=www.penfieldhouse.com|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[File:Louis Penfield House, April 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Riverview Terrace Restaurant]] &lt;br /&gt; (Frank Lloyd Wright Visitors' Center) || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1953 || || || [[File:Riverview Terrace Restaurant Frank Lloyd Wright Visitor Center.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Usonian Exhibition House and Pavilion]] || [[New York City]] || [[New York]] || 1953 || 1953 || Temporary structure&lt;br /&gt;Demolished ||
|-
| [[Child of the Sun|William H. Danforth Chapel]] || [[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]] || [[Florida]] || 1954 || 1955 || (Child of the Sun) || [[File:Lakeland FSC Danforth Chapel pano01.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Ellis A. Feiman House]] || [[Canton, Ohio|Canton]] || [[Ohio]] || 1954 || || || [[File:Ellis A. Feiman House, May 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[E. Clarke and Julia Arnold House]] || [[Columbus, Wisconsin|Columbus]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1954 || 1955-56 || || [[File:EClarkeJuliaArnoldHouseColumbusWisconsin.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Dr. Maurice Greenberg House]] || [[Dousman, Wisconsin|Dousman]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1954 || || ||
|-
| [[Hoffman Auto Showroom]] &lt;br /&gt; (Mercedes-Benz Manhattan) || [[Manhattan]] || [[New York]] || 1954 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Beth Sholom Congregation (Elkins Park, Pennsylvania)|Beth Sholom Synagogue]] || [[Elkins Park, Pennsylvania|Elkins Park]] || [[Pennsylvania]] || 1954 || Completed 1959 || || [[File:FLW Beth Sholom exterior.jpg|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Exhibition Pavillion]] || [[Los Angeles]] || [[California]] || 1954 || 1954 || Temporary structure&lt;br /&gt;Demolished ||
|-
| [[Bachman-Wilson House]] || [[Millstone, New Jersey|Millstone]] || [[New Jersey]] || 1954 || 1954-56 || ||
|-
| [[William L. Thaxton Jr. House]] || [[Bunker Hill Village, Texas|Bunker Hill Village]] || [[Texas]] || 1954 || || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Samara (house)|Samara]] &lt;br /&gt; (John E. Christian Residence) || [[West Lafayette, Indiana|West Lafayette]] || [[Indiana]] || 1954 || 1954-56 || || [[File:Samara (John E Christian House) Entrance.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Gerald B. and Beverley Tonkens House]] || [[Cincinnati]] || [[Ohio]] || 1954 || || || [[File:Gerald B. and Beverley Tonkens House, May 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Cedric G. and Patricia Boulter Residence]] || [[Cincinnati]] || [[Ohio]] || 1954 || 1956 || || [[File:Cedric G. and Patricia Neils Boulter House.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Louis B. Frederick House]] || [[Barrington Hills, Illinois|Barrington Hills]] || [[Illinois]] || 1954 || || ||
|-
| [[Willard H. Keland House]] || [[Racine, Wisconsin|Racine]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1954 || || ||
|-
| [[Don E. Lovness Studio &amp; Cottage]] || [[Stillwater, Minnesota|Stillwater]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1955 || || Cottage built 1972 ||
|-
| [[Dorothy H. Turkel House]] || [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] || [[Michigan]] || 1955 || || ||
|-
| [[William B. Tracy House]] || [[Normandy Park, Washington|Normandy Park]] || [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] || 1955 || 1956 || || [[File:William B. Tracy House, October 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Toufic H. Kalil House]] || [[Manchester, New Hampshire|Manchester]] || [[New Hampshire]] || 1955 || 1955 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Kalita Humphreys Theater]] || [[Dallas]] || [[Texas]] || 1955 || Completed 1959 || || [[File:KHTPre62-1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Randall Fawcett House]] || [[Los Banos, California|Los Banos]] || [[California]] || 1955 || Completed 1961 || ||
|-
| [[Rayward-Shepherd House|John L. Rayward House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Tirranna) || [[New Canaan, Connecticut|New Canaan]] || [[Connecticut]] || 1955 || 1955 || ||
|-
| [[Max Hoffman House]] || [[Rye (city), New York|Rye]] || [[New York]] || 1955 || Completed 1972 || || [[File:Max Hoffman House1.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Theodore A. Pappas House]] || [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] || [[Missouri]] || 1955 || 1960-64 || ||
|-
| [[Kundert Medical Clinic|Dr. Karl Kundert Medical Clinic]] || [[San Luis Obispo, California|San Luis Obispo]] || [[California]] || 1955 || || ||
|-
| [[Robert H. Sunday House]] || [[Marshalltown, Iowa|Marshalltown]] || [[Iowa]] || 1955 || 1957 || ||
|-
| [[R. W. Lindholm Service Station]] || [[Cloquet, Minnesota|Cloquet]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1956 || 1956-58 || || [[File:LindholmServiceStation.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Frank Bott Residence]] || [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] || [[Missouri]] || 1956 || || ||
|-
| [[Harold C. Price Sr. House]] || [[Paradise Valley, Arizona|Paradise Valley]] || [[Arizona]] || 1956 || || || [[File:Harold C. Price Sr. House, 2010.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Allen Friedman House]] || [[Bannockburn, Illinois|Bannockburn]] || [[Illinois]] || 1956 || || ||
|-
| [[Dr. Kenneth L. Meyers Medical Clinic]] || [[Dayton, Ohio|Dayton]] || [[Ohio]] || 1956 || || || [[File:Dr. Kenneth L. Meyers Medical Clinic, May 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Dudley Spencer House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Laurel) || [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]] || [[Delaware]] || 1956 || 1956-61 || || [[File:Laurel FLW DE.JPG|150px]]
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church (Milwaukee)|Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church]] || [[Milwaukee]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1956 || 1959-61 || || [[File:Annunciation Church Apr09.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Wyoming Valley Grammar School]] || [[Spring Green, Wisconsin|Spring Green]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1956 || || ||
|-
| [[Marshall Erdman Prefab Houses]] || Various || Locations || 1956 || 1956–1961 || ([[Marshall Erdman Prefab Houses]]) ||
|-
| [[Eugene Van Tamelen House]] || [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1956 || 1956 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #1) ||
|-
| [[Arnold Jackson House]] &lt;br /&gt; (Skyview) || [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1956 || 1957 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #1) &lt;br /&gt; Relocated to [[Beaver Dam, Wisconsin|Beaver Dam]], [[Wisconsin|WI]] in 1985 ||
|-
| [[Donald C. Duncan House]] || [[Lisle, Illinois|Lisle]] || [[Illinois]] || 1956 || 1957 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #1) &lt;br /&gt; Relocated to [[Polymath Park]], [[Pennsylvania|PA]] in 2002 ||
|-
| [[Frank Iber House]] || [[Plover, Wisconsin|Plover]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1956 || 1957 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #1) ||
|-
| [[Carl Post House]] || [[Barrington Hills, Illinois|Barrington Hills]] || [[Illinois]] || 1956 || 1957 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #1) ||
|-
| [[James McBean Residence|James B. McBean Residence]] || [[Rochester, Minnesota|Rochester]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1956 || 1957 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #2) || [[File:McBeanHouseRochesterMN2006-05-24.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Walter Rudin House]] || [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1956 || 1957-59 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #2) || [[File:Rudin-house.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Joseph Mollica House]] || [[Bayside, Wisconsin|Bayside]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1956 || 1958 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #1) ||
|-
| [[The Crimson Beech]] &lt;br /&gt; (William Cass House) || [[Staten Island]] || [[New York]] || 1956 || 1959 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #1) || [[File:Crimson Beech Partial Front View.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Dr. Edward &amp; Laura Jane LaFond House]] || [[St. Joseph, Minnesota|St. Joseph]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1956 || 1960 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #1) ||
|-
| [[Socrates Zaferiou House]] || [[Blauvelt, New York|Blauvelt]] || [[New York]] || 1956 || 1961 || (Marshall Erdman Prefab House #1) ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Marin County Civic Center]] || [[San Rafael, California|San Rafael]] || [[California]] || 1957 || Completed 1976 || || [[File:Marinciviccenter01.JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[William P. Boswell Residence]] || [[Indian Hill, Ohio|Indian Hill]] || [[Ohio]] || 1957 || Completed 1961 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #e8f7d5&quot;
| [[Gordon House (Silverton, Oregon)|C. E. Gordon House]] || [[Wilsonville, Oregon|Wilsonville]] || [[Oregon]] || 1957 || Completed 1963 || Relocated to [[Silverton, Oregon|Silverton]], [[Oregon|OR]] in 2001 || [[File:Gordon House southeast side.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Paul J. and Ida Trier House]] || [[Johnston, Iowa|Johnston]] || [[Iowa]] || 1957 || 1957 || ||
|-
| [[Robert G. Walton House]] || [[Modesto, California|Modesto]] || [[California]] || 1957 || || ||
|-
| [[Fasbender Clinic|Dr. Herman T. Fasbender Medical Clinic]] || [[Hastings, Minnesota|Hastings]] || [[Minnesota]] || 1957 || 1959 || || [[File:Fasbender Clinic.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Wichita State University Juvenile Cultural Study Center]] || [[Wichita, Kansas|Wichita]] || [[Kansas]] || 1957 || Completed 1963 || ||
|-
| [[Sterling Kinney Residence]] || [[Amarillo, Texas|Amarillo]] || [[Texas]] || 1957 || || ||
|-
| [[Carl E. Schultz House]] || [[St. Joseph, Michigan|St. Joseph]] || [[Michigan]] || 1957 || 1957 || || [[File:Carl E. Schultz House, 2009.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Duey and Julia Wright House]] || [[Wausau, Wisconsin|Wausau]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1957 || 1959 || ||
|- style=&quot;background: #f5eddc&quot;
| [[Eddie's House]] ||  [[San Anselmo, California|San Anselmo]] || [[California]] || 1957 || 1963 || Dog house &lt;/br&gt; Demolished 1973 ||
|-
| [[Dr. George Ablin House]] || [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]] || [[California]] || 1958 || || ||
|-
| [[Pilgrim Congregational Church (Redding, California)|Pilgrim Congregational Church]] || [[Redding, California|Redding]] || [[California]] || 1958 || 1960-63 || ||
|-
| [[Don M Stromquist House|Don M. Stromquist House]] || [[Bountiful, Utah|Bountiful]] || [[Utah]] || 1958 || 1959 || || [[File:Don M. Stromquist House (Garage-Office-Lab).JPG|150px]]
|-
| [[Seth Peterson Cottage|Seth C. Peterson Cottage]] || [[Mirror Lake State Park|Mirror Lake]] || [[Wisconsin]] || 1958 || 1958 || ||
|-
| [[Lockridge Medical Clinic]]&lt;ref&gt;{{coord|48.4091342|-114.336184|format=dms|type:landmark}}&lt;/ref&gt; || [[Whitefish, Montana|Whitefish]] || [[Montana]] || 1958 || || || [[File:Lockridge Medical Clinic (former), October 2011.jpg|150px]]
|-
| [[Paul Olfelt House]] || [[St. Louis Park, Minnesota|St. Louis Park]] ||  [[Minnesota]] || 1958 || || ||
|-
| [[Norman Lykes House]] || [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] || [[Arizona]] || 1959 || Completed 1968 || || [[File:Norman Lykes House, 2010.JPG|150px]]
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Bio-stub}}

{{BD|1867|1959|Wright, Frank Lloyd}}

[[Category:F]]
[[Category:W]]
[[Category:Architects]]
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  <page>
    <title>Abu Nuwas</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>3948</id>
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      <comment>Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="12654" sha1="t55nogkniisc3sknvd6eygzas7eodk8" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Writer
| name         = Abu-Nuwas al-Hasan ben Hani al-Hakami
| image        = Abu Nuwas.jpg
| alt          = 
| caption      = 
| pseudonym    = Abū-Nuwās
| birthname    = 
| birthdate    = 750
| birthplace   = Persia
| deathdate    = 810
| occupation   = Poet
| nationality  = Persian
| notableworks = 
| influenced   = 
}}

'''Abu-Nuwas al-Hasan ben Hani al-Hakami''' ([[750]]–[[810]]), nai to '''Abū-Nuwās''', ek [[Arbii bhasa]] ke kavi rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Esat Ayyıldız. [https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/1312336 &quot;Ebû Nuvâs’ın Şarap (Hamriyyât) Şiirleri&quot;]. Bozok Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 18 / 18 (2020): 147-173.&lt;/ref&gt; Uu [[Persia]] me paida bhais rahaa. Uu ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'' likhis rahaa.

==Jawaani ke din aur kaam==
Abu Nuwas ke ke baap ek Arbii rahaa jon ki Marwan II ke army me ek sipahi rahaa. Uske Farsi maiya ek weaver rahii. Uske janam Basra, nai to [[Damascus]], me bhais rahaa. Jab Abu Nuwas chhota rahaa tab uske ek Basra ke dukandaar ke bech dewa gais rahaa. Barraa hoe ke uu [[Baghdad]] gais jahan pe uu apan kavita ke khatir mashur bhais. 

== Exile and imprisonment ==
Abu Nuwas ke uu time [[Egypt]] bhaage ke parra jab ki uu ek mashuur Persian political palwaar Barmakis, jiske caliph Harun al-Rashid maar diis rahaa, ke baare me likhis. [[1809]] me uu Baghdad lautis jab Harun al-Rashid mar gais. Iske baad uu  Muhammad al-Amin, Harun al-Rashid ke larrka ke khatir kavita likhe lagis. Nawas ke uu time ke sab se achchhaa kavi maana jaawat rahaa. Baad me Amin ke uske bhaeya overthrow kar diis aur Nawas ke uske liberal kaam ke khatir jahel kar dewa gais.

==Paramparaa==
[[File:Verses of Abu Nawas, copied by Mirza Kuchik Visal, Qajar Iran, 10 May 1824.jpg|thumb|right|Abu Nawas ke verses ke manuscript. Jiske Mirza Kuchik Visal, [[Qajar Iran]] copy karis rahaa, iske date hae 10 May 1824]]

=== Prabhao ===
Abu Nuwas kuchh lekhak me se ek hae jiske literary form of the ''[[Riddles (Arabic)|mu‘ammā]]'' (literally &quot;blinded&quot; or &quot;obscured&quot;) ke banae ke credit dewa jaawe hae, a paheli jiske solve kare ke khaatir  &quot;by combining the constituent letters of the word or name to be found&quot; ke kaam me laawa jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1998 |title=mu'ammā |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Lu&lt;u&gt;gh&lt;/u&gt;z |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu dui Arabic genres ke aur achchhaa karis rahaa: Khamriyya (wine poetry) aur Tardiyya (hunting poetry). [[Ibn Quzman]], jon [[Al-Andalus]] me  [[12th century]] me likhat rahaa, uske bahut taarif karat rahaa aur usse compare karaa gais hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=La Corónica |volume=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ipfAAAAMAAJ |page=242 |year=1995}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Monroe |first=James T. |title=Why was Ibn Quzmān Not Awarded the Title of &quot;Abū Nuwās of the West?&quot; ('Zajal 96', the Poet, and His Critics) |journal=Journal of Arabic Literature |year=2013 |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=293–334 |doi=10.1163/1570064x-12341271 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jal/44/3/article-p293_2.xml|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Translations ==
* ''O Tribe That Loves Boys''. Hakim Bey (Entimos Press / Abu Nuwas Society, 1993). With a scholarly biographical essay on Abu Nuwas, largely taken from Ewald Wagner's biographical entry in ''The Encyclopedia of Islam.''
* ''Carousing with Gazelles, Homoerotic Songs of Old Baghdad''. Seventeen poems by Abu Nuwas translated by Jaafar Abu Tarab.  (iUniverse, Inc., 2005).
* Jim Colville. ''Poems of Wine and Revelry: The Khamriyyat of Abu Nuwas.'' (Kegan Paul, 2005).
*Esat Ayyıldız. [https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/1312336 &quot;Ebû Nuvâs’ın Şarap (Hamriyyât) Şiirleri&quot;]. Bozok Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 18 / 18 (2020): 147-173.

=== Smaarak ===
[[Baghdad]] city me dher jagha hae jiske naam Abu Nawas se aais hae. Abū Nuwās Street  [[Tigris]] Naddi ke east bank me hae, uu neighbourhood me jon pahile  city ke showpiece rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Britannica|2290|Abū Nuwās Street}}&lt;/ref&gt; Abu Nuwas Park ek 2.5-kilometer stretch  Jumhouriya Bridge aur ek park ke biich me hae jon naddi talak failaa rahaa, Karada me [[14th of July Bridge]] ke lage.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=DVIDS – News – A Walk in the Park|url=http://www.dvidshub.net/news/221/walk-park|access-date=12 September 2010|publisher=Dvidshub.net}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1976 me, ek [[Abu Nuwas (crater)|crater on the planet Mercury me]] ke Abu Nuwas ke honour me naam dewa gais rahaa.{{sfn | Mahoney | 20 13 | p=49}}

Abu Nawas Association, jiske 2007 me Algeria me suruu karaa gais rahaa, ke ii kavi ke naam dewa gais hae. Ii santhaa ke khaas aim rahaa ki Algeria me  homosexuality ke decriminalise karaa jaae, aur Algerian penal code which still considers [[homosexuality]] a crime punishable by imprisonment and accompanied by a fine ke khalaaas karaa jaae  article 333 aur 338 ke radd kar ke. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=2021-05-27|title=Gay people are reclaiming an Islamic heritage|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2021/05/27/gay-people-are-reclaiming-an-islamic-heritage|access-date=2021-05-31|issn=0013-0613}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=TCHUISSEU|first=Divine-Léna|date=28 November 2020|title=LGBTQIA+ activism in Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) countries: between repression and determination|url=https://igg-geo.org/?p=2741&amp;lang=en|url-status=live|website=Institut du Genre en Géopolitique|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215815/https://igg-geo.org/?p=2741&amp;lang=en |archive-date=2 June 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Censorship ==
Jab uske kaam ke khule aam chaapa jaawat rahaa twentieth century ke suruu talak, uske kaam ke pahila modern censored edition Cairo me 1932 me chhaapa gais rahaa. January 2001 me,  [[Ministry of Culture (Egypt)|Egyptian Ministry of Culture]] order karis ki Nuwaske [[homoerotic]] poetry  ke 6,000 book ke copies ke jaraawa gais rahaa .&lt;ref&gt;''Al-Hayat'', 13 January 2001&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Middle East Report'', 219 Summer 2001&lt;/ref&gt;  Saudi ''[[Global Arabic Encyclopedia]]'' me Abu Nuwas ke entry se,  [[pederasty]] ke sab chrchaa ke mitae dewa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;bearman&quot;&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Global Arabic Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedias about Muslim Civilisations |last=Bearman |first=Peri |editor-last=Khanbaghi |editor-first=Aptin |pages=16–17}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Popular culture me==
''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]'' me Nawas ke feature karaa gais hae, jahaan pe uske  Harun al-Rashid ke ek saathi ke ruup me dekhaawa gais hae.

Ek jaada fictionalised Abu Nuwas, novels ''The Father of Locks'' (Dedalus Books, 2009) me villian hae&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Killeen, Andrew.|title=The father of locks|url=https://archive.org/details/fatheroflocks0000kill|date=2009|publisher=Dedalus|isbn=978-1-903517-76-5|location=Sawtry|oclc=260209089}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur ''The Khalifah's Mirror'' (2012) jon Andrew Killeen likhis hae,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Killeen, Andrew.|title=The Khalifah's mirror|date=2012|publisher=Dedalus|isbn=978-1-909232-35-8|location=New York|oclc=815389625}}&lt;/ref&gt; me uu ek  spy hae jon [[Ja'far al-Barmaki]] ke khaatir kaam kare hae.{{sfn|Killeen|2009}}

Sudanese novel ''Season of Migration to the North'' (1966), jon  [[Tayeb Salih]] likhis hae, Abu Nuwas ke prem kavita  ke dher  cite karaa gais hae  novel ke ek villian ,  Sudanese Mustafa Sa'eed dwaara, jisse England ke ek jawaan aurat ke seduce karaa jaae sake hae: &quot;Does it not please you that the earth is awaking,/ That old virgin wine is there for the taking?&quot;{{sfn|Ṣāliḥ|1991|pp=119-120}}

[[Tanzania]] ke artist Godfrey Mwampembwa ([[Gado (comics)|Gado]]) ek [[Swahili bhasa|Swahili]] comic book banais hae jiske ''Abunuwasi'' bola jaawe hae jiske 1996 me publish karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Gado|title=Abu nuwasi : kimefasiriwa na kimechorwa|date=1996|publisher=Sasa Sema Publications|isbn=9966-9609-0-2|location=Nairobi, Kenya|oclc=43496228}}&lt;/ref&gt; Isme ek trickster jan, jiske naam  hae, ek villian hae tiin kahaani me jon  East African folklore as well as the fictional Abu Nuwasi of ''One Thousand and One Nights'' pe based hae.{{sfn|Pilcher|2005|p=297}}{{sfn|Gado|1998}}

[[Pier Paolo Pasolini|Pasolini's]] [[Arabian Nights (1974 film)|Arabian Nights]],  ''Sium'' kahaani  Abu Nuwas ke erotic poetry pe based hae. The original poems are used throughout the scene.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgDRDgAAQBAJ&amp;q=1001+nights+sium&amp;pg=PT38|title=Arabian Nights: A Queer Film Classic|isbn=9781551526676|last1=Moon|first1=Michael|date=15 January 2017|publisher=Arsenal pulp press }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Indonesia]] me, Abu Nuwas, jiske ''Abunawas'' bola jaawe hae, dher folk khissa meek character hae,  [[Nasreddin Hoca]] ke rakam.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2016-09-20 |title=Bedanya Nasrudin Khoja dan Abu Nawas |url=https://republika.co.id/berita/dunia-islam/islam-digest/16/09/20/odsl15313-bedanya-nasrudin-khoja-dan-abu-nawas |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=Republika Online |language=id}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske khissa me khaas   highlight, relations between ordinary people aur higher class ke biich ke rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125970487.pdf |title=The discourse of common people represented in Javanese version of Abu Nawas stories |last=Rahayu |first=Mundi |date=2021 |journal=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research |volume=644 |access-date=May 1, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519235405/https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125970487.pdf |archive-date=May 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Aur parrho ==
*{{cite book
    | first = Philip F.
    | last = Kennedy
    | coauthors = 
    | year = 1997
    | title = The Wine Song in Classical Arabic Poetry: Abu Nuwas and the Literary Tradition
    | url = https://archive.org/details/winesonginclassi0000kenn
    | publisher = Open University Press
    | isbn = 0198263929
    }}
*{{cite book
    | first = Philip F.
    | last = Kennedy
    | coauthors = 
    | year = 2005
    | title = Abu Nuwas: A Genius of Poetry
    | publisher = OneWorld Press
    | isbn = 1851683607
    }}
*{{cite book
    | first = Norris J.
    | last = Lacy
    | editor = Moshe Lazar
    | year = 1989
    | title = Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages
    | url = https://archive.org/details/poeticsofloveinm0000unse
    | chapter = The Care and Feeding of Gazelles – Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry
    | publisher = George Mason University Press
    | pages= [https://archive.org/details/poeticsofloveinm0000unse/page/95 95]–118
    | isbn = 0913969257
    }}
*{{cite book
    | author = Frye, Richard Nelson
    | year = 
    | title = The Golden Age of Persia
    | publisher = 
    | page= 123
    | isbn = 0-06-492288-X
    }}
*{{cite book
    | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica
    | title = Abu Nuwas
    | url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9003430
    }}
*Esat Ayyıldız. [https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/1312336 &quot;Ebû Nuvâs’ın Şarap (Hamriyyât) Şiirleri&quot;]. Bozok Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 18 / 18 (2020): 147-173.

==Notes==
{{Refbegin}}
* &lt;cite id=&quot;fn_a&quot;&gt;[[#fn a back|Note a:]]&lt;/cite&gt; Sources vary: Garzanti gives a date of birth of 756 or 758 and a date of death as circa 814,&lt;ref&gt;&lt;cite id=&quot;GA&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Enciclopedia Garzanti della letteratura |last=Garzanti |first=Aldo |authorlink=Aldo Garzanti |year=1974 |origyear=1972 |publisher=Garzanti |location=Milan |page=2 |language=Italian}}&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; while Dona S. Straley gives circa 756 to circa 810.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Dona S. |last=Straley |title=The undergraduate's companion to Arab writers and their web sites |origyear=2004 |publisher=Libraries Unlimited |page=30 |isbn=1591581184 |id=ISBN 978-1-59158-118-5}}&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

==Swahili sanskriti==
East [[Africa]] ke  [[Swahili]] sanskriti me the Abu Nuwas ke  Abunuwasi ke naam se jaana jaawe hae aur ii dher popular hae. Hian pe iske naam dher khissa me [[Nasreddin]], Guba nai to &quot;the Mullah&quot;  ke naam se jaana jaawe hae. Ii sab kahani me Abunuwasi dhani log ke trick kar ke gaib log ke madat kare hae. 

[[Tanzania]] ke artist Godfrey Mwampembwa, [[Swahili bhasa|Swahili]] ke comic book likis hae jiske ''Abunuwasi'' bola jaawe hae,jisme Abunawasi khissa ke adapt karaa gais hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pilcher&quot;&gt;Pilcher, Tim and Brad Brooks. (Foreword: Dave Gibbons). ''The Essential Guide to World Comics''. ''[[Collins and Brown]]''. 2005. 297.&lt;/ref&gt; 
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

{{BD|0750|0810|Nuwas, Abu}}


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| name         = Matsuo Bashō (松尾 芭蕉)
| image        = Basho by Hokusai-small.jpg
| alt          = A statue of Matsuo in Hiraizumi, Iwate
| caption      = Matsuo ke murti Hiraizumi, Iwate me
| pseudonym    = Sōbō (宗房)
| birthname    = Matsuo Kinsaku (松尾 金作)
| birthdate    = 1644
| birthplace   = Ueno]], Iga Province ke lage
| deathdate    = 28 November 1694
| occupation   = Kavi
| nationality  = [[Japan]]ese
| notableworks = Oku no Hosomichi
| influenced   = Imagism, Beat Generation; Robbie Basho, Steffen Basho-Junghans
}}

'''Matsuo Munefusa''', jiske '''Matsuo Bashō''' ke naam se jaana jaawe hae ([[Japanese bhasa|Japanese]]: 松尾芭蕉, [[1644]] - [[28 November]] [[1694]]) ek Japanese [[poet]] rahaa. Uske sab se barraa [[haeku]], ek rakam ke kavita jisme 5-7-5 [[syllable]]s rahe hae, banae waala poet maana jaawe hae. 

Japanese custom me uske ''Basho'' bolaa jaawe hae , uske siganture me uske ghar ke naam nai rahe hae. 

Uske janam Iga, jon ki abhi Mie prefecture me hae, ek [[samurai]] (Japanese warrior) palwaar me bhaes rahaa. 

==Jiwan kahaani==&lt;!--
===Names=== --&gt;

===Bachpan ke din===
[[Image:MatsuoBasyoSeika.jpg|thumb|left|Bashō's supposed birthplace in [[Iga Province]]]]
Matsuo Bashō ke janam 1644 me, [[Ueno, Mie|Ueno]] ke lage,  [[Iga Province]] (abi ke western Mie prefecture) me bhais rahaa.{{sfn |Carter |1997 |p=62}}{{sfn |Kokusai |1948|p=246}} Matsuo palwaar  [[samurai]] descent ke rahin, aur uske pitaji saait ek {{Nihongo|''musokunin''|無足人}} rahaa hoi, ek jamiin ke own kare waala peasant jiske kuchh samurai ke privelege dewa gais rahaa.{{sfn |Ueda |1992 |p=17}}{{sfn |Carter |1997 |p=62}}

Uske bachpan ke baare me bahut kuchh nai jaana jaawe hae. Matsuo ek khaas  [[ninja]] palwaar rahaa, aur Bashō ninjutsu me training liis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Stevens |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zt9iEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA246 |title=The Art of Budo: The Calligraphy and Paintings of the Martial Arts Masters |date=2022-12-06 |publisher=Shambhala Publications |isbn=978-1-64547-054-0 |location=[[Boulder, Colorado]] |pages=246 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Aapan teens me, Bashō {{nihongo|Tōdō Yoshitada|[[:ja:藤堂 良忠|藤堂 良忠]]}} ke naukar banaa, most likely in some humble capacity,{{sfn |Carter |1997 |p=62}}{{sfn |Ueda |1982 |pp=17–20}} aur saait uske puraa samurai class me promote nai karaa gais rahaa.{{sfn |Nihon Jinmei Daijiten Plus |2015}} Kagbhag abi ke kuchh log ii biswas kare hae ki uu ek cook nai to kichin ke karamchaari rahaa,{{Refn|group=Notes |[[Ichikawa Danjūrō II]]'s diary ''Oi no tanoshimi'' says &quot;cook&quot;; {{nihongo|Endō Atsujin|遠藤曰人}}'s biography ''Bashō-ō keifu'' &quot;kitchen-worker&quot;.{{sfn |Kon |1994 |p=12}}}}&lt;!--at the kitchen of Yoshitada's father Yoshikiyo (藤堂 良精),--&gt; lekin iske koi proof nai hae.{{sfn |Carter |1997 |p=62}} Baad ke ek hypothesis hae ki uske  ek [[Page (servant)|page]] ({{interlanguage link|koshō{{!}}''koshō''|ja|小姓}}) to Yoshitada&lt;!--pen name Sengin--&gt; ke khaatir chuna gais rahaa, aur duusra sabuut ii dekhae hae ki uu aur chhotaa umar me kaam suruu karis rahaa. {{sfn |Hibino |1978 |p=28}}

Uu Yoshitada ke rakam ''[[Renku|haikai no renga]]'' ke like karar rahaa, ek rakam ke  collaborative kavita ke composition.{{sfn|Ueda|1982|p=20}} Ek sequence suruu hoe hae  5-7-5  verse me [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] format; jisme ''[[hokku]]'' naam dewa gais rahaa, aur dher saal baad bhi uu ''[[haiku]]'' rahaa jab iske ek stand-alone work ke ruup me pes karaa jaawe hae tab . ''Hokku'' ke baad ek related 7-7 mora verse ek duusra kavi se rahaa. Duuno Bashō aur Yoshitada apne ke {{Nihongo|''haigō''|俳号|}}, nai to ''[[haikai]]'' [[pen name]]s dewe hae; Bashō ek {{nihongo|'''Sōbō'''|宗房}} rahaa, jon simply ''[[on'yomi]]'' (Sino-Japanese reading) of his adult name, &quot;{{nihongo|Munefusa|宗房}}.&quot; 1662 me uske pahila  extant kavita ke publish karaa gais rahaa . 1726 me,  Bashō ke dui hokku ke ek compilation me chhaapa gais rahaa.{{clarify|date=February 2018}}

1665 me, Bashō aur Yoshitada saathe, duusra mitr ke saathe hyakuin ke compose kare rahin nai  to  ek-sau-verse ke ''[[renku]]''. 1666 me, Yoshitada ke achaanak maut  ke baad  Bashō ke saanti waala jindagi ek naukar ke ruup me khalaas hoe gais rahaa. Ii time ke koi record nai hae, lekin ii biswas karaa jaawe hae ki  Bashō  samurai bane ke baare me bhuul gais aur ghar chhorr diis rahaa.{{sfn|Ueda|1982|p=21}} Janam kahaani likhe waale dher kaaran aur jagha ke diin hae, jisme   Bashō aur ek Shinto ''[[miko]]'' jiske naam {{Nihongo|Jutei|寿貞|}} rahaa, ke biich me affair ke baare me bataawa gais hae, jon saait shachchaa nai hae.{{sfn |Okamura |1956}}{{page needed|date=November 2020}} Bashō ke aapan ke references ii time ke vague hae; uu yaad kare hae ki &quot;ek time ham maangat rahaa ek sarkari post aur jamiin ke title&quot;, aur &quot;ek time rahaa jab ham   homosexual pyaar se fascinated rahaa&quot;: ii nai jaana jaawe hae ki uu asli ki nakli obsession ke baare me baat karat rahaa .{{sfn|Ueda|1982|p=22}} (Lekhak ke janam kahani likhe waale ii batae hae ki ,  Bashō  homosexual affairs me aapan jindagi bhar rahaa&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Cartographies of Desire: Male-Male Sexuality in Japanese Discourse, 1600–1950 |url=https://archive.org/details/cartographiesofd0000pflu |author=Gregory M. Pflugfelder |year=1999|page=[https://archive.org/details/cartographiesofd0000pflu/page/39 39] |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520251656}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur uske premi me uske dher chela rahin;{{sfn|Leupp|1997|p=137}} Professor Gary Leupp ke view me, Bashō ke homoerotic compositions  clearlyuske personal experiences pe based rahaa{{sfn|Leupp|1997|p=83}}). Uu ii jaanat rahaa ki full-time kavi bani ki nai; aur uu apne bolis hae, &quot;the alternatives battled in my mind and made my life restless&quot;.{{sfn|Ueda|1982|p=23}} Uske indecision saait  influence bhais rahaa  ''renga'' aur ''haikai no renga'' ke low status ke kaaran.{{sfn|Ueda|1982|p=9}} Kuchh bhi hoe, uske kavita ke anthologies me 1667, 1669, aur 1671 me publish karaa gais rahaa, aur uu aapan kaam aur duusra log ke kaam ke ek sangrah and he published a compilation of work by himself and other authors of the [[Teitoku]] school, {{nihongo|''[[The Seashell Game]]''|貝おほひ|Kai Ōi}}, ke 1672 me chhaapis rahaa.{{sfn|Kokusai|1948|p=246}} uu saal ke spring me uu [[Edo (Tokyo)|Edo]] chal diis rahaa, kavita ke aur adhyan kare ke khaatir.{{sfn|Ueda|1992|p=29}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1644|1694|Basho, Matsuo}}

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| birth_place        = [[City of London|London]], England
| death_date         = 25 October 1400&lt;!--His monument states that he was in his 53rd year at death, i. e. 52--&gt;
| death_place        = London, England
| resting_place      = [[Westminster Abbey]]
| occupation         = {{hlist|Author|poet|philosopher|[[bureaucrat]]|diplomat}}
| era                = [[England in the Late Middle Ages|Plantagenet]]
| spouse             = {{marriage|[[Philippa Roet]]|1366|1387|end=died}}
| children           = 4, including [[Thomas Chaucer|Thomas]]
| module             = {{Infobox writer|embed=yes
| language           = [[Middle English]]
| period             = [[Middle English literature]]
| genres             = {{hlist|[[Epic poem]]|[[lyric poem]]|[[short story]]|[[treatise]]}}
| subjects           = 
| movement           = Precursor to the [[English Renaissance]]
| years_active       = 1368{{ndash}}1400
| notableworks       = ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''
| signature          = File:Geoffrey Chaucer.svg
| signature_size     = 200px
}}
}}
'''Geoffrey Chaucer''' (c. [[1343]] – [[25 October]] [[1400]]) ek [[England|English]] [[writer]], [[poet]], aur [[philosopher]] rahaa. Uu ek famour book, ''Canterbury Tales'', likhis rahaa.

Chaucer, [[London]] me paida bhaes rahaa. Uske pitaji aur aaja London me wine bechat rahaa. French bhasa me uske naam ke matlab  &quot;shoemaker&quot; hae. Chaucer ek noblewoman ke [[page]] banaa. 1360 me , [[Hundred Years War]] ke time uske French log prisoner banae liis rahaa lekin ek ransom de ke baad uske chhorr dewa gais rahaa. 

Chaucer ke saadi Phillipa (de) Roet se bhaes rahaa, jon ki rani ke [[lady-in-waiting]]  

==Jindagi==
===Suruu===
[[File:ChaucerArms Ancient.svg|thumb|left|upright|Arms of Geoffrey Chaucer: ''Per pale argent and gules, a bend counterchanged'']]

Geoffrey Chaucer ke janam [[London]] me bhais rahaa, most likely in the early 1340s me (kuchh log aur uske monument ii batawe hae ki uu 1343 me paida bhais rahaa), lekin iske aslii jagha aur tarik ke baare me sure nai hae. Uske par-aaja, His great-grandfather Andrew de Chaucer ek tavern keeper rahaa, uske aaja,   Robert Malyn le Chaucer purveyor of wines ke kaam karat rahaa, aur uske pitaji, John Chaucer, ek khaas wine merchant ban gais rahaa aur raja log ke  bejat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Echard|first1=Sian|last2=Rouse|first2=Robert|title=The Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature in Britain, 4 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UXoqDwAAQBAJ&amp;q=chaucer+wine+purveyor&amp;pg=PA425|page=425|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=9781118396988|year=2017|access-date=11 September 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Geoffrey Chaucer ke puraana jamaana ke plwaar wine ke business me rahin.  &lt;ref name=&quot;Brewer1992&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Derek Brewer|title=Chaucer and His World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_l3StHI3nBUC&amp;pg=PA18|year=1992|publisher=Boydell &amp; Brewer Ltd|isbn=978-0-85991-366-9|pages=18–19}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Turner2019&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Marion Turner|title=Chaucer: A European Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fA2GDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA26|date=9 April 2019|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-16009-2|page=26}}&lt;/ref&gt; and merchants in [[Ipswich]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Briggs |first1=Keith |title=The Ipswich ancestors of Geoffrey Chaucer |journal=Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and History |date=2024 |volume=45 |issue=4 |page=691-701}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Briggs |first1=Keith |title=The Malins in Chaucer's Ipswich Ancestry |journal=[[Notes and Queries]] |date=June 2019 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=201–202 |doi=10.1093/notesj/gjz004}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske surname,  [[French bhasa|French]] ''chaucier'' se aais hae, jiske matlab pahile socha jaawat rahaa ki    'shoemaker' rahaa, lekin abhi jaannaa jaawe hae ki  [[chausses]] (leggings) banaawe waala hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland |chapter=Chaucer |editor1-last=Hanks |editor1-first=Patrick |editor1-link=Patrick Hanks |editor2-last=Coates |editor2-first=Richard |editor2-link=Richard Coates |editor3-last=McClure |editor3-first=Peter |publisher=Oxford UP |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-967776-4 | url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199677764.001.0001/acref-9780199677764-e-07364}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1324 me uske aage ke pitaji, John Chaucer, ke au aunty apharan kar liis rahaa aapn 12 saal ke larrki se saadi karwae ke khaatir, jisse Ipswich palwaar ke property palwaare me rahe. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Larry Dean |title=The Riverside Chaucer |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=xi}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii aunty ke  jahel kar dewa gais rahaa aur  £250 fine dewa gais rahaa, jisse ii jaana jaawe hae ki uske palwaar dhani rahaa. &lt;ref&gt;Skeat, W. W., ed. ''The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899; Vol. I, pp. xi–xii.&lt;/ref&gt;

John Chaucer, Agnes Copton ke saathe saadi karis rahaa, jon  1349 me property inherit karis rahaa, jisme London me 24 dukaan rahaa, uske uncle Hamo de Copton se, jiske ek will will dated 3&amp;nbsp;April 1354 me describe karaa gais hae aur jiske  City Hustings Roll  '[[moneyer]]' ke naam se listed hae, jiske matab hae ki uske [[Tower of London]] me kaam rahaa. City Hustings Roll 110, 5, Ric II, dated June 1380 me, Chaucer apne ke ''me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie'', Latin for: &quot;I, Geoffrey Chaucer, son of the vintner John Chaucer, London&quot; ke naam diis hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer: Romaunt of the rose. Minor poems |date=1894 |publisher=Clarendon Press |pages=13, 14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Kaam===
[[File:Ellesmere Chaucer, mssEL 26 C 9, folio 153v color enhanced.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Chaucer as a pilgrim (from the early fifteenth-century [[Ellesmere manuscript]] of the ''Canterbury Tales'')]]
jab ki Chaucer ke jamaana ke log ,[[William Langland]] aur [[Gawain Poet]] ke baare me kushh likha chij nai hae,  Chaucer ek public servant rahaa jiske  official life ke achchhaa se documented karaa gais rahaa. Lagbhag 500 likha gais chij uske kaam ke baare me batae hae. Pahila 'Chaucer Life Records'  1357 me aais rahaa  [[Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster|Elizabeth de Burgh]], the [[Countess of Ulster]] ke ghar ke records me, jab uu ek noblewoman ke page banaa rahaa aapan pitaji ke connection ke kaaaran,&lt;ref&gt;Skeat (1899); Vol. I, p. xvii.&lt;/ref&gt; ek samaan  medieval ke jamaana ke larrka log ke khaatir  apprenticeship  knighthood  ke khaatir , nai to ek achchhaa appointment. De Burgh ke saadi [[Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence]], the second surviving son of [[Edward III]]; this position brought the teenage Chaucer into the close court circle, where he was to remain for the rest of his life. He was also employed as a courtier, a diplomat and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the King's Works.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Critical Companion to Chaucer: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work |url=https://archive.org/details/criticalcompanio0000ross |last1=Rossignol |first1=Rosalyn |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/criticalcompanio0000ross/page/551 551], 613 |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-8160-6193-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[1359]] me,  [[Hundred Years' War]] ke suruu waala saal me, Edward  France ke invade karis rahaa. Chaucer, Lionel of Antwerp, Elizabeth ke admii ke saathe travel karis rahaa,  [[History of the British Army|English army]] ke ek hissa me. [[1360]] me uske [[Reims campaign|siege of Reims]] ke time bandi bane lewa gais rahaa. Des ke raja uske rihai ke khaatir  £16 ransom bharis rahaa,&lt;ref&gt;''Chaucer Life Records'', p. 24.&lt;/ref&gt; aur Chaucer ke chhorr dewa gais rahaa.

[[File:ChaucerCrest EwelmeChurch Oxfordshire.png|thumb|The Chaucer crest: ''A unicorn's head'' with [[canting arms]] of Roet below: ''Gules, three Catherine Wheels or'' ([[French language|French]]: ''rouet'' = 'spinning-wheel'). [[Ewelme]] Church, [[Oxfordshire]]; possible funeral helm of his son [[Thomas Chaucer]].]]
Chaucer ke jindagi uncertain rahaa ii time ke baad. Lekin aise janaawe hae ki uu  France, Spain aur [[Flanders]] gais rahaa, saait ek duut ke ruup me aur saait  [[Camino de Santiago|Way of Saint James]] pilgrimage to [[Santiago de Compostela]] gais rahaa. 

Lagbhag [[1366]] me Chaucer, [[Philippa (de) Roet]] se saadi karis rahaa. Uu  Edward III ke raani ke lady-in-waiting rahii, [[Philippa of Hainault]], aur  [[Katherine Swynford]] ke bahini, jon baad me ({{Circa|1396}})  [[John of Gaunt]] ke tiisra aurat banis rahaa. Ii nai jaana jaawe hae ki Chaucer aur Philippa ke ketnaa larrkan rahin, lekin jaada log ii biswas kare hae ki tiin nai to chaar rahaa. Uske larrka, [[Thomas Chaucer]], ke ek achchhaa career rahaa as [[Chief Butler of England|chief butler]] chaar raja log ke khaatir, France ke rajduut, aur [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|Speaker of the House of Commons]]. Thomas ke larrki, [[Alice de la Pole|Alice]], [[William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk|Duke of Suffolk]] se saadi kre rahii. Thomas ke par-potaan (Geoffrey ke great-great-grandson), [[John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln]],  [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] ke heir rahaa, usje depose hoe se pahile.  Geoffrey ke duusra larrkan, jisme  Elizabeth Chaucy rahaa, ek nun [[Barking Abbey]] me rahii,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Medieval English Nunneries, c. 1275 to 1535 |last=Power |first=Eileen |year=1988 |publisher=Biblo &amp; Tannen Publishers |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ll6BuF4-kgC&amp;pg=PA19 |access-date=19 December 2007 |isbn=978-0-8196-0140-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Chaucer and His England |last=Coulton |first=G. G. |year=2006 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |page=74 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tgP7qB4Br-4C&amp;pg=PA74 |access-date=19 December 2007 |isbn=978-1-4286-4247-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; Agnes,  [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] ke coronation me attendant rahii; aur ek aur larrka, Lewis Chaucer rahaa. Chaucer ke &quot;Treatise on the Astrolabe&quot; uske khaatir likha gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Rossignol, Rosalyn. ''Chaucer A to Z: The Essential Reference to his Life and Works''. New York: 1999, pp. 72–73 and 75–77.&lt;/ref&gt;


==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1343|1400|Chaucer, Geoffrey}}
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    <title>Leo Tolstoy</title>
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      <text bytes="10710" sha1="9ebuhmlqbdi0g9wh7xizza9dyrm81jy" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Writer &lt;!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox Writer/doc]] --&gt;
| name = Leo Tolstoy
| image = L.N.Tolstoy Prokudin-Gorsky.jpg
| caption = Ii uske khaali ekke chapa hae, jiske uske Yasnaya Polyana estate me 1908 me Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorski liis rahaa
| birthdate = {{birth date|1828|9|9|mf=y}}
| birthplace = Yasnaya Polyana, [[Russia]]
| deathdate = {{death date and age|1910|11|20|1828|8|28|mf=y}}
| deathplace = Astapovo, Russia
| occupation = Novelist
| genre = Realist
| political movement = Christian anarchist&lt;br /&gt;Pacifism
| notableworks =''War and Peace''&lt;br /&gt;''Anna Karenina''
| signature = Signature_of_Leo_Tolstoy.jpg
}}

Count '''Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy''' ([[1828]]-[[1910]]) ek [[Russia]]n [[novelist]] rahaa, jon ki aapan book ''[[War and Peace]]'' aur ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' ke khatir famous bhais .

Tolstoy ke janam Yasnaya Polyana [[Tula]], [[Russia]] me bhais rahaa aur uske saadi Sofia Andreevna Bers se bhais rahaa. 

Uu ek [[Christian]] rahaa aur [[non-violence]] me biswas karat rahaa. Uske book ''The Kingdom of God is Within You'' [[Mahatma Gandhi]] aur [[Martin Luther King]] se influence bhais rahaa. 

== Palwaar ke origin ==

Tolstoy palwaar, ek jaana-maana palwaar rahaa, puraana Russian nobility ke, jon aapan   ancestry ke ek  mythical&lt;ref name=&quot;Barlett 2011 14&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Bartlett |first=Rosamund |year=2011 |title=[[Tolstoy: A Russian Life]] |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |page=[https://archive.org/details/tolstoyrussianli0000bart_p2u4/page/14 14] |isbn=978-0547545875}}&lt;/ref&gt; nobleman jiske naam Indris rahaa, jiske Pyotr Tolstoy describe karis hae ki &quot;from Nemec, from the lands of Caesar&quot; se [[Chernigov]] me  1353 me aawe rahin, uske dui larrkas Litvinos (or Litvonis) aur Zimonten (or Zigmont) ke saathe aur  3000 log ke saathe, talak pahile trace kare rahin.&lt;ref name='rummel'&gt;''Vitold Rummel, Vladimir Golubtsov (1886)''. [http://www.runivers.ru/lib/book3148/10056/ Genealogical Collection of Russian Noble Families in 2 Volumes. Volume 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212084437/http://www.runivers.ru/lib/book3148/10056/ |date=12 December 2017 }} – The Tolstoys, Counts and Noblemen. Saint Petersburg: A.S. Suvorin Publishing House, p. 487&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name='bunin'&gt;[[Ivan Bunin]], ''The Liberation of Tolstoy: A Tale of Two Writers'', p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Indriske [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]] me convert karaa gais rahaa, aur uske naam Leonty dewa gais rahaa, aur uske larrkam ke naam Konstantin aur Feodor dewa gais rahaa. Konstantin ke potaa Andrei Kharitonovich ke nicknamed Tolstiy (translated as ''fat'') rahaa jab uu  Chernigov se Moscow gais rahaa.&lt;ref name='rummel' /&gt;&lt;ref name='bunin' /&gt;

Ii pagan naam ke kaara, aur kaaheki  Chernigov pe uu time  [[Demetrius I Starshy]] raaj karat rahaa, kuchh researchers ii conclud kare hae ki uu log   [[Lithuania|Lithuanians]] rahin jon  [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] se aae rahin.&lt;ref name='rummel' /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7kDJ3s1mcZcC&amp;q=tolstoy+lithuanian&amp;pg=PA8|title=Tolstoy|isbn=978-0-8021-3768-5|last1=Troyat|first1=Henri|year=2001|publisher=Grove Press|access-date=23 October 2020|archive-date=22 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322204938/https://books.google.com/books?id=7kDJ3s1mcZcC&amp;q=tolstoy+lithuanian&amp;pg=PA8#v=snippet&amp;q=tolstoy%20lithuanian&amp;f=false|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/06/books/six-centuries-of-tolstoys.html|title=Six Centuries of Tolstoys|date=6 November 1983|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Robinson|first1=Harlow|access-date=10 February 2017|archive-date=21 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421203216/http://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/06/books/six-centuries-of-tolstoys.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Indris naam ke koi jan ke naam ke  14th-to-16th-century documents me nai paawa gais rahaa, jab [[Old Russian Chronicles|Chernigov Chronicles]] jiske Pyotr Tolstoy reference ke ruup me kaam me laais hae, abhi herae gais hae.&lt;ref name='rummel' /&gt; Tostoy ke palwaar ke log  [[17th century]] me rahat rahin, jiske kaaran Pyotr Tolstoy ke founder of the noble house maana jaawe hae, aur uske  title of [[count]], [[Peter the Great]] dwaara dewa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;[https://gerbovnik.ru/arms/162.html Tolstoy coat of arms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212193058/https://gerbovnik.ru/arms/162.html |date=12 December 2017 }} by All-Russian Armorials of Noble Houses of the Russian Empire. Part 2, 30 June 1798 (in Russian)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/ЭСБЕ/Толстые The Tolstoys] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106175830/https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%A1%D0%91%D0%95/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B5 |date=6 January 2017 }} article from [[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]], 1890–1907 (in Russian)&lt;/ref&gt;

== Jindagi aur kaam ==
[[File:Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy poses for a portrait at the age of 20 (4x5 cropped).jpg|left|upright=0.8|thumb|Tolstoy at age 20, {{circa|1848}}]]
Tolstoy ke janam [[Yasnaya Polyana]] me, palwaar ke ek estate {{convert|12|km|mi}}  [[Tula, Russia|Tula]] ke southwest, aur {{convert|200|km|mi}} Moscow ke south me. Uu [[Count]] Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy (1794–1837) ke paanch larrkan me se chuthaa rahaa,  [[French invasion of Russia|Patriotic War of 1812]] ke veteran rahaa, aur Princess Mariya Tolstaya (née [[Volkonsky|Volkonskaya]]; 1790–1830). Uske maiyaa mar gais rahaa jab uu dui saal ke rahaa aur uske pitaji maris rahaa jab uu nau saal ke rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;AuthorDataSheet&quot; /&gt; Tolstoy aur uske bhaiyaa- bahini log ke uske palwaar paale rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica&quot; /&gt; 1844 me, uu wakiili aur  oriental bhasa ke [[Kazan University]] me parrhe lagaa, jahaan pe uske teacher logan &quot;both unable and unwilling to learn&quot; describe kare rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;AuthorDataSheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.macmillanreaders.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/ads.leotolstoy.pdf |title=Author Data Sheet, Macmillan Readers |publisher=Macmillan Publishers Limited |access-date=22 October 2010 |archive-date=7 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807174656/http://www.macmillanreaders.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/ads.leotolstoy.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Tolstoy  university ke aapan parrjai ke biich me chhorr diis rahaa,&lt;ref name=&quot;AuthorDataSheet&quot; /&gt;  Yasnaya Polyana laut gais rahaa aur iske baad dher time  Moscow , Tula aur Saint Petersburg me bitais rahaa, jiske kaaran uske aur leisurely lifestyle rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica&quot; /&gt; Ii time uu likhe ke suruu kar diis rahaa ,&lt;ref name=&quot;AuthorDataSheet&quot; /&gt; jisme uske pahila  novel ''[[Childhood (Tolstoy novel)|Childhood]]'' rahaa, uske jawaani ke ek fictitious account, jiske 1852 me publish karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica&quot; /&gt; 1851 me, jab uske juuaa ke debt jaada hoe gais rahaa , uu aapan bhaiyaa ke saathe  [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]] gais aur and  [[Imperial Russian Army|army]] ke join karis rahaa. Tolstoyek  artillery officer ke ruup me [[Crimean War]] me larris rahaa aur uu  Sevastopol me rahaa  11-month-long [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55)|siege of Sevastopol]] ke time 1854–55 me,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBCTen&quot; /&gt; jisme [[Battle of the Chernaya]] bhi hae. War ke time uske  courage ke recognise karaa gais rahaa aur uske lieutenant promote karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBCTen&quot;&gt;&quot;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/3GL3DPct7D5GPQzB7GlrrBW/ten-things-you-didnt-know-about-tolstoy Ten Things You Didn't Know About Tolstoy] &quot;. BBC.&lt;/ref&gt; Uu ii larrai me dher maut se chintit rahaa,&lt;ref name=&quot;AuthorDataSheet&quot; /&gt; aur  Crimean War ke baad army ke chhorr diis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica&quot; /&gt;

Uske army ke experience aur Europe ke dui trip 1857 aur 1860–61 me,  Tolstoy ke ek  dissolute aur privileged society lekhak  se ek  non-violent aur spiritual [[Anarchism|anarchist]] me badal diis rahaa. Duusra jan jon yahi marg pakrre rahin hae,  [[Alexander Herzen]], [[Mikhail Bakunin]] aur [[Peter Kropotkin]]. Aapan 1857 ke visit me, Tolstoy Paris me   public execution ke dekhis rahaa , jon uske khaatir ek traumatic experience rahaa jon uske baad ke jindagi ke mark karis rahaa. Ek chitthi jon uu aapan dost [[Vasily Botkin]] ke lage bhejis rahaa, me Tolstoy likis rahaa: &quot;The truth is that the State is a conspiracy designed not only to exploit, but above all to corrupt its citizens ... Henceforth, I shall never serve any government anywhere.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A.N. Wilson, ''Tolstoy'' (1988), p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; Tolstoy ke concept of [[non-violence]] nai to [[ahimsa]] ke aur proytsaan milaa jab uu   [[Tirukkural translations into German|German version]] of the [[Tirukkural]] ke parrhis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;PearlsOfInsp_Rajaram&quot;&gt;{{cite book| last = Rajaram| first = M.| title = Thirukkural: Pearls of Inspiration| url = https://archive.org/details/thirukkuralpearl0000thir| publisher = Rupa Publications| date = 2009| location = New Delhi | isbn = 978-81-291-1467-9| pages = xviii–xxi}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Walsh2018&quot;&gt;{{cite book| last = Walsh| first = William| title = Secular Virtue: for surviving, thriving, and fulfillment | publisher = Will Walsh| date = 2018| location = | isbn = 978-06-920-5418-5| pages = }}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu baad me isse  [[Mahatma Gandhi]] pe asar karis through his &quot;''[[A Letter to a Hindu]]''&quot; jab jawan Gandhi usse chtthi badlis use rae le ke khaatir .&lt;ref name=&quot;Walsh2018&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url = http://www.online-literature.com/tolstoy/2733/| title = A Letter to A Hindu: The Subjection of India-Its Cause and Cure| last = Tolstoy| first = Leo| date = 14 December 1908| publisher = The Literature Network| access-date = 12 February 2012| quote = The Hindu Kural| archive-date = 10 November 2006| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061110204732/http://www.online-literature.com/tolstoy/2733/| url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=gandhi&gt;{{Citation| last = Parel| first = Anthony J.| author-link = Anthony Parel| contribution = Gandhi and Tolstoy|editor=M.P. Mathai |editor2=M.S. John |editor3=Siby K. Joseph| title = Meditations on Gandhi: a Ravindra Varma festschrift| pages = 96–112| publisher = Concept| place = New Delhi | year = 2002| contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kcpDOVk5Gp8C&amp;pg=PA96 |access-date=8 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chapa ke gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:1856._Л.Н.Толстой.jpg|1856 me military uniform me
File:Tolstoy family.jpg|Uske aurat aur larrki
File:Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg|Tolstoy ke chapa jiske 1887 me [[Ilya Repin]] banais rahaa
File:Count Tolstoy, with hat.jpg|Bina tarik ke chapa
&lt;/gallery&gt;

{{BD|1828|1910|Tolstoy, Leo}}

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    <title>Gabriel Garcia Marquez</title>
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      <text bytes="12225" sha1="3peqoxrxte17kiob8l2urhpclkotw82" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Writer
 | name        = Gabriel García Márquez 
 | image       = Gabogarciamarquez1.png
 | imagesize   = 133px
 | caption     = García Márquez signing a copy of ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'' in [[Havana]], [[Cuba]].
 | pseudonym   = 
 | birth_date  = [[6 March]] [[1927]]
 | birth_place = Aracataca, Magdalena, [[Colombia]]
 | death_date  = [[17 April]] [[2014]]
 | death_place = [[Mexico City]], [[Mexico]]
 | occupation  = novelist, short-story writer, and journalist.
 | nationality = [[Colombia]]
 | period      = 
 | genre       = 
 | subject     = 
 | movement    = Magical Realism
 | debut_works = 
 | influences  = G. K. Chesterton, Fyodor Dostoevsky, William Faulkner, Günter Grass, Franz Kafka, Vladimir Nabokov, Ernest Hemingway, Juan Rulfo, Virginia Woolf
 | influenced  = Salman Rushdie
 | signature   = GabrielGarciaMarquezAutograph.jpg
 | website     = 
 | footnotes   = 
}}
{{Nobelprize|Literature}}'''Gabriel José de la Concordia García Márquez''', jiske '''Gabo''' ke naam se bhi jaana jaawe hae, ([[6 March]], &lt;!--DO NOT CHANGE DATE OF BIRTH, 1927 IS CORRECT HE BECAME 80 YEARS OLD IN OF 2007--&gt;[[1927]]&lt;ref&gt;{[http://www.clarin.com/diario/2007/03/06/um/m-01375221.htm Distintas ciudades del mundo rinden homenaje a García Márquez en su 80 cumpleaños.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306222600/http://www.clarin.com/diario/2007/03/06/um/m-01375221.htm |date=2008-03-06 }} ''Clarin'' ([[2007-03-06]]). Retrieved on [[2008-02-05]].&lt;/ref&gt; Aracataca, [[Colombia]] - [[17 April]], [[2014]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.latintimes.com/gabriel-garcia-marquez-dies-famed-colombian-author-and-nobel-laureate-dead-87-pneumonia-166280 Gabriel García Márquez Dies: Famed Colombian Author And Nobel Laureate Dead At 87 From Pneumonia.] ''Latin Times'' ([[2014-4-17]]). Retrieved on [[2014-04-18]].&lt;/ref&gt; [[Mexico City]], [[Mexico]]) ke ek [[novelist]], short-story writer, aur [[journalist]] hae jon ki 1982 me [[Nobel Prize]] jiitis rahaa. 

=== Jawani ke din ===
[[file:Aracataca1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Billboard of Gabriel García Márquez in [[Aracataca]]. Isme likha hae: &quot;I feel Latin American from whatever country, but I have never renounced the nostalgia of my homeland: Aracataca, to which I returned one day and discovered that between reality and nostalgia was the raw material for my work&quot;. —Gabriel García Márquez]]

Gabriel García Márquez ke janam 6 March 1927 ke [[Aracataca]], [[Colombia]] me bhais rahaa. Uske oitaji ke naam, Gabriel Eligio García aur maiya ke naam Luisa Santiaga Márquez rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=86}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=bell-villadaxix&gt;{{Harvnb|Bell-Villada|2006|p=xix}}&lt;/ref&gt; García Márquez ke janam ke kuchh din baad, uske pitaji ek pharmacist ban gais. January 1929 me uske mai-baap Baranquilla chal diin&lt;ref name = &quot;cthcjv&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=87}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;simons&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Simons|1982}}&lt;/ref&gt; jab ki García Marquez Aracataca me rahe gae. Marquez ke uske maternal grandparents, Doña Tranquilina Iguarán aur Colonel Nicolás Ricardo Márquez Mejía paal ke barra karin.&lt;ref name = &quot;cthcjv&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|García Márquez|2003|p=11}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jab uu aath saal ke rahaa, tab uske naana mar gais aur uu aapan mai-baap ke ghar Barranquilla me jaae ke rahe lagaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;AMGM12&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Apuleyo Mendoza|García Márquez|1983|p=12}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|García Márquez|2003|p=123}}&lt;/ref&gt;

García Márquez ke mai-baap ke saathe uu aapan jindagi ke suruu me nai rahaa,&lt;ref name = &quot;cthcjv&quot;/&gt; aur ii kaaran se uske naana , naani ke influence uske jindagi pe jaada rahaa.&lt;ref name = &quot;mooaza&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=102}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Apuleyo Mendoza|García Márquez|1983|p= 96}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske naana, jiske uu &quot;Papalelo&quot; bolat rahaa,&lt;ref name = &quot;mooaza&quot;/&gt; was a [[Colombian Liberal Party|Liberal]] veteran of the [[Thousand Days War]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=35}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Colonel was considered a hero by Colombian Liberals and was highly respected.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=103}}&lt;/ref&gt; He was well-known for his refusal to remain silent about the [[banana massacre]]s that took place the year García Márquez was born.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=105}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Colonel, whom García Márquez has described as his &quot;umbilical cord with history and reality&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;simons&quot; /&gt; was also an excellent storyteller.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=106}}&lt;/ref&gt; He taught García Márquez lessons from the dictionary, took him to the circus each year, and was the first to introduce his grandson to ice—a &quot;miracle&quot; found at the [[United Fruit Company]] store.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=104}}&lt;/ref&gt; He would also occasionally tell his young grandson &quot;You can't imagine how much a dead man weighs&quot;,&lt;ref name = &quot;lydaul&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=107}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Apuleyo Mendoza|García Márquez|1983|p=13}}&lt;/ref&gt; reminding him that there was no greater burden than to have killed a man, a lesson that García Márquez would later integrate into his novels.

García Márquez's political and ideological views were shaped by his grandfather's stories.&lt;ref name = &quot;lydaul&quot;/&gt; In an interview, García Márquez told his friend Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza, &quot;my grandfather the Colonel was a Liberal. My political ideas probably came from him to begin with because, instead of telling me fairy tales when I was young, he would regale me with horrifying accounts of the last civil war that free-thinkers and anti-clerics waged against the Conservative government.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Apuleyo Mendoza|García Márquez|1982|p=96}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=98}}&lt;/ref&gt; This influenced his political views and his literary technique so that &quot;in the same way that his writing career initially took shape in conscious opposition to the Colombian literary status quo, García Márquez's socialist and anti-imperialist views are in principled opposition to the global status quo dominated by the United States&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Bell-Villada|1990|p=63}}&lt;/ref&gt;

García Márquez's grandmother, Doña Tranquilina Iguarán Cotes, played an equally influential role in his upbringing. He was inspired by the way she &quot;treated the extraordinary as something perfectly natural.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;AMGM12&quot;/&gt; The house was filled with stories of ghosts and premonitions, omens and portents,&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|p=96}}&lt;/ref&gt; all of which were studiously ignored by her husband.&lt;ref name = &quot;mooaza&quot;/&gt; According to García Márquez she was &quot;the source of the magical, superstitious and supernatural view of reality&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;simons&quot; /&gt; He enjoyed his grandmother's unique way of telling stories. No matter how fantastic or improbable her statements, she always delivered them as if they were the irrefutable truth. It was a deadpan style that, some thirty years later, heavily influenced her grandson's most popular novel, ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Saldívar|1997|pp=97–98}}&lt;/ref&gt;


=== Nobel Prize ===
1982 me uske Literature ke khatie Nobel ke prize dewa gais rahaa.
=== Recent Work ===
In 2002, he published the memoir ''Vivir para contarla'', the first of a projected three-volume autobiography.

=== Film ===
García Márquez's ke kaam ke dher filam banawa gais hae.

== References ==
{{reflist}}
Fernández Leal Augusto, ''La vida de Máquez''

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|title=Garcia Marquez and Latin America|last=Bhalla|first=Alok|year=1987}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez: Solitude and Solidarity|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_O4-AYG-179|last=Bell|first=Michael|year=1993}}
* {{cite book|title= Gabriel García Márquez (Modern Critical Views)|last=Bloom|first=Harold|year=2007}}
* {{cite book|title= Gabriel García Márquez (Bloom's BioCritiques)|last=Bloom|first=Harold|year=2006}}
* {{cite book|last=Bloom|first=Harold|title=One Hundred Years of Solitude (Modern Critical Interpretations) |year=2006}}
* {{cite book|last=Bloom|first=Harold|title=Love in the time of cholera (Modern Critical Interpretations) |year=2005}}
* {{cite book|last=Darraj|first=Susan|title=Gabriel García Márquez(The great Hispanic heritage) |year=2006}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez's Love in the time of cholera : a reader's guide |url=https://archive.org/details/gabrielgarcamrqu0000fahy |last=Fahy|first=Thomas|year=2003}}
* {{cite book|title=García Márquez|last=Fiddian|first=Robin W.|year=1995}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez and the Invention of America|last=Fuentes|first=Carlos|year=1987}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez: Revolutions in Wonderland|url=https://archive.org/details/gabrielgarcamrqu00jane|last=Janes|first=Regina|year=1981}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez: New Readings|url=https://archive.org/details/gabrielgarciamar0000unse_h5c8|last=McGuirk|first=Bernard|year=1987}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez|url=https://archive.org/details/gabrielgarciamar00mcmu|last=McMurray|first=George R.|year=1977}}
* {{cite book|title=Critical essays on Gabriel García Márquez|url=https://archive.org/details/criticalessayson00mcmu|last=McMurray|first=George R.|year=1987}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez: Life, Work, and Criticism|url=https://archive.org/details/gabrielgarciamar0000geor|last=McMurray|first=George R.|year=1987}}
* {{cite book|title=Understanding Gabriel García Márquez|url=https://archive.org/details/understandinggab0000mcne|last=McNerney|first=Kathleen|year=1989}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel Garcia Márquez|url=https://archive.org/details/gabrielgarcamarq0005mell|last=Mellen|first=Joan|year=2000}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel Garcia Marquez|last=Miller|first=Yvette E.|year=1985}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez: A Study of the Short Fiction|last=Oberhelman|first= Harley D.|year=1991}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez and the Powers of Fiction|url=https://archive.org/details/gabrielgarciamar0000orte|last=Ortega|first=Julio|year=1988}}
* {{cite book|title=Essays on Gabriel García Márquez|last=Oyarzún|first=Kemy|year=1984}}
* {{cite book|title=Intertextuality in García Márquez|url=https://archive.org/details/intertextualityi0000penu|last=Penuel|first=Arnold M.|year=1994}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez: A Critical Companion|url=https://archive.org/details/gabrielgarciamar00pela|last=Pelayo|first=Rubén|year=2001}}
* {{cite book|title=Critical Perspectives on Gabriel García Márquez|last=Shaw|first=Bradley A.|year=1986}}
* {{cite book|title=Haunting demons : critical essays on the works of Gabriel García Márquez|last=Vergara|first= Isabel|year=1998}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez's One hundred years of solitude : a casebook |last=Villada|first=Gene|year=2002}}
* {{cite book|title=Gabriel García Márquez (Twayne's World Authors Series)|last=Williams|first= Raymond L.|year=1984}}

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://www.guernicamag.com/features/449/ghostwriting_gabo/ Ghostwriting Gabo [Memoir Piece&amp;#93; by David Unger at Guernica Magazine]
* {{dmoz|Arts/Literature/Authors/G/Garc%c3%ada_M%c3%a1rquez,_Gabriel/|García Márquez, Gabriel}}
* [http://www.themodernword.com/gabo/index.html Garcia Marquez at The Modern Word] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308131147/http://www.themodernword.com/gabo/index.html |date=2007-03-08 }}
* [http://www.cnn.com/2007/SHOWBIZ/books/10/05/people.garciamarquez.ap/index.html Oprah makes latest book club pick]
* [http://www.documen.tv/asset/Gabriel_Gracia_Marquez_Film.html Documentary 52': Gabriel Garcia Marquez]
* [http://www.iconoeditorial.com/libro.html?libro_id=2 The world according Garcia Marquez [in spanish&amp;#93; by Piedad Bonnet - Icono Editorial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080210183804/http://www.iconoeditorial.com/libro.html?libro_id=2 |date=2008-02-10 }}

{{BD|1927||Garcia Marquez, Gabriel}}

{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Came before''':&lt;br /&gt;[[Elias Canetti]]
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Nobel Prize for Literature laureate'''&lt;br /&gt;[[1982]]
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Came after''':&lt;br /&gt;[[William Golding]]
|}

{{DEFAULTSORT:}}
{{bio-stub}}

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    <title>Horace</title>
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      <text bytes="2057" sha1="4m3i5copiop94oxlhn6yo7jpq04xsg9" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Horace, as imagined by [[Anton von Werner]]]]
'''Quintus Horatius Flaccus''', ([[Venosa]], December 8, 65 BC – [[Rome]], November 27, 8 BC), jiske [[English bhasa|English-speaking]] waala des me '''Horace''' ke naam se jaana jaawe hae, [[Augustus]] ke time [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ke ek writer rahaa.

== References ==
* {{cite book | last = Michie | first = James | title = The Odes of Horace | url = https://archive.org/details/bwb_KS-627-309 | publisher = Rupert Hart-Davis | year = 1964 }}

== Bahaari jorr ==

* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/hor.html The works of Horace] at The Latin Library
* [http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/the_classics/horace/ Selected Poems of Horace] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530192921/http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/the_classics/horace/ |date=2012-05-30 }}
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cache/perscoll_Greco-Roman.html ''The Perseus Project'' — Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace]
* [http://www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/horawillbio.shtml Biography and chronology]
* [http://www.biblion.com/litweb/biogs/horace.html Litweb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060414062410/http://www.biblion.com/litweb/biogs/horace.html |date=2006-04-14 }}
* [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/Aut186.HTM Horace's works]: text, concordances and frequency list
* [http://www.rhapsodes.fll.vt.edu/horace_ode_1.htm SORGLL: Horace, Odes I.22, read by Robert Sonkowsky] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527202758/http://www.rhapsodes.fll.vt.edu/horace_ode_1.htm |date=2009-05-27 }}

&lt;!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt;

{{Persondata
|NAME=Horace
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Quintus Horatius Flaccus
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Lyric poetry|lyric poet]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[December 8]], 65 BC
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Venosa]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[November 27]], 8 BC
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Rome]]
}}

{{BD|-0065BC|-0008BC|Horace}}

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      <text bytes="10790" sha1="n0vs3avizqr9c20pfnp1zl7s0aicddo" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Adolf Hitler
| image               = Hitler portrait crop.jpg
| alt                 = Black-and-white photographic portrait of Hitler standing
| caption             = Hitler, 1938 me
| office              = Germany ke ''Führer'' 
| term_start          = 2 August 1934
| term_end            = 30 April 1945
| predecessor         = [[Paul von Hindenburg]], President
| successor           = [[Karl Dönitz]], President
| office2             = Germany ke Chancellor
| 1blankname2         = Vice Chancellor
| 1namedata2          = [[Franz von Papen]]&lt;br/&gt; (1933–1934)
| president2          = Paul von Hindenburg&lt;br/&gt; (1933–1934)
| predecessor2        = Kurt von Schleicher
| successor2          = [[Joseph Goebbels]]
| term_start2         = 30 January 1933
| term_end2           = 30 April 1945
| office3             = Nazi Party ke ''Führer'' 
| deputy3             = [[Rudolf Hess]] &lt;br/&gt;(1933–1941)
| term_start3         = 29 July 1921
| term_end3           = 30 April 1945
| predecessor3        = [[Anton Drexler]] (Party&amp;nbsp;Chairman)
| successor3          = [[Martin Bormann]] ([[Nazi Party#Top leadership|Party&amp;nbsp;Minister]])
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|1889|04|20|df=y}}
| birth_place         = [[Braunau am Inn]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (abhi ke Austria)
| death_date          = {{Death date and age|1945|04|30|1889|04|20|df=y}}
| death_place         = Berlin, Nazi Germany
| death_cause         = [[Death of Adolf Hitler|Suicide by gunshot]]
| citizenship         = {{Unbulleted list|Austria ([[Naturalization of Adolf Hitler|until 1925]])|[[Statelessness|Stateless]] (1925–1932)|Germany (from 1932)}}
| party               = [[Nazi Party]] (from 1920)
| otherparty          = [[German Workers' Party]] (1919–1920)
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Eva Braun]]|29 April 1945|30 April 1945|end=d}}
| parents             = {{Unbulleted list|[[Alois Hitler]]|[[Klara Pölzl]]}}
| relatives           = [[Hitler family]]
| cabinet             = [[Hitler cabinet]]
| signature           = Hitler’s signature (1944).svg
| signature_alt       = Signature of Adolf Hitler
| module              = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Adolf Hitler’s last speech.ogg|title=Adolf Hitler's voice|type=speech|description=Hitler's last recorded speech&lt;br /&gt;Recorded January 1945}}
| allegiance          = {{Unbulleted list|[[German Empire]]|[[Weimar Republic]]|[[Nazi Germany]]}}
| branch_label        = Branch
| branch              = 
* [[Imperial German Army]]
** [[Bavarian Army]]
* ''[[Reichswehr]]''

| serviceyears        = 1914–1920
| rank                = {{lang|de|[[Gefreiter]]}}
| commands            = {{Unbulleted list|[[German Army (1935–1945)|German Army]] (from 1941)|[[Army Group A]] (1942)}}
| unit                = 
| battles_label       = Wars
| battles             = 
* [[World War I]]
** [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]]
*** [[First Battle of Ypres]]
*** [[Battle of the Somme]] {{WIA}}
*** [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]]
*** [[Battle of Passchendaele]]
* [[World War II]]
| mawards             = [[Military career of Adolf Hitler#Awards and decorations|List of awards]]
}}
'''Adolf Hitler'''(20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945), ek Austria me paeda bhais German politician rahaa, jon  [[Nazi Germany]]  ke dictator 1933 se, uske maut talak, 1925  talak rahaa.  Adolf Hitler, [[Nazi Party]] ke neta ban ke, 1933 me Germany ke Chancellor banaa. 1934 me uu Chancellor ke position ke badal ke &quot;Chancellor aur Leader&quot; kar diis. 1934 me Germany ke President, Paul von Hindenburg ke maut ke baat, Hitler, Chancellor aur President ke position ke ek kar kae apne puura Neta hoe gais.  

September 1939 me Poland ke invasion ke baad, [[World War II]] suruu hoe gais.  Uu sab military operation me puura haanth liis rahaa aur uske haanth 6 million Jews ke maut me rahaa.  

Hitler ke janam [[Braunau am Inn]], [[Austria-Hungary]] me bhais rahaa aur uu 1913 me Germany chalaa gais. [[World War I]] me, Hitler  German Army me serve karis rahaa aur uske [[Iron Cross]] milaa rahaa. 1919 me uu  [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP), jon Nazi Party se pahile waala party rahaa, ke member banaa aur uske 1921 me Nazi Party ke leader banaawa gais rahaa. 1923 me uu [[Munich]] me ek coup kare ke kosis karis aur uske paanch saal ke jail karaa gais rahaa. Lekin uu khaali ek saal talak jail me rahaa, jahaan pe uu aapan autobiography, &quot;[[Mein Kampf]] (hamaar larrai) ke likhis rahaa. Uske jail se chhutkaara ke baad uske janata se support mila jab uu   [[Treaty of Versailles]] ke attack karis, [[pan-Germanism]] ke promote karis aur  [[antisemitism]], aur [[anti-communism]] ke baare me bhaasan diis.  
November 1932 talak Nazi Party, ''[[Reichstag (Weimar Republic)|Reichstag]]'' me sab se barraa party rahaa lekin iske majority nai rahaa. Pahile ke chancellor [[Franz von Papen]] aur duusra and other conservative leaders President [[Paul von Hindenburg]] pe dabao daalin ki Hitler ke Chansellor banaawa jaae. aur uu 30 January 1933 ke Chancellor banaa. Iske kuchh din Sh Reichstag, [[Enabling Act of 1933]] ke pass karis jisse  [[Weimar Republic]]  Nazi Germany me badle lagaa. 

[[2 August]] [[1934]] me Hindenburg ke maut ke baad, Hitler head of state aur sarkar ban gais aur uske absolute power dewa gais rahaa. Hitler racist policy ke implement karis jisme uu Jews  ke satais. Uske pahila chhe saal ke power me, Germany ke economy jor se barrhaa rahaa. Uu dher jagha jahan pe German log des se baahar rahat rahin ke Germany ke niche kar liis rahaa. Uu des ke sena ke aur taagatwar banais, aur 1 September 1939 me jab uu [[Poland]] ke invade karis tab [[France]] aur Britain, Germany pe larrai declare kar diin aur [[World War II]] suruu hoe gais. 1941 talak Germany Europe ke lagbhag sab des ke aapan niche kar liis. 1941 ke end me [[America]] larrau me join kar liis aur 1945 me  Germany ke haar hoe gais. 29 April 1945 me Hitler aapan partner, Eva Braun se saadi kar liis aur agle din duuno atm-hatya kar liin.

==Palwaar==
Hitler ke pitaji, Alois Hitler, Maria Schicklgruber ke ilegitimate larrkaa rahaa. Baptismal register me uske pitaji ke naam nai hae aur suruu me uske surname &quot;Schicklgruber&quot; rahaa. 1842 me Alois ke maiya, Johann Georg Hiedler ke saathe saadi karis. 1876 me Alois ke legitimate kar dewa gais jab  uske baptismal record me Johan Georg Hiedler ke uske pitaji likha gais, lekin likha gais naam &quot;Georg Hitler&quot; rahaa. Iske baad Alois aapan surname &quot;Hitler&quot; ke kaam me laae lagaa.

Ek Nazi official ii suggest karis rahaa ki Alois ke maiyaa ek Jewish palwaar me housekeeper rahii aur ii palwaar ke 19 saal ke umar ke larrkaa, Leopold Frankenberger, Alois ke pitaji rahaa, lekin iske baare me koi sabuut nai hae.

==Jawaani ke din==
===Bachpan aur sikchhaa===
[[File:Adolf Hitler infant photo (3x4 cropped).jpg|upright|thumb|Hitler ke baby waala photo ({{Circa|1889–90)}}]]
Adolf Hitler ke janam 20 April 1889 me Braunau am Inn, Austria-Hungary ke ek toen jon Germany ke border ke nagiich hae, me bhais rahaa. Uu Alois Hitler ke ke chhe larrkan me se chauthaa rahaa aur uu Alois ke tiisra aurat ke larrkaa rahaa. Hitler ke tiin bhaiyaa-bahini janam ke time mar gar rahin. Uske ghar me Alois ke duusra saadi ke larrkan, Alois Jr, aur Angela rahat rahin. Jab Hitler tiin saal ke rahaa tab uske ke palwaar Passau, Germany me jaae ke rahe lagin, lekin 1893 me Alois, kaam ke kaaran, Austria laut aais lekin uske palwaar passau me rahin. Passau me Hitler, Bavarian dialect me baat kare lagaa. 1894 me uske palwaar Austria laut ke  Leonding me rahe lagin. 1895 me Alois retire hoe ke Hafeld me rahe lagaa jahaan pe uu madmakkhi paalat rahaa.

Hafeld me baap-beta me larrai hoe lagaa, kaaheki Hitler school me baat nai sunat rahaa. Aath saal ke Hitler gaana gaae ke lesson liis aur church ke choir me gaawat rahaa aur padri bhi bane ke sochis. 1898 me uske palwaar Leonding fir se laut gais. Hitler aapan chhota bhaiyaa ke maut se bahur pareshaan rahaa. Uu apne me rahe lagaa aur school me bully rahaa aur aapan pitaji aur teacher log se larrat rahaa.

Hitler ke pitaji maangat rahaa ki Hitler, uske rakam customs me kaam kare lekin Hitler isme interested nai rahaa. Hitler ke uske manjuur ke virod me ek classical high school me bheja gais lekin Hitler jaan ke achhchhaa se nai parrhis.
{{multiple image
 | align = right
 | direction = horizontal
 | caption_align = center
 | total_width = 230
 | image1 = Alois Hitler in his last years 2.jpg
 | caption1 = Hitler's father, [[Alois Hitler|Alois]], {{circa|1900}}
 | image2 = Klara Hitler.jpg
 | caption2 = Hitler's mother, [[Klara Hitler|Klara]], 1870s
}}
Aur dher German Austrian ke rakam Hitler German nationalism me biswas kare lagaa. Hutler aur uske friend log ek duusre ke &quot;Heil&quot; bol ke greet karat rahin aur Germany ke national anthem gaawat rahin. 3 January 1903 me Alois mar gais aur Hitler ke performance school me aur kharaab hoe lagaa. Uske maiyaa uske duusra school bhejis lekin koi faedaa nai bhais aur uu school choorr diis.

=== Vienna aur Munich me ===
[[File:Hitler house in Leonding.jpg|thumb|Ii ghar [[Leonding|Leonding, Austria]] me, jahaan Hitler aapan jawani me rahaa]]
[[File:Adolf Hitler Der Alte Hof.jpg|thumb|''The Alter Hof in Munich'', ek watercolour painting jiske Hitler 1914 me banais rahaa]]

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
{{reflist|2}}

=== Aur parrho ===
* {{Cite book | author = Alan Bullock | title = Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives | url = https://archive.org/details/hitlerstalinpara00bull_0 | publisher = HarperCollins | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-679-72994-1}}
* {{Cite book | author = Alan Bullock | title = Hitler: A Study in Tyranny | year = 1991 | url = https://archive.org/details/hitlerstudyintyr00bull | isbn = 0-06-092020-3}}
* {{Cite book | author = Michael FitzGerald | title = Adolf Hitler: A Portrait | url = https://archive.org/details/adolfhitlerportr0000fitz | pblisher = Spellmount | year = 2006 | isbn = 1-86227-322-7}}
* {{Cite book | author = Joachim Fest | title = Hitler | publisher = Harvest Books | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-15-602754-2}}
* {{Cite book | author = Ian Kershaw | title = Hitler 1889-1936: Hubris | publisher = W W Norton | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-393-32035-9}}
* {{Cite book | author = Lothar Machtan | title = The Hidden Hitler | url = https://archive.org/details/hiddenhitler0000mach | publisher = Basic Books | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-465-04308-9}}

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://quote.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler Quotes by Hitler from Wikiquote]
* [http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/meinkampf/introduction.htm Mondo Politico Library's presentation of Adolf Hitler's book, ''Mein Kampf'' (full text, formatted for easy on-screen reading)]


{{BD|1889|1945|Hitler, Adolf}}

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    <title>Franz Kafka</title>
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      <text bytes="10401" sha1="nkraxcn9exblvgjurgkw2kdu0m9datd" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name               = Franz Kafka
| image              = Franz Kafka, 1923.jpg
| caption            = Kafka in 1923
| alt                = Black-and-white photograph of Kafka as a young man with dark hair in a formal suit
| birth_date         = {{birth date|1883|7|3|df=y}}
| birth_place        = [[Prague]], Austria-Hungary
| death_date         = {{death date and age|1924|6|3|1883|7|3|df=y}}
| death_place        = [[Klosterneuburg]], Austria
| burial_place       = [[New Jewish Cemetery, Prague]]
| occupation         = {{flatlist|
* Novelist
* short story writer
* insurance officer
}}
| alma_mater         = [[German Charles-Ferdinand University]]
| citizenship        = {{plainlist|
* Austria (until 1918)
* [[Czechoslovakia]] (from 1918)
}}
| works              = [[Franz Kafka bibliography|List]]
| style              = [[literary modernism|Modernism]]
| signature          = Franz Kafka's signature.svg
}}

[[file:Kafka1906.jpg|thumb|Franz Kafka in 1906.]]
'''Franz Kafka''' (janam [[Prague]] me [[3 July]] [[1883]] – maut [[Vienna]] [[3 June]] [[1924]]) ek famous [[Czechia]] me paeda bhaes, [[German bhasa]] me baat kare waala ek [[writer]] rahaa. 

== Zindagi ==
=== Bachpan ===
{{multiple image
| width             = 130
| image1            = Hermann Kafka.jpg
| alt1              = Hermann Kafka
| image2            = Julie Kafka.jpg
| alt2              = Julie Kafka
| footer            = Franz Kafka's parents, Hermann and Julie Kafka
}}

Kafka ke janam [[Old Town Square]], [[Prague]] me bhais rahaa,&lt;!-- next to the Church of St Nicholas --&gt; jon uu time [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] ke hissa rahaa. Uske pawwar [[German bhasa]] me baat kare waala   middle-class Ashkenazi [[Yahudi]] rahin. Uske pitaji, Hermann Kafka, Jakob Kafka ke chauthaa larrka rahaa,{{sfn|Gilman|2005|pp=20–21}}{{sfn|Northey|1997|pp=8–10}} Uu ek {{lang|he-Latn|shochet}} nai to [[Shechita|kosher butcher]], [[Osek (Strakonice District)|Osek]], ek Czech gaon, jiske jaada abaadi Yahudi rahaa aur jon  [[Strakonice]] town, southern [[Bohemia]] me rahaa.{{sfn|Kohoutikriz|2011}} Hermann Prague  [[1870s]] me aais rahaa aur ek dukaan khol ke   haberdashery aur ladies' accessories bechat rahaa.{{sfn|Gilman|2005|p=21}} Uu 15 jan ke kaam pe rakkhis rahaa aur image of a [[Western jackdaw|jackdaw]] ({{lang|cs|kavka}} in Czech, pronounced and colloquially written as ''kafka'') ke aapan business logo ke khaatir kaam me laais rahaa.{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp=3–5}} Kafka ke maiyaa, Julie,  Jakob Löwy ke larrki rahii, jon ek &quot;cloth-maker  [[Humpolec]]  eastern Bohemia&quot; me rahaa.{{sfn|Gilman|2005|p=21}}

Kafka ke mai-baap,  traditional Yahudi sankriti ke rahin, German bhasa me baat karat  rahin,  aapan native [[Yiddish]] ke influence ke saathe; uulog ke larrkan jinke  acculturated environment me paala gais rahaa,  [[Standard German]] me baat karat rahin.{{sfn|Gray|2005|pp=147–148}} Jon sudh bhasa me &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite magazine |last=Ozick |first=Cynthia |date=1999-01-03 |title=The Impossibility of Translating Kafka |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1999/01/11/the-impossibility-of-being-kafka |access-date=2025-06-20 |magazine=The New Yorker |language=en-US |issn=0028-792X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kafka German me baat karat rahaa ii kaaran se hoe sake hae ki uu barra bhais rahaa uu bhasa me baat kar ke jon uske des ke khaas bhasa nai rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Uske lekh pe contemporary usage that mark the style of his generational peers from the heart of the empire in [[Vienna]] or, for that matter, from the center of the [[Second Reich]] in [[Berlin]] ke asar nai rahaa..&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

[[file:Franz Kafka with his sisters.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Kafka lagbhag das saal ke umar me aapan bahini  [[Valli Kafka|Valli]] (left) aur Elli (center) ke saathe]]
Hermann aur Julie ke chhe larrkan rahin, jisme Franz sab se barraa rahaa.{{sfn|Hamalian|1974|p=3}} Franz ke dui bhaiyaa,, Georg aur Heinrich, paida hoe ke kuchh din baad mar gae rahin,jab Franz saat saal ke umar se chhotaa rahaa; usk etiin bahini rahine Gabriele (&quot;Elli&quot;), [[Valli Kafka|Valerie]] (&quot;Valli&quot;) aur [[Ottla Kafka|Ottilie]] (&quot;Ottla&quot;). Tiino ke [[World War II]] ke [[the Holocaust]] me hatya kar dewa gais rahaa. Valli ke [[Łódź Ghetto]]  [[occupied Poland]] me 1942 me deport karaa gais rahaa, lekin ii uske baare me khaali ek jaankari hae, lekin ii maana jaawe hae ki uu larrai me mar gais rahaa. Ottilie Kafka ke favourite bahini rahii.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Metamorphosis|url=https://archive.org/details/metamorphosis0000kafk_r3c3|last=Kafka|first=Franz|publisher=Simon and Schuster Paperbacks|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4165-9968-5|location=New York|page=ix|ref=none}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kafka scholar aur anuwaadak, [[Stanley Corngold]] Herman ke baare me batais hae ki uu &quot;huge, selfish, overbearing businessman&quot; rahaa{{sfn|Corngold|1972|pp=xii, 11}} aur Franz Kafka uske baare me batais hae ki uu &quot;a true Kafka in strength, health, appetite, loudness of voice, eloquence, self-satisfaction, worldly dominance, endurance, presence of mind, knowledge of human nature, a certain way of doing things on a grand scale, of course also with all the defects and weaknesses that go with these advantages and into which your temperament and sometimes your hot temper drive you&quot; rahaa.{{sfn|Kafka-Franz, Father|2012}} Business waala din, duuno maiyaa aur bappa ghar pe nai rahat rahin, aur Julie Kafkahar din 12&amp;nbsp;hours kaam karat rahii palwaar ke business ke chalae me madat kar ke. Iske kaaran, Kafka ke bachpan childhood akelaa rahaa,{{sfn|Brod|1960|p=9}} aur larrkan ke  dher  governesses aur naukar paalat rahin. Kafka ke troubled relationship&lt;!-- abrupt shift to troubled relationship here; suggest moving down later b/c more to do with later life --&gt;&lt;!-- – the father issues have roots in early life, which is why it was put here – --&gt; aapan pitaji ke saathe ke dekha jaae hae uske {{lang|de|[[Brief an den Vater]]}} (''Letter to His Father'') jon 100&amp;nbsp;panna se jaada rahaa, jisme uu complain karis hae ki uu bahut kharaab se uske pitaji ke  authoritarian aur demanding character se affected rahaa;{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp=15–16}} uske maiyaa, opposite rahii, chuppi aur sarmaawat rahii.{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp=19–20}}  Kafka ke dominating pitaji ke asar Kafka ke lekh me rahaa. {{sfn|Brod|1960|pp=15, 17, 22–23}}

Kafka palwaar ke saathe ke naukarani larrki uulog ke chhota ghar me rahat rahii. {{sfn|Stach|2005|p=[https://archive.org/details/kafkadecisiveyea00stac/page/22/mode/2up 22]}} Franz ke room jaada kar ke thandaa rahaa. November 1913, me uske palwaar ek aur barraa ghar me jaae ke rahe lagin, jon time talak Ellie aur Valli ke saadi hoe gais rahaa aur uulog apne rahe lage rahin. August 1914 me, jaise  [[World War I]] suruu bhais rahaa, duuno bahini log ii nai jaanat rahin ki  uulog ke admii log kahaan pe hae aur jaae ke aapan palwaar ke saathe rahe lage rahin.  Duuno Ellie aur Valli ke larrkan rahaa. Franz 31 saal ke umar me  Valli ke pahile waala apartment me rahe lagaa, jon quiet rahaa aur uu pahila dafe apne se rahaa. {{sfn|Stach|2005|pp=[https://archive.org/details/kafkadecisiveyea00stac/page/390/mode/2up 390–391], [https://archive.org/details/kafkadecisiveyea00stac/page/462/mode/2up 462–463]}}

=== Parrhai ===
[[File:Prague Palace Kinsky PC.jpg|thumb|[[Kinský Palace (Prague)|Kinský Palace]] jahaan Kafka  [[Gymnasium (Germany)|gymnasium]] attend karat rahaa  aur uske pitaji ke lage ek dukaan rahaa|alt=An ornate four-storey palatial building]]

1889 se 1893 talak, Kafka  German boys' elementary school me parrhis raha {{lang|cs|Masný trh/Fleischmarkt}} (meat market), jiske abhi Masná Street ke naam se jaana jaawe hae. Uske Uhudi sikchhaa khatam bhis uske  ''[[bar mitzvah]]'' celebration ke saathe, 13 saal ke umar me.   Kafka  synagogue  jaae ke nai pasand karat rahaa aur aapan pitaji ke saathe khaali  four high holidays ke har saal jaawat rahaa.{{sfn|Kafka-Franz, Father|2012}}{{sfn|Stach|2005|p=13}}{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp=26–27}}

Elementary school parrhe ke baad,  1893 me, Kafka ke  rigorous classics-oriented state [[Gymnasium (Germany)|gymnasium]] me bhati karaa gais rahaa, {{lang|de|Altstädter Deutsches Gymnasium|italic=no}}, ek academic secondary school, Old Town Square me jon [[Kinský Palace (Prague)|Kinský Palace]] ke bhittar rahaa. Hian ke parrhai German bhasa me karaa jaawat rahaa lekin Kafka  Czech me bhi parrhat aur likhat rahaa.{{sfn|Hawes|2008|p=29}}{{sfn|Sayer|1996|pp=164–210}} Uu Czech ke gymnasium me aath saal talak sikis rahaa, jisme uske achchhaa grade milaa rahaa.{{sfn|Kempf|2005|pp=159–160}} Kafka ke uske Czech ke khaatir barrai karaa gais rahaa, lekin apne ke uu bhasa me  fluent nai maanat rahaa. Uu German bhasa ke  Czech accent me baat karat rahaa.{{sfn|Koelb|2010|p=12}}{{sfn|Sayer|1996|pp=164–210}} He completed his [[Matura]] exams in 1901.{{sfn|Corngold|2004|p=xii}}

Kafka ke Prague ke {{lang|de|[[German Charles-Ferdinand University|Deutsche Karl-Ferdinands-Universität]]|italic=no}} me, 1901 me bharti karaa gais rahaa. Uske suruu me  philosophy ke parrhai khaatir bharti karaa gais rahaa, aur iske saathe uke chemisrt me bhi bharti karaa gais rahaa.{{sfn|Karl|1991|p=148}} Kafka  chemistry parrhe ke suruu karis, lekin  dui haftaa baad, wakiil ke parrhai kare lagaa rahaa.{{sfn|Diamant|2003|pp=36–38}} Jab ii field uske excite nai karat rahaa, isse uske dher kaam ile sakat rahaa, jisse uske pitaji khusi rahaa.  Iske saathe, wakiili parrhe me jaada samay lagat rahaa, jisse Kafka time milat rahaa  classes ke German studies aur art history le ke.{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp=40–41}} Uu tudent club ke join karis rahaa, {{lang|de|Lese- und Redehalle der Deutschen Studenten|italic=no}} (Reading aur Lecture Hall of the German students), jon literary events, readings and other activities ke organise karis rahaa.{{sfn|Gray|2005|p=179}} Kafka ke dost rahin journalist [[Felix Weltsch]], jon philosophy study karat rahaa,  actor [[Yitzchak Lowy]] jon orthodox [[Hasidic]] Warsaw palwaar se aais rahaa, aur lekhak [[Ludwig Winder]], [[Oskar Baum]] aur [[Franz Werfel]].{{sfn|Stach|2005|pp=43–70}}


== Duusra websites ==
{{commons}}
* [http://franz-kafka.redorb.co.uk/ Franz Kafka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927051314/http://franz-kafka.redorb.co.uk/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.kafka-research.ox.ac.uk Oxford Kafka Research Centre]

{{BD|1883|1924|Kafka, Franz}}

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    <title>Girmit ke baare me quote</title>
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      <text bytes="2413" sha1="73y5sjrxezhoimn3k7qsg5igyb29wcs" xml:space="preserve">== Lord John Russel ==
[[15 February]] [[1840]]
:''I should be unwilling to adopt any measure to favour the transfer of labourers from British India to Guiana... I am not prepared to encounter the responsibility of a measure which may lead to a dreadful loss of life on the one hand, or, on the other, to a new sustem of slavery.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;Tinker&quot;&gt;{{Cite book | author = Hugh Tinker | title = A New System of Slavery: The export of Indian labour overseas 1830-1920 | url = https://archive.org/details/newsystemofslave0000tink | publisher =Oxford University Press | year = 1974 |isbn = 0-192-18410-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Hugh Tinker ==
''A New System of Slavery'', page xiii
:''...most of the coolies who crossed the sea a hundred years ago or more, died without issue. Only a tiny minority of these Indians had children to claim their share in the lands where the pioneers struggled and died.'' &lt;ref name=&quot;Tinker&quot;/&gt;


== Mauritius ke quarantine station ke plaque ==
{|border=0
|-
|align=center|&lt;i&gt;THE UNKNOWN IMMIGRANT&lt;br/&gt;
History turning a blind eye bore him not witness&lt;br/&gt;
History standing still told not his full story&lt;br/&gt;
He who first had watered this land with his sweat&lt;br/&gt;
And turned stone into green fields of gold&lt;br/&gt;
The first immigrant He, son of this land&lt;br/&gt;
He was mine, he was yours, he was our very own&lt;/i&gt;
|}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Report of the High Level Committee on th Indian Diaspors |url=http://www.indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter5.pdf |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=25 July 2009 |archive-date=19 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619062513/http://www.indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter5.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Reunion ke quarantine station ke plaque ==
Plaque ke English translation:
{|border=0
|-
|align=center|&lt;i&gt;HOMAGE&lt;br/&gt;
On this Thursday, 30th&lt;br/&gt;
October, 1997&lt;br/&gt;
Day of Dipawali&lt;br/&gt;
we bring the light to the&lt;br/&gt;
first engaged&lt;br/&gt;
Indians who died at&lt;br/&gt;
this site&lt;/i&gt;
|-
|Tamij Sangam
|}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Report of the High Level Committee on th Indian Diaspors |url=http://www.indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter6.pdf |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=25 July 2009 |archive-date=19 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619062523/http://www.indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter6.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;


== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;


[[Category:Hindustani diaspora]]</text>
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    <title>Marcel Proust</title>
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      <text bytes="10292" sha1="2v1r09jz544tf2a2bi18zc6o7017zav" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Writer
| name        = Marcel Proust
| image       = Marcel Proust 1895.jpg
| bgcolour    = silver
| caption     =
| birth_date  =  [[10 July]] [[1871]]
| birth_place = Auteuil, [[France]]
| death_date  = [[18 November]] [[1922]]
| death_place = [[Paris]], [[France]]
| occupation  = Novelist, essayist, critic
| magnum_opus = ''In Search of Lost Time''
| genre       = modernism
| influences  = Saint-Simon, Brantôme, Honoré de Balzac, [[Charles Baudelaire]], Anatole France, Henri Bergson, Fyodor Dostoevsky, John Ruskin, Leo Tolstoy, Arthur Schopenhauer, Stendhal
| influenced  = Ahmet Altan, John Banville, Samuel Beckett, Jean Cocteau, [[Graham Greene]], Jack Kerouac, Naguib Mahfouz, Manuel Mujica Láinez, Iris Murdoch, Vladimir Nabokov, [[Orhan Pamuk]], Edmund White, Virginia Woolf, Richard Wright
| salary      =
| networth    =
| signature   = Marcel Proust signature.svg
| website     =
| footnotes   =}}
'''Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust''' ([[French bhasa|French]] pronounced: maʁsɛl pʁust) ([[10 July]] [[1871]] – [[18 November]] [[1922]]) ek [[France|French]] novelist, essayist aur critic rahaa, aur uske sab se jaada  ''À la recherche du temps perdu'' (in [[English bhasa|English]], ''In Search of Lost Time'', jiske 1913 aur 1927 ke biich me likha gais rahaa, ke khatir jana jaawe hae.

==Jeewan Kahaani==
Proust ke janam 10 July 1871 me uske  great-uncle ke ghare,  Paris ke Borough  [[Auteuil, Paris|Auteuil]] (the south-western sector of the then-rustic [[16th arrondissement of Paris|16th arrondissement]]) me bhais rahaa,  [[Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)|Treaty of Frankfurt]] , jon [[Franco-Prussian War]] ke khalaas karis rahaa, ke dui mahina baad. Uske janam ke saathe [[French Third Republic]] suruu bhais rahaa,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ellison|first=David|title=A Reader's Guide to Proust's 'In Search of Lost Time'|url=https://archive.org/details/readersguidetopr0000elli|year=2010|pages=[https://archive.org/details/readersguidetopr0000elli/page/8 8]}}&lt;/ref&gt; jon time dher maar-kaat  bhais rahaa, [[Paris Commune]] ke supress kare ke khaatir, sur uske bachpan aur consolidation of the Republic ekke time ke hae. ''[[In Search of Lost Time]]'' ke dher hissa dher badlao, khaas kar ke  decline of the aristocracy aur middle classes ke rise ke baare me rahaa, jon  France me ''[[fin de siècle]] ke time bhais rahaa.''

Proust ke pitaji, [[Adrien Proust]], ek jaana-maana French [[pathologist]] aur [[Epidemiology|epidemiologist]] rahaa, jon [[Europe]] aur [[Asia]] me  [[cholera]] ke adhyan karis rahaa. Uu medicine aur hygiene ke baare me dher book likhis rahaa. Proust ke maiyaa, Jeanne Clémence (nee Weil), ek dhani  [[History of the Jews in Germany|German–Jewish]] palwaar, jon [[Alsace]] me rahat rahin, se rahii. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |first=Allan|last=Massie|title=Madame Proust: A Biography By Evelyne Bloch-Dano, translated by Alice Kaplan|work=Literary Review|url=http://www.literaryreview.co.uk/massie_10_07.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212151419/http://www.literaryreview.co.uk/massie_10_07.html |archive-date=12 February 2009|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske maiyaa literate aur well-read rahii, aur uske ek  well-developed sense of humour rahaa, aur uske [[English bhasa]] ke achchhaa gyaan rahaa, jisse uu aapan larrka ke   [[John Ruskin]] ke translation me madat karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Tadié&quot;&gt;Tadié, J-Y. (Euan Cameron, trans.) ''Marcel Proust: A life''. New York: Penguin Putnam, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt; Proust ke uske pitaji ke   [[Catholicism|Catholic faith]] me paala gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nysoclib.org/travels/proust.html NYSL TRAVELS: Paris: Proust's Time Regained] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127020446/http://www.nysoclib.org/travels/proust.html|date=27 January 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske 5 August 1871 me t [[Saint-Louis-d'Antin|Church of Saint-Louis-d'Antin]]  me baptise karaa gais rahaa aur baad me uu Catholic confirmed bhais rahaa, lekin uu aapan dharam ke  kabhi paractice nai karis rahaa. Baad me uu [[Atheism|atheist]] ban gais rahaa aur  [[Mysticism|mystic]] bhi rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund White (2009). Marcel Proust: A Life. Penguin. {{ISBN|9780143114987}}. &quot;Marcel Proust was the son of a Christian father and a Jewish mother. He himself was baptized (on August 5, 1871, at the church of Saint-Louis d'Antin) and later [[Confirmation in the Catholic Church|confirmed as a Roman Catholic]], but he never practised that faith and as an adult could best be described as a mystical atheist, someone imbued with spirituality who nonetheless did not believe in a personal God, much less in a savior.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Proust, Marcel (1999). The Oxford dictionary of quotations. Oxford University Press. p. 594. {{ISBN|978-0-19-860173-9}}. &quot;...the highest praise of God consists in the denial of him by the atheist who finds creation so perfect that it can dispense with a creator.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Nau saal ke umar talak,  Proust ke pahila serious [[asthma]] attack bhais rahaa, aur ii kaaran se uske ek bemariyaa larrka maana jaaawat rahaa. Proust lambaa-lambaa chhutti   [[Illiers-Combray|Illiers]] gaon me rahat rahaa. Ii gaon, aur iske saathe uske aapan   great-uncle's house inke ghar Auteuil me, uske fictional town of Combray ke model rahaa, jahaan pe  ''[[In Search of Lost Time]]'' ke dher ghtna based rahaa. (Illiers ke 1971 me  Illiers-Combray ke naam dewa gais Proust centenary celebrations ke khaatir.)

1882 me, gyrah saal ke umar me, Proust [[Lycée Condorcet]] ke chelaa banaa rahaa; lekin uske parrhai ke uske bemaari ke kaaran, buraa asar parraa rahaa.  Iske bawajuut, uu  literature me achchhaa karis rahaa, jisme uske final year me award milaa rahaa. Uske classmates ke protsaan se, uu salons of the upper [[bourgeoisie]] ke access kare sakaa rahaa, jisse uske dher  material for ''In Search of Lost Time'' ke khaatir milaa rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Painter, George D. (1959) ''Marcel Proust: a biography''; Vols. 1 &amp; 2. London: Chatto &amp; Windus&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Marcel Proust et Lucien Daudet.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Marcel Proust (seated), [[Robert de Flers]] (left), and [[Lucien Daudet]] (right), {{circa|1894}}]]

Uske kharaab tabiyat ke bawajuuut, Proust French army me ek saal (1889–90) talak serve karis rahaa, jisme uu  Coligny Barracks [[Orléans]] me based rahaa, jon experience se uu ek lambaa episode ''[[The Guermantes' Way]]'' me karis rahaa, jon uske novel ke part three rahaa. Barraa hoe ke, Proust ek [[Amateur|dilettante]] aur ek [[social climber]] banaa, lekin uske whose aspirations ek lekhak ke ruup me, ke uske lack of self-discipline baadha rahaa. 

== References ==
* Adorno, Theodor.  &quot;Prisms.&quot;  The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.  1967.
* Aciman, André (2004) ''The Proust Project''. New York Farrar, Straus and Giroux
* Albaret, Céleste (Barbara Bray, trans.) 2003 ''Monsieur Proust''. New York: The New York Review of Books
* Bernard, Anne-Marie (2002) ''The World of Proust, as seen by Paul Nadar''. Cambridge: MIT Press
* Carter, William C. (2000) ''Marcel Proust: A Life''. New Haven: Yale University Press
* Davenport-Hines, Richard (2006) ''A Night at the Majestic''. London: Faber and Faber ISBN 978-0-571-22009-0
* De Botton, Alain (1998) ''How Proust Can Change Your Life''. New York: Vintage Books
* Deleuze, Gilles (2004) ''Proust and Signs: The Complete Text''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
* Painter, George D (1959) ''Marcel Proust A Biography'' Vols. 1 &amp; 2. London: Chatto &amp; Windus 
* Shattuck, Roger (1963) ''Proust's Binoculars: A Study of Memory, Time, and Recognition in À la recherche du temps perdu''. New York: Random House
* Shattuck, Roger (2000) ''Proust's Way: A Field Guide To In Search of Lost Time'', New York: W. W. Norton
* Tadié, Jean-Yves: ''MARCEL PROUST: A Life''. Viking, New York, 2000
* White, Edmund (1998) ''Marcel Proust''. New York: Viking Books

== Duusra websites ==

* [http://letempsdeproust.blogsome.com/ Le temps de Proust] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805043003/http://letempsdeproust.blogsome.com/ |date=2007-08-05 }}- a blog about (re)reading Proust and the associated secondary literature
* [http://www.readingproust.com/ Reading Proust]- A reader enjoys the new Penguin/Viking translations of ''In Search of Lost Time''.
* [http://www.retortmagazine.com/06/id_03.06_dan_schneider.htm Reinterpretation of Remembrance Of Things Past] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623094812/http://www.retortmagazine.com/06/id_03.06_dan_schneider.htm |date=2006-06-23 }}
* [http://pages.nyu.edu/~gmp1/proust.htm Why Proust? And Why Now?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607092303/http://pages.nyu.edu/~gmp1/proust.htm |date=2008-06-07 }} - an essay on the lasting relevance of Proust and his work
* [http://www.library.uiuc.edu/kolbp/biblioF.htm#period A short Proust bibliography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050411084406/http://www.library.uiuc.edu/kolbp/biblioF.htm#period |date=2005-04-11 }} (bilingual) 
* [http://www.tempsperdu.com/ TempsPerdu.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014102029/http://www.tempsperdu.com/ |date=2008-10-14 }}- many useful links, including to online texts of ''Lost Time'' in French and English
* [http://www.library.uiuc.edu/kolbp/ The Kolb-Proust Archive for Research]
* [http://www.marcelproust.it/ Marcel Proust, a personal site in Italian]
* [http://www.schottlaender-proust.com/index_fr.htm Essay by Stephan Reimertz on Proust in Germany (in French)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223080749/http://www.schottlaender-proust.com/index_fr.htm |date=2007-02-23 }}
* [http://www.gerard-bertrand.net/index.htm Marcel Proust's Album], Marcel Proust receives a tribute in this album of &quot;recomposed photographs&quot;.
* [http://www.toutfaux.com/toutfaux-hommage.html Marcel Proust et l'aviation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623105255/http://www.toutfaux.com/toutfaux-hommage.html |date=2008-06-23 }}, Proust and airplanes.

=== Online texts ===
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/p/proust/marcel/ University of Adelaide Library] French text of volumes 1-4 and the complete novel in English translation
* [http://www.wikilivres.info/wiki/index.php/Marcel_Proust Works of Marcel Proust]

{{BD|1871|1922|Proust, Marcel}}

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    <title>Isu Masih</title>
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      <text bytes="11043" sha1="fb3wjgo7xxqlsyjy3z2bx69b8w3xdi2" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
&lt;!---
   Note: Please do not expand this infobox. See the FAQ on the talk page.
 ---&gt;| name               = Isu Masih
| image              = Spas vsederzhitel sinay (cropped1).jpg
| caption            = 6th century AD ke Isu Masih ke chhaapa
| birth_date         = {{circa}} [[Date of birth of Jesus|6 to 4 BC]]
| birth_place        = &lt;!--Note: No scholarly consensus for any more precise a location than Judea:--&gt;[[Herodian kingdom]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Roman Empire]]{{sfn|Brown|1977|p=513}}
| death_date         = AD 30 or 33 (aged 33 or 38)
| death_place        = [[Jerusalem]], [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]],&lt;br/&gt; Roman Empire
| known_for          = *Central figure of [[Christianity]]
*Major prophet [[Jesus in Islam|in Islam]] &lt;br/&gt;and in [[Druze Faith]]
*[[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestation of God]]&lt;br/&gt; in [[Baháʼí Faith]]
| death_cause        = &lt;!---Note: No (further) comments required here; the scholarly consensus that the cause of Jesus's death was crucifixion is given in the article text:---&gt;[[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]]&lt;!--
 --&gt;
&lt;!----
  Note: Please do not expand this infobox. See the FAQ on the talk page.
 -----&gt;| parents            = [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]]
}}
[[File:Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - The Last Supper (1495-1498).jpg|thumb|400px|Ii painting dekhae hae Jesus, &quot;Last Supper&quot; me,  biich me baithaa hae. Iske  [[Leonardo da Vinci]], 1495 aur 1498 ke biich me, iske paint karis rahaa.]]
'''Jesus''' (jiske janam 7 aur 4 BC ke biich me, aur maut 30 aur 34 BC me bhais rahaa) ke sikchhaa ke [[Isai Dharam|Isai dharam]] maane hae. Uske janam Nazareth, Galilee, jon ki abhi ke [[Israel]] me hae, me bhais rahaa.

''Jesus'' ke naam [[Aramaic bhasa]] me ke naam &quot;Yeshua&quot;, aur Hebrew ''Yehovah-shua'' se aais hae aur iske matlab &quot;God saves&quot; hae. Jesus ke &quot;Jesus Christ&quot; nai to &quot;Christ&quot; bhi bola jaawe hae. ''Christ'' sabd [[Greek bhasa|Greek]] ke sabd ''christos'' jiske matlab hae &quot;the one marked on the head with oil&quot; nai to &quot;the anointed one&quot; se aais hae. 

Jesus ke jindagi ke baare me [[Bible]] me lika hae. 

Jab Isu Masih aath saal ke rahaa tab uske John th Baptist sunnat (circumcise) karis rahaa. 40 din  aur raat ke jangle me upwaas (fast) kare ke baad uu updesh (preach) de ke suruu karis. Uu Ishwar ke sandes (message) ke ii rakam se anuwaad (interpret) karis ki uu ishwar ke adhikaar (authority) se baat kare hae, aur uske dher dafe &quot;rabbi&quot; ke naam dewa jaawat rahaa. Isu Masih duusra Yahudi (Jew) log se lagaataar bahas karat rahaa ki Ishwar ke kaise follow karaa jaae. Uu duusre log ke aapan biswas se benaari se achchhaa karis rahaa. Uu kahaawat (parable) ke kaam me laae ke sikchaa dewat rahaa. Uuske dher log follow karat rahin lekin uu 12 jan ke chuna gais deoduut (apostle) banais rahaa. Uske [[Jeruslam]] me giraftaar karaa gais rahaa aur Yahudi log uspe makadma kar ke uske Roman sarkar ke saup dewa gais rahaa, aur fir uske suuli pe charrhaae dewa gais (crucify) rahaa. Isu Masih ke maut ke baad, usme biswas kare waala log ii biswas kare hae ki uu fir jinda hoe gais rahaa. Usme biswas kare waala log Isai Dharam ke suruu kare rahin. Suruu me uske sandes ke jabaan se failaawa gais  lekin baad me iske likha gais rahaa, jiske &quot;Gospel&quot; bolaa jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;Dunn, James D. G. (2013). ''The Oral Gospel Tradition''. Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 290–291.&lt;/ref&gt;

Isai log biswas kare hae ki Isu Masih ke Mary, jiske saadi nai bhais rahaa, janam diis rahaa. Isai log ii bhi biswas kare hae ki Isu Masih, Isai dharam ke suruu karis rahaa, suuli pe charrhae se uske maut bhais rahaa, uu insaan ke paap ke prachhit (atonement) ke khaatir  aapan jaan diis rahaa, uu fir se jandaa bhais rahaa, uu abhi swarg (heaven) me hae aur ek din fir lauti. Jaada Isaai log biswas kare hae ki Isu Masih  Ishwar ke larrka hae aur Trinity ke duusra jan hae. Isu Masih ke janam din 25 December ke banaawa jaae hae. Uske suuli pe charrhaana ke &quot;Good Friday&quot; se aur fir se jinda hona ke &quot;Easter Sunday&quot; se banaawa jaae hae. Dunia me sab se jaada kaam me laae waala calendar Isu Masih ke janam se suruu hoe hae.&lt;ref&gt;''Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary''. 2003. Archived from the original on 22 December 2007. Retrieved 3 November 2016. &lt;q&gt;Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of our Lord&lt;/q&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Islam]] me ii biswas karaa jaae hae ki Isu Masih ek masiha hae aur Israel ke log ke lage bheja gais rahaa, aur dunia me Day of Judgement ke din lauti. Jab ke Muslim log biswas kare hae ki Isu Masih kuanri Mary ke larrka rahaa uu Ishwar, ani to Ishwar ke larrkaa nai hae. Jaada nuslim log ii nai biswas kare hae ki Isu MAsih ke suuli pe nai charrhaawa gais rahaa lekin uu jannat me palaa rahaa aur abhi bhi jindaa hae. Bahai, Druz aur Rastafari log bhi Isu MAsih me biswas kare hae. Iske mukaable me Yahudi log ii nai maane hae ki Isu Masih ek masiha rahaa. 

==Gospels==
[[File:P. Chester Beatty I, folio 13-14, recto.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Ek 3rd-century ke Greek me papyrus me likha gais  Gospel of Luke]]
Chaar gospel, Matthew, Mark, Luke aur John hae aur ii IsuMasih ke jindagi aur  sandes ke sab se khaas source hae. Lekin New Testament ke ke aur hissa, jaise &quot;Last Supper&quot; Corinthians me hae aur Acts me Isu Masih ke suruu waala parchaar ke baare me hae aur kaise John th Baptist Isu MAsih ke aae ke inrejaar karat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Book of the Acts |url=https://archive.org/details/bookofacts0000bruc |first=Frederick F. |last=Bruce |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-2505-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bookofacts0000bruc/page/362 362] |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pauline letters, jiske Gospels se pahile likha gais rahaa, me Isy MAsih ke updes ke dher dafe likha gais hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Powell |first=Mark A. |title=Introducing the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe |url-access=limited |date=2009 |publisher=Baker |page=[https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe/page/248 248] |isbn=978-0-8010-2868-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isu Masih ke jindagi aur sandes ke baare me aur Gospel, jaise  Thomas, Peter, Jidas aur James, me likha gais hae, lekin jaada gyaani log ii maane hae ki ii sab ke baad me likha gais rahaa aur pahila chaar Gospel se kamti reliable hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=C. A. |title=Exploring the Origins of the Bible |date=2008 |publisher=Baker |page=154}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Lekhak, tarik, aur majbuti ====
New Testament ke pahila chaar Gospel ke chaar alag alag lekhak likhin hae. Gospel ke likhe waala log ke naam ke Gospel ke dewa gais hae, aur ii sab likhe waale log Isu Masih ke nagiich rahin.Gospel Mark ke John Mark likhis rahaa, jon Saint Peter ke saathe kaam karis rahaa, Gospel Matthew kw Matthew likhis rahaa jon Isu Masih ke ek chela rahaa, Gospel Luke ke Luke the Eavangelist likhis hae jon Paul the Apostle ke saathi rahaa, Gospel John ke John likhis hae jon Isu Masih ke ek aaur chela rahaa.

Sab se pahila likha gais Gospel Mark rahaa (AD&amp;nbsp;60–75 me likha gais), iske baad Matthew rahaa (AD&amp;nbsp;65–85 me likha gais), iske baad Luke (AD&amp;nbsp;65–95 me likha gais) aur baad me rahaa John (AD&amp;nbsp;75–100 me likha gais)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&amp;pg=PA58 |title=Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John |publisher=Crossway |year=2007 |page=58 |isbn=978-1-4335-1978-9 |first=Mark D. |last=Roberts |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174109/https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&amp;pg=PA58 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jaada gyaani log ii maane hae ki Matthew aur Luke, Mark se lewa gais jaankari ke kaam me laae ke aapan Gospel likhin hae. Jab ki Matthew aur Luke me kuch jaankari hae jon Mark me nai hae tab ii samjha jaae hae ki Matthew aur Luke aapan Gospel khaatir aur koi source ke bhi kaam me laain hae.

====Comparative structure aur content====
Matthew, Mark aur Luke ke content ek duusre ke rakam hae, jon rakam se likha gais hae, bhasa aur paragaraph ke arrangement ekke rakam hae. Ii kaaran se ii tiino ke sahaj se compare karaa jaae sake hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haffner-2008&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=New Testament Theology |first=Paul |last=Haffner |year=2008 |isbn=978-88-902268-0-9 |page=135 |publisher=Gracewing}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Scroggie-1995&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=A Guide to the Gospels |first=W. Graham |last=Scroggie |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8254-9571-7 |page=128 |publisher=[[Kregel Publications]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Britannica URL |title=Synoptic Gospels |url=topic/Synoptic-Gospels}}&lt;/ref&gt; Gyaani loog ii bhi maane hae ki pahila tiin Gospel aur John me koi naata nai hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Gospel of John |first1=Francis J. |last1=Moloney |first2=Daniel J. |last2=Harrington |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8146-5806-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3 3] |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3}}&lt;/ref &gt; Jab ki dher ghatna, jaise Isu Masih ke baptism, suuli pe charrhaana aur apostles se interaction pahila tiin Gospel me ekke rakam hae, exorcism John me nai hae aur ii mandir ke safaa kare waala jaankari me bhi different hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ladd |first=George E. |title=A Theology of the New Testament |year=1993 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-0680-2 |page=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&amp;pg=PA251 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907103156/https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&amp;pg=PA251 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Genealogy aur nativity===
Isu Masih ek [[Yahudi]] rahaa, jiske maiyaa, Mary aur pitaji, Joseph rahaa. Gospel Matthew aur Luke uske genealogy ke baare me dui different account de hae. Matthew Isu Masih ke ancestory ke Abraham talak trace kare hae aur biich me David hae. Luke uske ancestory ke Adam talak aur fir Ishwar talak trace kare hae. Abraham aur David ke biich me duuni ke suchi ek rakam hae, lekin iske baad ii duuno me dher antar hae. Matthew me David se Joseph talak 27 generation hae, jab ki Luke me 42 generation hae&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=France |first=R. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttTgacXnLV8C&amp;pg=PA72 |title=The Gospel According to Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8028-0063-3 |page=72 |author-link=R. T. France |access-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229004519/https://books.google.com/books?id=ttTgacXnLV8C&amp;pg=PA72 |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}} &lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374c.htm Catholic encyclopedia]
* [http://www.rejesus.co.uk/ History about Jesus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091115073056/http://www.rejesus.co.uk/ |date=2009-11-15 }}
* [http://www.easyenglish.info/bible-study/jesus-life/index.htm Life of Jesus in simple English]

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  <page>
    <title>Ludwig van Beethoven</title>
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      <comment>Add 12 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="9371" sha1="8evp8bfqux0xje00irtqeelvb1e0xxn" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox musical artist &lt;!-- For individuals; see Wikipedia:WikiProject_Musicians --&gt;
| Name                =Ludwig van Beethoven
| Img                 =Beethoven.jpg
| Img_alt             =
| Img_capt            =Ludwig van Beethoven, painted by [[Joseph Karl Stieler]]]]
| Img_size            =
| Landscape           =
| Background          = ** Mandatory ** Use one of solo_singer, non_vocal_instrumentalist, non_performing_personnel, temporary
| Birth_name          =
| Alias               =
| Born                = &lt;!-- {{Birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}} --&gt; [[17 December]] [[1769]],  [[Bonn]] me
| Died                = &lt;!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth) --&gt;   [[26 December]] [[1827]], [[Vienna]] me
| Origin              = Austia
| Instrument          = Piano
| Genre               = Classical
| Occupation          =
| Years_active        =
| Label               =
| Associated_acts     =
| URL                 =
| Notable_instruments =
}}

[[file:Beethoven.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ludwig van Beethoven, painted by [[Joseph Karl Stieler]]]]
'''Ludwig van Beethoven''' (Baptised: [[17 December]] [[1769]] [[Bonn]] me (Janam ke tarik nai pataa), maut: [[26 December]] [[1827]] [[Vienna]] me) ek [[Germany|German]] sangeetkaar rahaa. Uu classical music likhat rahaa piano, orchestra aur duusra rakam ke Musical instrument khatir likis rahaa. Uske sab se jaada jaana jaawe waala kaam fifth aur ninth symphony aur piano piece ''Für Elise'' rahaa. Jab uu chhota rahaa tab uu ek achchhaa pianist rahaa. Beethoven dhani log ke saathe [[Vienna]], [[Austria]] me bahut popular rahaa. 

1801 me uu bahira hoe lagaa aur dhire dhire ii aur kharaab hoe gais {{Cite web | url = http://www.raptusassociation.org/beet-biopages.html | title = Ludwig van Beethoven's Biography | accessdate = 24-05-2009 | archive-date = 2010-12-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101220090055/http://raptusassociation.org/beet-biopages.html | url-status = dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; aur 1817 talak uu puura bahira hoe gais. Jab ki uu concerts me nai bjae sakat rahaa, uu music likhte rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;whoswho&quot;&gt;{{Cite web | url = http://www.whoswho.de/templ/te_bio.php?PID=362&amp;RID=1 | title = Who is who.de | accessdate = 24-05-2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Uske palwaar aur jawani ke din ===

Beethoven, [[Flemish]] musician, Lodewijk van Beethoven (1712–1773) ke potaa rahaa .&lt;ref name=&quot;GroveOnline1&quot;/&gt; Beethoven ke naam uske aaja Lodewijk se aais hae jon ki [[Dutch bhasa|Dutch]] me ''Ludwig'' hae. Beethoven ke aaja ek bass singer rahaa. Uske lage ek larrkaa rahaa, [[Johann van Beethoven]] (1739–1792), jon ki ek musical establishment me piano and violin ke sikchha dewat rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;GroveOnline1&quot;&gt;Grove Online, section 1&lt;/ref&gt; Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767; she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, who had been the head chef at the court of the [[Archbishopric of Trier]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Thayer1_49&quot;&gt;[[#Thayer1|Thayer, Vol 1]], p. 49&lt;/ref&gt;

[[file:Beethoven house of birth Bonn 2008.jpg|200px|thumb|upright|House of birth, [[Bonn]], Bonngasse 20, now the [[Beethoven-Haus]] museum.]]

Beethoven ke janam [[Bonn]] me bhaes rahaa; uske ek [[Roman Catholic]] service me 17 December 1769, me baptise karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title= Chambers Biographical Dictionary |editor = Thorne, J. O. &amp; Collocott, T.C.|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1986|publisher=W &amp; R Chambers Ltd |location= [[Edinburgh]]|isbn= 0550180222|page= 114 |accessdate=2009-06-19}}&lt;/ref&gt; Children of that era were usually baptized the day after birth; and it is known that Beethoven's family and his teacher [[Johann Georg Albrechtsberger|Johann Albrechtsberger]] celebrated his birthday on 16 December. While this evidence supports the case for 16 December 1769 as Beethoven's date of birth, it cannot be stated with certainty as there is no documentary evidence of it (only his baptismal record survives).&lt;ref name=&quot;Thayer1_53&quot;&gt;[[#Thayer1|Thayer, Vol 1]], p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;This is discussed in depth in [[#Solomon|Solomon]], chapter 1.&lt;/ref&gt; Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only the second-born, Ludwig, and two younger brothers survived infancy. Caspar Anton Carl was born on 8&amp;nbsp;April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stanley7&quot;&gt;[[#Stanley|Stanley]], p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Aur parrho ==
* {{cite book
|author=Joseph Kerman
|coauthors=Alan Tyson (and others)
|title=Beethoven, Ludwig van
|publisher=Grove Music Online
|editor=L.Macy
|accessdate=
|url=http://grovemusic.com/ grovemusic.com, subscription access
}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106012046/http://grovemusic.com/ |date=2009-01-06 }}
* {{Cite book
|author=Albrecht, Theodor, and Elaine Schwensen
|title=More Than Just Peanuts: Evidence for December&amp;nbsp;16 as Beethoven's birthday. ''The Beethoven Newsletter'' 
|year=1988
|page=60-63
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Bohle, Bruce, and Robert Sabin
|title=The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians
|location=London
|publisher=J.M.Dent &amp; Sons LTD
|year=1975
|isbn=0-460-04235-1.
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Clive, Peter
|title=Beethoven and His World: A Biographical Dictionary.
|url=https://archive.org/details/beethovenhisworl0000cliv
|location=New York
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=2001
|isbn=0-19-816672-9
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Davies, Peter J.
|title=The Character of a Genius: Beethoven in Perspective.
|url=https://archive.org/details/characterofgeniu0000davi
|location=Westport, Conn.
|publisher=Greenwood Press
|year=2002
|isbn=0-313-31913-8
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Davies, Peter J.
|title=Beethoven in Person: His Deafness, Illnesses, and Death.
|url=https://archive.org/details/beethoveninperso0000davi
|location=Westport, Conn.
|publisher=Greenwood Press
|year=2001
|isbn=0-313-31587-6
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=DeNora, Tia
|title=Beethoven and the Construction of Genius: Musical Politics in Vienna, 1792-1803
|url=https://archive.org/details/beethovenconstru0000deno
|location=Berkeley, California
|publisher=University of California Press
|year=1995
|isbn=0-520-21158-8
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Geck, Martin
|title=Beethoven
|url=https://archive.org/details/beethoven0000geck
|location=London
|publisher=Haus
|year=2003
|isbn=1-904341-03-9 (h)
|id= ISBN 1-904341-00-4 (p)
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Hatten
|first = Robert
|tear=1994
|title = Musical Meaning in Beethoven
|year = 1994
|url = https://archive.org/details/musicalmeaningin0000hatt
|publisher = Indiana University Press
|location= Bloomington
|pages=372
|language=English
|id = ISBN 0-253-32742-3
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Kropfinger, Klaus
|title=Beethoven
|publisher=Verlage Bärenreiter/Metzler
|year=2001
|isbn=3-7618-1621-9
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Russell Martin
|title=Beethoven's Hair
|url=https://archive.org/details/beethovenshair0000mart
|location=New York
|publisher=Broadway Books
|year=2000
|isbn=978-0767903509
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Meredith, William
|title=The History of Beethoven's Skull Fragments
|publisher=The Beethoven Journal
|year=2005
|page=3-46
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Morris, Edmund
|title=Beethoven: The Universal Composer
|url=https://archive.org/details/beethovenunivers0000morr_z1g5
|location=New York
|publisher=Atlas Books / HarperCollins
|year=2005
|isbn=0-06-075974-7
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Rosen, Charles
|title=The Classical Style:  Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven
|url=https://archive.org/details/classicalstyleha00rose
|location=New York
|publisher=W. W. Norton
|year=1998
|isbn=0-393-04020-8 (hc)
|id=ISBN 0-393-31712-9 (pb)
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Solomon, Maynard
|title=Beethoven 2nd revised edition
|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780825672682
|location=New York
|publisher=Schirmer Books
|year=2001
|isbn=0-8256-7268-6
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Solomon, Maynard
|title=Late Beethoven: Music, Thought, Imagination
|url=https://archive.org/details/latebeethovenmus0000solo
|location=Berkeley
|publisher=University of California Press
|year=2003
|isbn=0-520-23746-3
}}
* {{Cite book
|author=Stanley, Glenn, ed
|title=The Cambridge Companion to Beethoven
|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_f9p8
|location=Cambridge
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|year=2000
|isbn=0-521-58074-9 (hc)
|id=ISBN 0-521-58934-7 (pb)
}}
* {{cite book
|first=Alexander Wheelock
|last=Thayer
|title=Ludwig van Beethoven's Leben
|volume=5 vols. (vols. 4 and 5 posthumously ed. by Hugo Riemann)
|location=Berlin
|year=1866-1908
}}
* {{cite book
|first=Alexander Wheelock
|last=Thayer
|editor= rev. and ed Elliot Forbes
|title=Thayer's Life of Beethoven.
|volume=2 vols
|publisher= Princeton University Press
|location=Princeton
|isbn=0-691-09103-X
}}
&lt;!-- Alexander Wheelock Thayer|  Thayer, A. W., rev and ed. Elliot Forbes. ''Thayer's Life of Beethoven.'' (2 vols.) Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09103-X--&gt;
&lt;!--

--&gt;

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://www.lvbeethoven.com/index_En.html English homepage of big Beethoven website]
* [http://www.wagele.com/Beeth-personality.html Beethoven’s Personality and Music: The Introverted Romantic]
* [http://www.nhdbeethoven.org nhdbeethoven] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090405043521/http://nhdbeethoven.org/ |date=2009-04-05}}

{{BD|1770|1827|Beethoven, Ludwig van}}

[[vibhag:Germany ke sangeetkaar]]
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    <title>Leonhard Euler</title>
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      <comment>Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="2663" sha1="isieioicmrswynb5a6pkai0w1fc7ljm" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Scientist
|box_width         = 300px
|name              = Leonhard Euler
|image             = Leonhard Euler 2.jpg
|caption           = Portrait by Emanuel Handmann 1756
|birth_date        = {{birth date|df=yes|1707|4|15}}
|birth_place       = Basel, [[Switzerland]]
|death_date        = {{death date and age|1783|9|18|1707|4|15|df=y}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;OS: 7 September 1783&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|death_place       = St. Petersburg, [[Russia]]
|residence         = [[Germany|Prussia]], [[Russia]]&lt;/br&gt; [[Switzerland]]
|citizenship       = 
|nationality       = [[Switzerland|Swiss]]
|ethnicity         = 
|field             = Mathematician aur Physicist
|work_institutions = Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences&lt;/br&gt; Berlin Academy
|alma_mater        = University of Basel
|doctoral_advisor  = Johann Bernoulli
|doctoral_students = Joseph Louis Lagrange
|known_for         = See full list
|author_abbrev_bot = 
|author_abbrev_zoo = 
|influences        = 
|influenced        = 
|prizes            = 
|religion          = Calvinist&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Scientists of Faith|url=https://archive.org/details/scientistsoffait00grav|author=Dan Graves|location=Grand Rapids, MI|year=1996|publisher=Kregel Resources|pages=[https://archive.org/details/scientistsoffait00grav/page/85 85]–86}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Men of Mathematics, Vol. 1|author=E. T. Bell|location=London|year=1953|publisher=Penguin|pages=155}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|footnotes         = He is the father of the mathematician Johann Euler&lt;/br&gt;He is listed by academic genealogy authorities as the equivalent to the doctoral advisor of Joseph Louis Lagrange.
|signature         = Euler's signature.svg
}}
'''Leonhard Euler''' (pronounced ''Oiler'') ([[15 April]] [[1707]] – [[7 September]] [[1783]]) ek [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[mathematician]] aur physicist rahaa. Uu aapan jindagi ke jaada time [[Russia]] aur [[Germany]] me bitais rahaa.

Euler, calculus aur topology me nawaa chij paais rahaa aur dher sabd banais rahaa jon ki abhi mathematics me kaam me lawa jaae hae. Uu [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[function]] ke idea suruu karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;function&quot;&gt;{{cite book| last = Dunham| first = William| title = Euler: The Master of Us All| url = https://archive.org/details/eulermasterofusa0000dunh_b9h6| year = 1999| publisher =The Mathematical Association of America | pages = [https://archive.org/details/eulermasterofusa0000dunh_b9h6/page/17 17]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu mechanics, optics, aur astronomy me bhi kaam karis rahaa. 


== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1707|1783|Euler, Leonhard}}

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[[vibhag:Physicists]]
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  <page>
    <title>Louis Pasteur</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="12958" sha1="h609djurzpwuxsjclh2k2s0arv6romg" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Louis Pasteur
| honorific_suffix  = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=small|ForMemRS}}
| image             = Louis Pasteur, foto av Paul Nadar, Crisco edit.jpg
| caption           = Nadar ke utaara gais chhaapa, 1895
| birth_date        = {{birth date|1822|12|27|df=y}}
| birth_place       = Dole, France
| death_date        = {{death date and age|1895|9|28|1822|12|27|df=y}}
| death_place       = Marnes-la-Coquette, France
| spouse            = {{marriage|[[Marie Laurent]]|1849}}
| children          = 5
| education         = {{ublist|[[École normale supérieure]]|[[University of Paris]]|[[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]]}}
| fields            = {{Plainlist|
* [[Biology]]
* [[Microbiology]]
* [[Chemistry]]
* [[Mathematics]]
* [[Physics]]
}}
| workplaces        = {{Plainlist|
* University of Strasbourg
* University of Lille
* École Normale Supérieure
* Pasteur Institute
}}
| notable_students  = [[Charles Friedel]]&lt;ref&gt;Asimov, ''[[Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology]]'' 2nd Revised edition&lt;/ref&gt;
| known_for         = Anthrax vaccine&lt;br&gt;Cholera vaccine&lt;br&gt;Rabies vaccine&lt;br&gt;Chirality&lt;br&gt;Dextran&lt;br&gt;Fermentation theory&lt;br&gt;Galactose&lt;br&gt;Germ theory of disease&lt;br&gt;Kinetic resolution&lt;br&gt;Koch–Pasteur rivalry&lt;br&gt;Liebig–Pasteur dispute&lt;br&gt;Pasteurization&lt;br&gt;Pasteur effect&lt;br&gt;Pasteur pipette&lt;br&gt;Pasteur–Chamberland filter&lt;br&gt;Racemic acid&lt;br&gt;Spontaneous generation&lt;br&gt;Swan neck flask&lt;br&gt;Stereochemistry&lt;br&gt;Zymology
| awards            = {{Plainlist|
* [[Legion of Honour|Legion of Honor Grand Cross]] (1881)
* Rumford Medal (1856)
* Copley Medal (1874)
* [[Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts)|Albert Medal]] (1882)
* [[Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh]] (1889)
* [[Leeuwenhoek Medal]] (1895)
* [[Order of the Medjidie]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=II. Abdülhamid'in Fransız kimyagere yaptığı yardım ortaya çıktı|url=http://www.cnnturk.com/turkiye/ii-abdulhamidin-fransiz-kimyagere-yaptigi-yardim-ortaya-cikti?page=1|publisher=CNN Türk|access-date=29 December 2016|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226034326/https://www.cnnturk.com/turkiye/ii-abdulhamidin-fransiz-kimyagere-yaptigi-yardim-ortaya-cikti?page=1|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
| signature         = Louis Pasteur Signature.svg
}}

'''Louis Pasteur''' ([[27 December]] [[1822]] – [[28 September]] [[1895]]) ek [[France|French]] [[microbiologist]] aur [[chemist]] rahaa. Uu aur uske aurat, Marie, ke  &quot;germ theory of disease&quot;, ke khatir experiment kare ke khatir jaana jaawe hae. Uu pahila jan rahaa jon ki rabies ke khatir [[vaccination]] banais rahaa. Uu [[chemistry]] me dher chij discover karis rahaa, khaas taur pe crystals ke [[symmetry]] aur different shapes.  Uske dudh aur wine ke dher din talak rajhe ke system banae khatir bhi jaana jaawe hae. Iske [[pasteurization]] bola jaawe hae.

== Bachpan ke din aur sikchhaa ==
{{multiple image
| total_width  = 285
| align        = left
| direction    = horizontal
| image1       = Françoise Foliot - Musée Pasteur - Portrait de Jean-Joseph Pasteur.jpg
| image2       = Françoise Foliot - Musée Pasteur - Portrait de Jeanne-Étiennette Roqui.jpg
| footer       = Portraits of Pasteur's parents, painted by himself
| footer_align = left
}}
[[File:Louis Pasteur Geburtshaus in Dole.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The house in which Pasteur was born, [[Dole, Jura|Dole]]]]
Louis Pasteur ke janam 27 December 1822 me, Dole, Jura, France me bhais rahaa, ek [[Catholic]] palwaar me garib tanner rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;catholic intro&quot;&gt;{{CathEncy|wstitle=Louis Pasteur|author=James J. Walsh}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu  Jean-Joseph Pasteur aur Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui ke tiisra larrkaa rahaa. Uske palwaar Marnoz me 1826 aur Arbois me 1827 me rahe ke gay rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice|translator-last=Forster|translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=6–7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzOcl-FLw30C&amp;pg=PA6}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Robbins|first1=Louise|title=Louis Pasteur and the Hidden World of Microbes|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-512227-5|page=14|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qUHuafXKKBEC&amp;pg=PA14}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pasteur, primary school 1831 me suruu karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice|translator-last=Forster|translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzOcl-FLw30C&amp;pg=PA8}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu  [[dyslexic]] aur [[dysgraphic]] rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=101 Things You Didn't Know about Einstein: Sex, Science, and the Secrets of the Universe|last1=Phillips|first1=Cynthia|last2=Priwer|first2=Shana|publisher= Adams Media |date=2018|page=21}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Famous People with Learning Disabilities|url=https://www.gemmlearning.com/blog/learning-issues/famous-people-with-learning-disabilities/|last=Geffner|first=Donna|website=Gemm Learning|date=2013|access-date=3 January 2023|archive-date=3 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103104015/https://www.gemmlearning.com/blog/learning-issues/famous-people-with-learning-disabilities/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|isbn=978-1909421264|title=A Short History of Human Error|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofhu0000thom|last1=Thomson|first1=Oliver|publisher= Arena Books Ltd  |date=2013|page=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofhu0000thom/page/92 92]}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{dubious|Dubious claim of dyslexia/dysgraphia|date=June 2025}}

Uu aapan bachpan me ek  average student rahaa, aur parrhai me achchhaa nai rahaa, kaaheki uske dil [[fishing]] aur [[sketch (drawing)|sketching]] me rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;catholic intro&quot; /&gt; Uu dher pastels aur chhaapa aapan mai-baap, dost and parrosi ke banais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice |translator-last=Forster |translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=12–13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzOcl-FLw30C&amp;pg=PA12}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pasteur secondary school, Collège d'Arbois me parrhis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Robbins|first1=Louise|title=Louis Pasteur and the Hidden World of Microbes|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-512227-5|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qUHuafXKKBEC&amp;pg=PA15}}&lt;/ref&gt; October 1838 me uu Paris gais ek  [[boarding school]] me bharti hoe ke khaatir, lekin [[Homesickness|homesick]] hoe gais aur November me laut gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice|translator-last=Forster|translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=11–12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzOcl-FLw30C&amp;pg=PA11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1839 me uu, Collège Royal, Besançon me bharti hoe ke  philosophy parrhe lagaa aur aapan  Bachelor of Letters degree ke 1840 me paais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Keim|first1=Albert|last2=Lumet|first2=Louis|title=Louis Pasteur|date=1914|publisher=Frederick A. Stokes Company|pages=10, 12|url=https://archive.org/stream/louispasteur00keim#page/10/mode/2up}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske Besançon college ke ek tutor banaawa gais rahaa jab uu  degree science course with special mathematics parrhat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice|translator-last=Forster|translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=14, 17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzOcl-FLw30C&amp;pg=PA14}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu aapan pahila  examination, 1841 me fail hoe gais rahaa. Uu ''[[Baccalauréat|baccalauréat scientifique]]'' (general science) degree Dijon se karis, jahaan uske  Bachelor of Science in Mathematics degree (Bachelier ès Sciences Mathématiques), 1842 me mila rahaa,&lt;ref name=&quot;Math&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ens.psl.eu/portraits-de-normaliens/louis-pasteur-1822-1895|title=Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) &amp;#124; ENS|website=www.ens.psl.eu|access-date=30 October 2021|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030231957/https://www.ens.psl.eu/portraits-de-normaliens/louis-pasteur-1822-1895|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; lekin uske grade chemistry me average rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice|translator-last=Forster|translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=19–20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzOcl-FLw30C&amp;pg=PA19}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Baad me, 1842 me, Pasteur [[École normale supérieure (Paris)|École Normale Supérieure]] ke test liis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Robbins|first1=Louise|title=Louis Pasteur and the Hidden World of Microbes|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-512227-5|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qUHuafXKKBEC&amp;pg=PA18}}&lt;/ref&gt; Test ke time, uske thakaan se larre ke parraa aur khaali  physics aur mathematics achchhaa se karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Debré |first=Patrice |url= |title=Louis Pasteur |date=27 November 2000 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9 |pages=21 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu aapan pahila  set of tests se pass kar liis, lekin kaaheki uske  ranking  low rahaa, Pasteur decide karis ki uu agle saal fir se kosis karii.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice|translator-last=Forster|translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=20–21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzOcl-FLw30C&amp;pg=PA20}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu Paris ke  boarding school lautis aur test ke taiyaari kare lagaa. Uu aapan classes ke  [[Lycée Saint-Louis]] me aur  lectures [[Jean-Baptiste Dumas]]  [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] me parrhis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Keim|first1=Albert|last2=Lumet|first2=Louis|title=Louis Pasteur|date=1914|publisher=Frederick A. Stokes Company|pages=15–17|url=https://archive.org/stream/louispasteur00keim#page/14/mode/2up}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1843 me uu test ke  high ranking se pass karis aur  [[École normale supérieure (Paris)|École Normale Supérieure]] ke join karis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice|translator-last=Forster|translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=23–24|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzOcl-FLw30C&amp;pg=PA24}}&lt;/ref&gt; Baad me, uu [[Jean-Baptiste Boussingault]], [[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]] ke student rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Legros|first1=Jean-Paul|translator-last=|translator-first=|title=D'Olivier de Serres à René Dumont : portraits d'agronomes|date=1998|publisher=Technique et documentation|location=Paris|isbn=2-7430-0289-1|pages=|url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1845 me uske  licencié ès sciences degree milaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Debré and Forster p. 502&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice|translator-last=Forster|translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=502}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1846 me uske professor of physics  Collège de Tournon,  Ardèche me, banaawa gais rahaa. Lekin chemist [[Antoine Jérôme Balard]] uske maangat rahaa ''École Normale Supérieure'' me ek graduate laboratory assistant (''agrégé préparateur'') ke ruup me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Debré|first1=Patrice|translator-last=Forster|translator-first=Elborg|title=Louis Pasteur|date=2000|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-6529-9|pages=29–30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzOcl-FLw30C&amp;pg=PA29}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu Balard join karis simultaneously started his research in [[crystallography]] and i, aur uu ekke saathe  1847 me aapan  theses, ek chemistry me aur duusra physics me: (a) Chemistry Thesis: &quot;Recherches sur la capacité de saturation de l'acide arsénieux. Etudes des arsénites de potasse, de soude et d'ammoniaque.&quot;; (b) Physics Thesis: &quot;1. Études des phénomènes relatifs à la polarisation rotatoire des liquides. 2. Application de la polarisation rotatoire des liquides à la solution de diverses questions de chimie.&quot; karis rahaa&lt;ref name=&quot;Thesis&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Louis Pasteur, Thèse de Chimie, Thèse de Physique|year=1847|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k141151t/f29.image/|access-date=31 October 2021|archive-date=31 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031013640/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k141151t/f29.image/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Debré and Forster p. 502&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Keim|first1=Albert|last2=Lumet|first2=Louis|title=Louis Pasteur|date=1914|publisher=Frederick A. Stokes Company|pages=28–29|url=https://archive.org/stream/louispasteur00keim#page/28/mode/2up}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{commons|Louis Pasteur}}

{{BD|1822|1895|Pasteur, Louis}}

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    <title>Nikola Tesla</title>
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      <text bytes="11016" sha1="ogl7di0f5ipm0ep7aedq4021hmmmswb" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox engineer
| native_name = {{nobold|{{lang|sr|Никола Тесла}}}}
| native_name_lang = sr
| image = Tesla circa 1890.jpeg
| alt = Head-and-shoulder photograph of a slender man with dark hair and moustache, dark suit and white-collar shirt
| caption = Tesla, {{circa|1890}}
| birth_date = {{birth date|1856|7|10|df=y}}
| birth_place = Smiljan, Croatia, Austrian Empire&lt;!-- There is consensus against adding [[Croatian Military Frontier]] here --&gt;
| death_date = {{death date and age|1943|1|7|1856|7|10|df=y}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], U.S.
| resting_place = Nikola Tesla Museum, Belgrade, Serbia
| citizenship = {{ubl
  | Austria (until 1891)
  | U.S. (from 1891)
  }}
| education = Graz University of Technology (dropped out)
| occupation = {{hlist|Engineer|[[futurist]]|inventor}}
| known_for = 
| awards = {{ubl
  | Order of St. Sava (1892)
  | Elliott Cresson Medal (1894)
  | Order of Prince Danilo I (1895)
  | AIEE Edison Medal (1916)
  | Order of the Yugoslav Crown (1931)
  | John Scott Medal (1934)
  | Order of the White Eagle (1937)
  | Order of the White Lion (1937)
  }}
| discipline =  {{ubl
  | [[Electrical engineering]]
  | [[Mechanical engineering]]}}
| employer =
| significant_design   = Induction motor
| significant_projects = Wireless power transfer
| significant_advance  = Polyphase electric power
| signature = Nikola Tesla signature 1900.svg
}}
'''Nikola Tesla''' ([[10 July]] [[1856]] Smiljan, [[Croatia]] – [[7 January]] [[1943]] [[New York]]) [[inventor]], [[physicist]], [[mechanical engineer]], aur [[electrical engineer]] rahaa. Uske janam Smiljan, [[Austria-Hungary]], abhi Republic of [[Croatia]] me bhais rahaa. Uu baad me ek [[America]]n citizen ban gais rahaa.

Uu [[radio]] ke ek pahile ke form ke banais rahaa. Uske khaas discoveries [[magnetism]] aur [[electricity]] ke field me rahaa. Uske [[Alternating current]] ke develop kare khatir jaana jaawe hae. 

[[SI]] jisse [[magnetic flux density]] nai to [[magnetic]] induction (commonly known as the [[magnetic field]] naapa jaawe hae&lt;math&gt;B\,&lt;/math&gt;), [[tesla (unit)|tesla]] hae , jon ki uske naam se aais hae. Uu dher rakam ke oscillators ke bhi invent karis hae.

Jab ke Tesla aapan [[discoveries]] ke khatir famous rahaa, uu jab maraa tab uu bahut garib rahaa. Uske radio banae ke credit khaali uske maut ke baad mila. Dher lag Tesla ke &quot;mad scientist&quot; bolat rahin. Tesla aapan pahila kaam [[Budapest]] me suruu karis, ek [[telephone]] [[company]] me. Uu aapan jawani me bhi chij ke invent karat rahaa, jaise ki telphone ke khatir loudspeaker. Uske [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]] rahaa aur Budapest me kaam krte ke time uske [[nervous breakdown]] hoe gais.

==Jawaani ke din==
=== Bachpan ===
[[File:Nikola Tesla Memorial Center.JPG|thumb|left|Tesla ke fir se banaawa gais janam ke ghar (parish hall) aur church jahaan pe uske pitaji  [[Smiljan, Croatia]] me serve karis rahaa. Ii site ke Nikola Tesla Memorial Center uske honour me banaawa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;tsbirthplace&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Pictures of Tesla's home in Smiljan, Croatia and his father's church after rebuilding. |url=http://www.teslasociety.com/birthplace.htm |access-date=22 May 2013 |publisher=Tesla Memorial Society of NY |archive-date=2 June 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030602202049/http://www.teslasociety.com/birthplace.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Nikola Tesla ke janam 10 July 1856  ke janam [[Smiljan, Croatia|Smiljan]] gaon,  [[Military Frontier]] of the [[Austrian Empire]] (present-day [[Croatia]]) me ek  ethnic [[Serbs|Serb]] palwaar me bhais rahaa.{{sfn|Cheney|Uth|Glenn|1999|p=143}}{{sfn|O'Neill|1944|pp=9, 12}} Uske pitaji, Milutin Tesla (1819–1879),  [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] me ek padhri rahaa.{{sfn|Dommermuth-Costa|1994|p=12|loc=&quot;Milutin, Nikola's father, was a well-educated priest of the Serbian Orthodox Church.&quot;}}{{sfn|Carlson|2013|p=14|loc=&quot;Following a reprimand at school for not keeping his brass buttons polished, he quit and instead chose to become a priest in the Serbian Orthodox Church&quot;}} Uske pitaji ke bhaiyaa, Josif ek lecturer rahaa, ek military academy me aur dher book  mathematics ke baare me lokhis rahaa.{{sfn|Carlson|2013|page=14}}

Tesla ke maiyaa, Georgina &quot;Đuka&quot; Mandić (1822–1892), jiske pitaji bhi  Eastern Orthodox padhrri rahaa,{{sfn|O'Neill|1944|p=10}} ke ek talent rahaa  home craft tools and mechanical appliances ke banae ke aur ability to memorize [[Serbian epic poetry|Serbian epic poems]] bhi. Đuka ke kabhi  formal parrhai nai milaa rahaa. Tesla ke credit karaa jaae hae uske [[eidetic memory]] aur creative abilities uske maiyaa ke genetics aur influence ke kaaran.{{sfn|Cheney|2001|pp=25-26}}{{sfn|Seifer|2001|p=7}}

Tesla, paanch larrkan me se chauthaa rahaa.{{sfn|Carlson|2013|p=21}} 1861 me, Tesla primary school Smiljan me parrhis rahaa, jahaan pe uu  [[German bhasa]], arithmetic, aur dharam sikhis rahaa. 1862 me, Tesla ke palwaar, bagal ke  [[Gospić]] town me bas gae rahin, jahaan pe Tesla ke pitaji  parish priest ke kaam karis rahaa. Nikola primary school ke khalaas karis, jiske baad uu middle school me parrhis. Baad me uu aapan patent application me, American citizenship le se pahile, Tesla apne ke &quot;of Smiljan, [[Lika]], border country of [[Austria-Hungary]]&quot; identify karat rahaa.{{sfn|Wohinz|2019|pp=14–15}}

=== Sikchhaa ===
[[File:Milutin Tesla.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|Tesla ke pitaji, Milutin, ek [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] padhri village of Smiljan me rahaa.|left]]
1870 me, Tesla [[Karlovac]] move bhais rahaa{{sfn|Seifer|2001|p=13}}  high school attend kare ke khaatir [[Gymnasium Karlovac|Higher Real Gymnasium]] me, jahaan pe classes German me lewa jaawat rahaa, jaise ki uu time Austro-Hungarian Military Frontier schools me rahaa .&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Tesla|first1=Nikola|last2=Marinčić|first2=Aleksandar|title=From Colorado Springs to Long Island: research notes |date=2008|publisher=Nikola Tesla Museum|location=Belgrade|isbn=978-86-81243-44-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Budiansky |first1=Stephen |title=Journey to the edge of reason : the life of Kurt Gödel |url=https://archive.org/details/journeytoedgeofr0000budi |date=2021 |location=New York |isbn=978-1-324-00545-2 |edition=First |quote=In the natural sciences, Austria produced a remarkable number of talented theorists and experimentalists. The electrical genius Nikola Tesla, from Croatia, studied in Karlovac at one of the rigorous German-language high schools, the Gymnasiums, established throughout the Austrian Empire.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tesla baad me ii likhis rahaa ki uske bhautik vijyan me interest barrhaa jab uske physics professor electricity ke demonstrate karis rahaa.  {{sfn|Petešić|1976|pp=29–30}} Ii &quot;mysterious phenomena&quot; ke kaaran uu maangat rahaa &quot;to know more of this wonderful force&quot;.{{sfn|Carlson|2013|p=32}} Uu aapan man me  [[integral|integral calculus]] kar lewat rahaa, jiske kaaran uske teaher log sochat rahin ki uu  cheat kare hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Tesla Life and Legacy&amp;nbsp;– Tesla's Early Years |url=https://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_early.html|publisher=PBS |access-date=8 July 2012 |archive-date=20 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720022706/http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_early.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu chaar saal ke kaam, tiin saal me khalaas kar ke  1873 me graduate bhais rahaa.{{sfn|O'Neill|1944|p=33}}

Graduate hoe ke baad,  Tesla, Smiljan laut gais lekin uske  [[cholera]] hoe gais, aur uu nau mahina talak khatia pakrris rahaa aur kuch dafe maut ke nagiich rahaa.  Despair ke time, Tesla ke pitaji (jon pahile maangat rahaa ki uu padhri bane),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|editor-last=Glenn|editor-first=Jim|title=The complete patents of Nikola Tesla|year=1994|publisher=Barnes &amp; Noble Books|location=New York|isbn=1-56619-266-8|url=https://archive.org/details/completepatentso00tesl}}&lt;/ref&gt; Promise karis ki uu Tesla ke sab se achchhaa engineering school me parrhe ke bheji agar uu aapan bemari se achchhaa hoe jaawe.{{sfn|Carlson|2013|p=29}} Tesla baad me batais ki uu [[Mark Twain]] ke pahile ke kaam ke parrhis rahaa, jab uu bemaari se achchhaa howat rahaa.  &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |first=Juliana |last=Adelman |title=The electricity between Mark Twain and Nikola Tesla |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/science/the-electricity-between-mark-twain-and-nikola-tesla-1.2522523 |newspaper=The Irish Times |date=11 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Agle saal, Tesla  [[conscription]] into the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]] in Smiljan{{sfn|Seifer|2001|p=14}} se bach gais, kaaheki ki uu bhaag ke  southeast of Lika to [[Tomingaj]], near [[Gračac]] gais rahaa. Huan pe uu pahaar ke explore karis rahaa, ek sikaari ke kaprraa pahin ke.  Tesla bolis rahaa ki , natur se ii contact uske aur tagrraa kar diis rahaa, duuno physically aur mentally. 1875 me uu [[Imperial-Royal Technical College in Graz]] , Military Frontier scholarship me enropl karis rahaa. Tesla nau exam ke pass karis rahaa (jon jarurat se dugnaa rahaa{{sfn|O'Neill|1944|p=39}}) aur uske ek letter of commendation  dean of the technical faculty se mila uske pitaji ke, jis me likha rahaa, &quot;Your son is a star of first rank.&quot;{{sfn|O'Neill|1944|p=39}} Graz me, Tesla lectures on electricity presented by professor [[Jakob Pöschl]] se facinated rahaa.{{sfn|Carlson|2013|pp=35}} Lekin uske tiisra saal talak uu fail hoe lagaa aur fail hoe gais rahaa , aur uu [[Graz]] ke December 1878 me chorr diis rahaa. Ek biographer ii suggest karis hae ki Tesla study nai karat rahaa aur saait uske  gambling aur womanizing ke khaatir expel karaa gais rahaa.{{sfn|Seifer|2001|p=17}}

[[File:Tesla 1879 teslauniverse.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Tesla aged 23, {{circa|1879}}]]

Tesla ke palwaar ke uske baare me kuchh nai pataa rahaa jab uu school ke chhorr diis rahaa.  {{sfn|Seifer|2001|pp=17–18}} Ek rumour rahaa ki uu bagal ke naddi me duub gais rahaa, January me uske ek classmate uske   town of [[Maribor]] me mila aur  Tesla palwaar ke iske baare me batais  rahaa.{{sfn|Carlson|2013|pp=47}} Ii baat rahaa ke  Tesla eka draftsman ke kaam, 60 florins per month me karat rahaa.{{sfn|Seifer|2001|p=17}} March 1879 me, Milutin aakhri me aapan larrka ke paais aur kosis karis ki uu ghare laute aur parrje ke khaatir Prague jaae.{{sfn|Carlson|2013|pp=47}} Tesla Gospić uu mahina ke baad me lautis lekin uske deprt kar dewa gais kaaheki uske lage residence permit nai rahaa.{{sfn|Carlson|2013|pp=47}} Tesla ke pitaji agle mahina mar gais,  17 April 1879 me, 60 saal ke umar me koi anjaan bemaari se.{{sfn|Carlson|2013|pp=47}}

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://www.tesla-museum.org Nikola Tesla Museum]
* Tesla's Wardenclyffe Science Center Plaque [http://www2.timesreview.com/SUN/stories/S121109_Tesla_psh]
* [http://www.nikolatesla.fr/documents.htm NikolaTesla.fr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001024322/http://www.nikolatesla.fr/documents.htm |date=2011-10-01 }} - More than 1,000 documents on Tesla

{{BD|1856|1943|Tesla, Nikola}}

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    <title>Simone de Beauvoir</title>
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|region = Western Philosophy 
|era = 20th-century philosophy
|color = #B0C4DE |

 &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
 image_name = 	Simone de Beauvoir.jpg
|image_caption = de Beauvoir ke chapa 1968 me|

 &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
 name = Simone-Lucie-Ernestine-Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir 
|birth  = 9 January 1908&lt;br /&gt;[[Paris]], [[France]]
|death = 14 April 1986 &lt;br /&gt;Paris, France
|school_tradition = Existentialism&lt;br /&gt;Feminism 
|main_interests = Politics, Feminism, Ethics 
|influences = [[René Descartes|Descartes]], Wollstonecraft, [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], Husserl, [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]], Heidegger, [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], Sade 
|influenced = Butler, Camus, [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], Paglia, Friedan, Hoagland, Rich, Greer
|notable_ideas = ethics of ambiguity, feminist ethics, existential feminism |
}}
'''Simone de Beauvoir''' ([[9 January]] [[1908]] – [[14 April]] [[1986]]) ek [[France|French]] [[lekhak]] aur [[philosopher]] rahii. 

==Jiiwan kahaani==

=== Bachpan ke din ===
Beauvoir ke janam 9 January 1908 me,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url= https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2020/01/09/UPI-Almanac-for-Thursday-Jan-9-2020/6871578415895/|title= UPI Almanac for Thursday, Jan. 9, 2020|work= [[United Press International]] | date= 9 January 2020|access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-date= 15 January 2020|archive-url= https://archive.today/20200115192229/https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2020/01/09/UPI-Almanac-for-Thursday-Jan-9-2020/6871578415895/|url-status=live|quote=...French novelist Simone de Beauvoir in 1908}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Paris]] ke ek  [[bourgeois]] palwaar me [[6th arrondissement of Paris|6th arrondissement]] me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/1999/jun/06/classics.simonedebeauvoir |title=Still the second sex|first=Maureen|last=Freely|author-link=Maureen Freely|date=6 June 1999|access-date=6 January 2019|work=[[The Guardian]]|location=UK|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190413171557/https://www.theguardian.com/books/1999/jun/06/classics.simonedebeauvoir| url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jan/08/top10s.debeauvoir |title=Lisa Appignanesi's top 10 books by and about Simone de Beauvoir|work=The Guardian|location=UK|date=8 January 2008|access-date=6 January 2019|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190413154026/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jan/08/top10s.debeauvoir|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/118617/anne-hollander-reviews-simone-de-beauvoir-biography-deidre-bair |title=The Open Marriage of True Minds|first=Anne|last=Hollander|date=11 June 1990|magazine=[[The New Republic]]|access-date=6 January 2019|archive-date=12 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150912233548/https://newrepublic.com/article/118617/anne-hollander-reviews-simone-de-beauvoir-biography-deidre-bair|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske pitaji, Georges Bertrand de Beauvoir, ek wakiil rahaa jon ek actor bane maangat rahaaa,&lt;ref name=&quot;IEP Biography&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Mussett |first=Shannon |title=Beauvoir, Simone de {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/simone-de-beauvoir/ |access-date=11 April 2010 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur maiyaa Françoise Beauvoir (née Brasseur), ek dhani banker ke larrki aur kattar [[Catholic]] rahii. Kaaheki uske maiyaa-bappa jaada time ghare nai rahat rahin,  Simone ke khaas kar ke uske  nanny, Louise paale rahii.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Louise ke  relationship Françoise Beauvoir se achchhaaa nai rahaa. Simone ke ek bahini, [[Hélène de Beauvoir|Hélène]] rahii, jon 6 June 1910 ke paida bhae rahii. Beauvoir  intellectually precocious rahii, aapan pitaji ke protsahan ke kaaran, aur uu ii boast karat rahaa ki: 

{{Blockquote|text=“Simone ke ek admii ke dimaag hae; uu ek admii ke rakam soche hae; uu ek admii hae.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=A talk with Simone de Beauvoir |last=Moorehead |first=Caroline |date=1974-06-02 |pages=258 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/06/02/archives/a-talk-with-simone-de-beauvoirr-marriage-is-an-alienating.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251003113522/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/06/02/archives/a-talk-with-simone-de-beauvoirr-marriage-is-an-alienating.html |archive-date=2025-10-03 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Bair, p. 60&lt;/ref&gt;|author=Caroline Moorehead|title=A talk with Simone de Beauvoir|source=[[The New York Times]]|character=Françoise Beauvoir (née Brasseur)}}Uske bachpan ke din ke baare me likhte  ''Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter me,'' uu bolis rahaa:

{{Blockquote|text=...hamaar pitaji ke [[individualism]] aur nastik ethical standards hamaar maiyaa ke  rigidly moral [[conventionalism]] sikchhaa ke virod rahaa. Ii disequilibrium, jisse hamaar jindagi endless disputation hoe gais, khaas kaaran rahaa ki ham ek [[intellectual]] ban gayaa hae.&lt;ref&gt;''Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter'', Book One&lt;/ref&gt;|author=Simone de Beauvoir|title=Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter|source=Book One, pg. 41}}

==== Education ====
Beauvoir, high school ke baad aapan   post-secondary ke parrhai kare rahii {{Interlanguage link multi|Cours Desir|fr}} me.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Paris: sur les traces de Simone de Beauvoir |trans-title=Paris: On the trail of Simone de Beauvoir |url= https://www.en-vols.com/inspirations/culture/paris-simone-de-beauvoir/ |website=en-vols.com |date=22 November 2022 |access-date=31 July 2023 |language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Baccalaureate exams ke mathematics aur philosophy ke 1925 me 17 saal ke umar me, uu   [[Institut Catholique de Paris]] me mathematics aur   literature/languages at the {{Interlanguage link multi|Institut Sainte-Marie|fr}} me parrhe rahii. 

[[File:EcoleNormaleDeParis - Jeanne Blancard-Colette Maze.tif|thumb|Class  [[École Normale]], Paris me, [[1930s]] me.]]

Jab ki uu sarkari taur pe bharti nai bhae rahii, Simone,  [[École Normale Supérieure]] me class me baithis aapan ''[[agrégation]]'' in philosophy ke taiyaari ke khaatir, jon ek bahut competitive postgraduate examination rahaa jisse  students ke nationally rank karaa jaawat rahaa. uu jab iske khaatir parrhat rahii tab uu  École Normale ke students [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Paul Nizan]], aur [[René Maheu]] (jon uske nickname &quot;''Castor''&quot;, nai to &quot;Beaver&quot;, diis rahaa) se mile rahii.&lt;ref name=&quot;IEP Biography&quot; /&gt;Uu  [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] me philosophy parrhe rahii, appan degree ke  1928 me khatam kare ke baad, uu likhe rahii ''[[Diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées]]'' (jon [[Master of Arts|M.A.]] thesis ke rakam hae)  [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]] for [[Léon Brunschvicg]] 1929 me (uske topic rahaa &quot;Le concept chez Leibniz&quot; [&quot;The Concept in Leibniz&quot;]).&lt;ref&gt;Margaret A. Simons (ed.), ''Feminist Interpretations of Simone de Beauvoir'', Penn State Press, 1 November 2010, p. 3.&lt;/ref&gt; 1929 me, the jury for the ''agrégation'' kuchh mark se Sartre ke first place aur Beauvoir ke second place diis rahaa. Uu 21 saal ke rahii, jiske matlab hae ki uu sab se chhotii jan rahii jon ii exam ke pass kare rahii.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine |last=Menand|first=Louis|date=19 September 2005|title=Stand by Your Man|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/09/26/stand-by-your-man|access-date=11 May 2010|magazine=The New Yorker|language=en-US|issn=0028-792X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske alaawaa, Beauvoir ek exam certificate of &quot;General Philosophy and Logic&quot; khaatir karis jisme uu second rahii [[Simone Weil]] ke baad. Kaaheki uu 8th jan rahii jon ''agrégation'' ke pass kare rahii, uske achchhaa kaam mile lagaa aur uu ajaad hoe gais.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

==== Dharmik paalan posan ====
Beauvoir ek [[Catholic]] aur uske parrhai  convent schools me bhais rahaa. Uu ekdam dharmik rahii aur ek nun bane maangat rahii.  14 saal ke umar me, Beauvoir aapan dharam ke sawaal kare lagis aur aapan teens me dharam ke chorr diiye rahaa. uu aapan baaki jindagi bhar ek [[atheism|atheist]] rahii.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Simone de Beauvoir|url=https://www.biography.com/scholar/simone-de-beauvoir|access-date=2021-03-04|website=Biography|date=9 July 2020 |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Thurman&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Thurman |first=Judith |date=28 May 2010 |title=Introduction to Simone de Beauvoir's 'The Second Sex' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/30/books/excerpt-introduction-second-sex.html |access-date=11 April 2010 |work=The New York Times |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske samjhaae ke khaatir, Beauvoir bole rahii, 

{{Blockquote|text=&quot;Dharam ke kaaran log uu kathnai se duur bhaage hae jon asliyat me hae. Aur isse jaada, biswas kare waala log  apne ke barraa samjhe hae  ii  cowardice act se.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Bertrand de Beauvoir|first=Simone|title=All Said and Done|url=https://archive.org/details/allsaiddone00beau|publisher=G. P. Putnam's &amp; Sons|year=1974|isbn=9780399112515|location=New York|pages=478|translator-last=O'Brian|translator-first=Patrick}}&lt;/ref&gt;|author=Simone Bertrand de Beauvoir|title=All Said and Done}}

=== Biich waala saal ===
[[File:Sartre and de Beauvoir at Balzac Memorial.jpg|thumb|upright|Jean-Paul Sartre aur Simone de Beauvoir, Balzac Memorial me]]
Uske palwaar  bourgeois rahe ke khaatir struggle karat rahaa kaaheki uulog aapan daulat ke  [[World War I]] ke baad lutae de rahin aur and Françoise ke insistence ke uske larrki loagan ek  prestigious convent school jaawe.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=14 July 2016|title=Simone de Beauvoir: Equality in Unity|url=https://the8percent.com/simone-de-beauvoir-equality-in-unity/|access-date=30 October 2025|website=The 8 Percent|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Palwaar me paisa ke kami ke kaaran, uu aapan [[dahej]] pe nai nirbhar rahe sakat rahii. Iske kaaran uske saadi hoe ke chance kamti hoe gais. Iske kaaran uu apne se kamai kare lagii.&lt;ref name=&quot;oxfordreference.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195148909.001.0001/acref-9780195148909-e-90|isbn=978-0-19-514890-9|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia Women in World History|chapter=Beauvoir, Simone de|date=January 2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195148909.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]] aur [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] ke saathe kaam karis, jab uu tiinao aapan  practice teaching requirements ke ekke secondary school me kare rahin.  1929 se 1943 talak, Beauvoir  [[lycée]] level ke parrhais, jabtak uu aapan likhai ke amdani pe nisrbahar rahe sakat rahii.  Uu {{Interlanguage link multi|Lycée Montgrand|fr}} ([[Marseille]]),  {{Interlanguage link multi|Lycée Jeanne-d'Arc (Rouen)|fr}}, aur [[Lycée Molière (Paris)]] (1936–39) me parrhae rahii.&lt;ref&gt;Kelly Oliver (ed.), ''French Feminism Reader'', Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishers, 2000, p. 1; ''Bulletin 2006 de l'Association amicale des anciens et anciennes élèves du lycée Molière'', 2006, p. 22.&lt;/ref&gt;

1945 me [[Robert Brasillach]] ke trial ke time, Beauvoirek chhotaa group of  prominent intellectuals me se ek rahii jon jon uske maut ke maang kare rahii, uske   'intellectual crimes' of supporting [[Fascism]] aur genocide of Jewish log ke khaatir. Uu ii decision ke aapan 1946 ke essay &quot;An Eye for an Eye&quot; me defend kare rahii.&lt;ref&gt;David Newcastle, [https://tikhanovlibrary.com/the-rise-and-fall-of-pierre-drieu-la-rochelle/ ''The Rise and Fall of Pierre Drieu la Rochlle''], Gilles, Tikhanov Library, 2024, preface&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://academic.oup.com/book/11006/chapter-abstract/159332034?redirectedFrom=fulltext “An Eye for an Eye”: The Question of Revenge] Sonia Kirks&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1908|1986|De Beauvoir, Simone}}

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    <title>Noam Chomsky</title>
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      <text bytes="6086" sha1="1qlzm4k0umln6brxko6xmem53bu22ug" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Philosopher
|region           = Western Philosophy
|era              = 20th-century philosophy / 21st-century philosophy
|color            = #B0C4DE
|name             = Noam Chomsky
|image_name       = Noam_chomsky_cropped.jpg‎
|caption         = Noam Chomsky ke chapa 2005 me
|image_size       = 220px
|birth            = {{birth date and age|1928|12|7}}&lt;br /&gt;Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
|death            = 
|school_tradition = Linguistics
|main_interests   = Linguistics Psychology&lt;br /&gt;Philosophy of language&lt;br /&gt;Politics Ethics
}} 
'''Avram Noam Chomsky''' (janam [[7 December]] [[1928]]) ek [[United States|American]] linguist, philosopher, political activist, author, aur lecturer hae. Uu  Massachusetts Institute of Technology  ke Institute Professor aur professor emeritus of linguistics hae.

== Ill bhi dekho ==

* [[Khalbali]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book 
|last= Barsky
|first= Robert F.
|authorlink= Robert Barsky
|title= Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent
|url= http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/welcome.html
|year= 1997
|publisher= MIT Press
|location= Massachusetts
|isbn= 978-1550222821}}
* {{cite book 
|last= Chomsky
|first= Noam
|title= Perspectives on Power
|url= https://archive.org/details/perspectivesonpo0000chom
|year= 1996
|publisher= Black Rose
|location= Montréal
|isbn= 978-1551640488}}
* {{cite web 
| last = Kreisler
| first = Harry
| title = Activism, Anarchism, and Power: Conversation with Noam Chomsky
| work = Conversations with History
| publisher = Institute of International Studies, [[UC Berkeley]]
| date = [[2002-03-22]]
| url = http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-03}}

== Duusra websites ==
* [https://chomsky.info/ Official website]
* [http://www.khaleejtimes.com/SectionHomeL.asp?section=noamchomsky&amp;col=yes Noam Chomsky Columns in Khaleej Times—UAE Newspaper] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105025106/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/SectionHomeL.asp?section=noamchomsky&amp;col=yes |date=2008-01-05 }}
* [http://www.commondreams.org/views06/0530-20.htm Why It's Over For America, by Noam Chomsky, ''The Independent'', May 30, 2006]
* [http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/www/chomsky.home.html MIT homepage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210081306/http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/www/chomsky.home.html |date=2007-02-10 }}
* {{imdb name|0159008|Noam Chomsky}}
* [http://www.zmag.org/chomsky/ ZNet: Noam Chomsky Archive]
* [http://www.booktv.org/indepth/index.asp?schedid=195&amp;segid=3562 Interview with Noam Chomsky], June 1, 2003 C-Span's ''Book TV''
* [http://www.radio4all.net/index.php?op=search&amp;nav=&amp;session=&amp;searchtext=chomsky A-Infos Radio Project: Talks by Noam Chomsky] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211210426/http://www.radio4all.net/index.php?op=search&amp;nav=&amp;session=&amp;searchtext=chomsky |date=2008-12-11 }} ([[MP3]])
* [http://www.lipmagazine.org/articles/featchomsky_63.htm Example of Chomsky's views on the Free Market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109154658/http://www.lipmagazine.org/articles/featchomsky_63.htm |date=2008-01-09 }}
* [http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html Conversation with Noam Chomsky]
* [http://www.booktv.org/feature/index.asp?segid=7022&amp;schedID=428 Noam Chomsky &quot;Just War Theory&quot; at West Point] May 27, 2006 ''C-Span 2''
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2765553072882910702&amp;q=kosovo+mandic&amp;hl=en Noam Chomsky on NATO's Kosovo Campaign (Danilo Mandic, RTS).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629115256/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2765553072882910702&amp;q=kosovo+mandic&amp;hl=en |date=2011-06-29 }}
* [http://mp3.rbnlive.com/Tarpley/0608/20060812_Sat_Tarpley2.mp3 Webster Tarpley interviews Barry Zwicker on Chomsky] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923110543/http://mp3.rbnlive.com/Tarpley/0608/20060812_Sat_Tarpley2.mp3 |date=2006-09-23 }} on [[RBNLive]] (at the 35:00 minute mark in the interview)
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/22/nyregion/22chomsky.html?ex=1159588800&amp;en=8e81f9fa46dc0eac&amp;ei=5059&amp;partner=AOL NY Times article on Chomsky]—September 22, 2006
* [http://www.tidsskriftcentret.dk/index.php?id=147 Noam Chomsky] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091129004334/http://www.tidsskriftcentret.dk/index.php?id=147 |date=2009-11-29 }} A resource from Tidsskriftcentret.dk in English &amp; Scandinavian.
* [http://www.chomskyviewer.org/ The Chomsky Viewer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012204615/http://chomskyviewer.org/ |date=2007-10-12 }} Video compilation of Chomsky with other activists in PowerPoint format.
* [http://mitworld.mit.edu/play/401/ Noam Chomsky talking about the current crisis in the Middle East]
* [http://videolectures.net/ff06_ljubljana/ Video of Chomsky's talk] 'Force, law and the possibilities for survival' in March 2005
* joint Noam Chomsky—Howard Zinn interview, April 16 2007 [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=07/04/16/1338223 part one] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114212940/http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=07%2F04%2F16%2F1338223 |date=2007-11-14 }} [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=07/04/17/1327203 part two] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114212734/http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=07%2F04%2F17%2F1327203 |date=2007-11-14 }}
* [http://onebigtorrent.org OneBigTorrent.org] (originally called &quot;Chomskytorrents&quot;) begun with (and still has) lots of links to Chomsky-related media.
* [http://www.stateofnature.org/noamChomsky.html On Media: State of Nature Interview with Noam Chomsky] (September, 2006)
* [http://www.anarchismtoday.org/News/topic=12.html Chomsky articles &amp; videos @AnarchismToday.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412095048/http://anarchismtoday.org/News/topic=12.html |date=2008-04-12 }}

{{BD|1928||Chomsky, Noam}}

[[vibhag:United States anarchists]]
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[[vibhag:Socialists]]
[[vibhag:Philosophers]]
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    <title>Sigmund Freud</title>
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|image             = Sigmund Freud LIFE.jpg
|image_size        = 200px
|alt               = 
|caption           = Sigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt, 1914
|birth_name        = Sigismund Schlomo Freud
|birth_date        = {{birth date|df=yes|1856|05|06}}
|birth_place       = Freiberg, Moravia, [[Czech Republic]]
|death_date        = {{death date and age|df=yes|1939|09|23|1856|05|06}}
|death_place       = [[London]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|residence         = [[Austria]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|citizenship       = 
|nationality       = [[Austria]]n
|ethnicity         = Ashkenazi Jew
|fields            = Neurology&lt;br /&gt;Philosophy&lt;br /&gt;Psychiatry&lt;br /&gt;Psychology&lt;br /&gt;Psychotherapy&lt;br /&gt;Psychoanalysis&lt;br /&gt;Literature
|workplaces        = University of Vienna
|alma_mater        = University of Vienna
|doctoral_advisor  = 
|academic_advisors = 
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|notable_students  = 
|known_for         = Psychoanalysis
|author_abbrev_bot = 
|author_abbrev_zoo = 
|influences        = Arthur Schopenhauer&lt;br /&gt;[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]&lt;br /&gt;Jean-Martin Charcot&lt;br /&gt;Josef Breuer
|influenced        = John Bowlby&lt;br /&gt;Viktor Frankl&lt;br /&gt;Anna Freud&lt;br /&gt;Ernest Jones&lt;br /&gt;Carl Jung&lt;br /&gt;Melanie Klein&lt;br /&gt;Jacques Lacan&lt;br /&gt;Fritz Perls&lt;br /&gt;Otto Rank&lt;br /&gt;Wilhelm Reich
|awards            = Goethe Prize
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|signature         =  &lt;!--(filename only)--&gt;
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}}
'''Sigmund Freud''' ([[6 May]] [[1856]] – [[23 September]] [[1939]]) ek [[Austria]]n neurologist aur mashuur psychologist rahaa. Dher log uske &quot;psychoanalysis ke baap&quot; manat rahin.

Uske janam ke naam '''Sigismund Schlomo Freud''' rahaa, lekin 1877 me jab uske umar 21 saal ke rahaa tab uu aapan naam badal ke Sigmund Freud kar liis rahaa.

Freud, psychology me important rahaa kahe ki uu pahila admii rahaa jon ki unconscious ke scientifically study karis rahaa. 

Aapan first book likhe ke baad, Freud, Martha Bernays se saadi karis jisse uske chhe larrkan bhaes aur usme se ek Anna Freud bhi ek famous psychologist banis.

Uske janam purana Austro-Hugarian Empire me uu jagha pe jon ki abhi Czech Republic me hae, me bhaes rahaa. 1938 me uu, Jewish hoe ke kaaran, Hitler ke prosecution se bhaage ke khatir, England chal diis jahan pe uske maut 1939 me bhaes rahaa.

==Jiwan kahani==

=== Bachpan ke din aur Sikchhaa ===
[[File:Pribor - Birthplace of Sigmund Freud.jpg|left|thumb|alt=photograph|Freud ke janam waala jagha, ek bhaara pe lewa gais room ek locksmith ke ghar me, Freiberg, [[Austrian Empire]] ([[Příbor]], Czech Republic)]]
Sigmund Freud ke janam [[Ashkenazi Jewish]] parents se [[Moravia]] ke town  [[Freiberg]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Digitized Birth Records of Freiberg (Zemský archiv v Opavě) |url=https://digi.archives.cz/da/permalink?xid=be85d01a-f13c-102f-8255-0050568c0263&amp;scan=3196614d700349279f6de3a8330b224a |access-date=18 July 2021 |website=digi.archives.cz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sigmund Freud &amp;#124; Biography, Theories, Works, &amp; Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sigmund-Freud |website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=2 May 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  [[Austrian Empire]] (abhi ke Příbor, [[Czech Republic]]) me bhais rahaa aur uu aath larrkan me sab se barraa rahaa. &lt;ref name=&quot;Gresser&quot;&gt;Gresser 1994, p. 225.&lt;/ref&gt; Uske maiyaa aur bappa  [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] ke rahin. Uske pitaji, [[Jakob Freud]], jon ek wool merchant rahaa, ke dui larrkaa, Emanuel aur Philipp, uske pahila saadi se rahaa. Jakob ke palwaar [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] rahin aur, jab Jakob apne ii sankriti se duur hoe gais rahaa, uske [[Torah study]] ke khaatir jaana jaawat rahaa. Uu aur Freud ke maiyaa, [[Amalia Freud|Amalia Nathansohn]], jon usse 20 saal jawaan rahii aur tiisra aurat rahii, ke saadi  Rabbi [[Isaac Noah Mannheimer]]  29 July 1855 me karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Emanuel&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Emanuel Rice |title=Freud and Moses: The Long Journey Home |url=https://archive.org/details/freudmoseslongjo0000rice |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-7914-0453-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/freudmoseslongjo0000rice/page/55 55]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uulog ke paisa ke kami rahaa aur ek room ke ek  locksmith ke ghar me Schlossergasse 117 me rahat rahin jab Sigmund ke janam bhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Gay 2006, pp. 4–8; Clark 1980, p. 4.
* For Jakob's Torah study, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&amp;pg=PA233 Meissner 1993, p. 233].
* For the date of the marriage, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=JhbDnT74kWEC&amp;pg=PA55 Rice 1990, p. 55].&lt;/ref&gt; Uu ek [[caul]] ke saathe paida bhais rahaa, jiske uske maiyaa ek positive [[omen]] maanat rahii, lorrkaa ke future ke khaatir.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |author=&lt;!-- field: --&gt;Deborah P. Margolis, M.A.&lt;!-- field: --&gt; |url=http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=MPSA.014.0037A |title=Margolis 1989 |journal=Mod. Psychoanal |pages=37–56 |access-date=17 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223112728/http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=MPSA.014.0037A |archive-date=23 February 2014|year=1989}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:AmaliaFreud.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Freud (16 saal ke umar me) aur uske maiyaa, [[Amalia Freud|Amalia]], 1872 me]]
1859 me, [[Freud palwaar]]  Freiberg se chal diis. Freud ke half-brothers emigrated to [[Manchester]], England ,igate hoe gay rahin, jiske kaaran uske aapan bachpan ke dost, Emanuel ke larrkaa, John ke chhorre kae parraa.&lt;ref&gt;Jones, Ernest (1964) ''Sigmund Freud: Life and Work.'' Edited and abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books p. 37.&lt;/ref&gt; Jakob Freud aapan aurat aur dui larrkan (Freud's sister, Anna, was born in 1858; a brother, Julius, born in 1857, had died in infancy) ke pahile [[Leipzig]] aur baad me, 1860 me [[Vienna]] lae gais rahaa, jahaan pe chaar larrhi aur jahaan pe chaar bahini aur ek bahiyaa ke janam bhais rahaa: Rosa (b. 1860), Marie (b. 1861), Adolfine (b. 1862), Paula (b. 1864), Alexander (b. 1866). 1865 me, the nau saal ke  Freud {{lang|de|Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium}} me bharti bhais rajaa, ek jaana-maana high school. Uu bahut achchhaa  pupil aur [[Matura]] se graduate  1873 me honors ke saathe bhais rahaa. Uu literature ke pasand karat rahaa aur German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Latin]] aur [[Greek language|Greek]] me achchhaa se baat karat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Hothersall 2004, p. 276.&lt;/ref&gt;

Freud University of Vienna me 17 saal ke umar me bharti bhais rahaa. Uu maangat rahaa wakiili parrhe lekin university me medical faculty me bharti bhais rahaaa, jahaan pe uske parrhai me philosoph [[Franz Brentano]] ke niche rahaa, physiology [[Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke|Ernst Brücke]] ke niche, aur zoology [[Darwinist]] professor [[Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Claus|Carl Claus]] ke niche.&lt;ref&gt;Hothersall 1995&lt;!--page number?--&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; 1876 me, Freud chaar haptaa talak Claus ke zoological research station  [[Trieste]] me rahaa, jahaan pe uu kuchh sau sapaiyaa (eels) ke disect karis rahaa, uulog ke  male reproductive organs ke khij me.&lt;ref&gt;See &quot;[[Eel life history#Past studies of eels|past studies of eels]]&quot; and references therein.&lt;/ref&gt; 1877 me, Freud  Ernst Brücke ke physiology laboratory gais, jahan pe uu chhe saal talak [[insaan]] ke dimaag, duusra  vertebrates jaise frogs, [[lampreys]], aur invertebrates, jaise, [[crayfish]] se compare karat rahaa. Uske research kaam  biology of nervous tissue ke kaaran  [[neuron]] ke [[1890s]] me paawa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Costandi |first=Mo |title=Freud was a pioneering neuroscientist |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2014/mar/10/neuroscience-history-science |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=10 March 2014 |access-date=16 May 2018}}&lt;br&gt;In this period he published three papers:
* {{cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=Über den Ursprung der hinteren Nervenwurzeln im Rückenmark von Ammocoetes (Petromyzon Planeri) |publisher=na |trans-title=On the Origin of the Posterior Nerve Roots in the Spinal Cord of [[Ammocoetes]] ([[Petromyzon planeri|Petromyzon Planeri]]) |url=https://archive.org/details/b3047467x |year=1877|language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=Über Spinalganglien und Rückenmark des Petromyzon |trans-title=On the Spinal Ganglia and Spinal Cord of [[Petromyzon]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9I7mgEACAAJ |year=1878|language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last=Freud |first=Sigmund |title=A New Histological Method for the Study of Nerve-Tracts in the Brain and Spinal Cord |journal=[[Brain (journal)|Brain]] |date=April 1884 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=86–88 |doi=10.1093/brain/7.1.86|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1935710 }}
For a more in-depth analysis: {{cite book |last1=Gamwell |first1=Lynn|author1-link= Lynn Gamwell |last2=Solms |first2=Mark |author-link2=Mark Solms |title=From Neurology to Psychoanalysis |url=https://www.curezone.org/upload/PDF/From_NEUROLOGY_to_PSYCHOANALYSIS_by_Sigmund_Freud.pdf |year=2006 |publisher=[[Binghamton University Art Museum]] |location=[[State University of New York]] |pages=29–33, 37–39|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830064321/https://www.curezone.org/upload/PDF/From_NEUROLOGY_to_PSYCHOANALYSIS_by_Sigmund_Freud.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Freud ke research waala kaam 1879 me ruk gais rahaa kaaheki uske ek saal ke  compulsory military service kare ke rahaa. Jaada time mile ke kaaran uu chaar essay ke  [[John Stuart Mill]] ke collected works me se translate karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Gay 2006 p. 36.&lt;/ref&gt; Uu graduate bhais rahaa with  [[Doctor of medicine|MD]]  March 1881 me.&lt;ref&gt;[[Frank Sulloway|Sulloway]] 1992 [1979], p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=B7XcblnI620C&amp;pg=PA22 22].&lt;/ref&gt;

===Suruu ke kaam aur saadi===
1882 me, Freud aapan medical kaam ke [[Vienna General Hospital]] me suruu karis rahaa. Uske research ke kaam cerebral anatomy me, ke kaaran 1884 me  ekn influential paper on the palliative effects of cocaine publish karaa gais rahaa, aur uske kaam [[aphasia]] me uske pahila book,  ''On Aphasia: A Critical Study'' ke basis rahaa, jiske 1891 me publish karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Wallesch |first=Claus |year=2004 |title=History of Aphasia Freud as an aphasiologist |journal=Aphasiology |volume=18 |issue=April |pages=389–399 |doi=10.1080/02687030344000599 |s2cid=144976195}}&lt;/ref&gt; Aur tiin saal talak, Freud aspatal ke dher department me kaam karis rahaa. Uske time [[Theodor Meynert]]'s [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] clinic me aur  ek [[locum]] ke ruup me ek local asylum me, ke kaaran clinical kaam me interest aur barrhaa rahaa. Uske dher published research ke kaaran uske ek university lecturer nai to [[docent]] in [[neuropathology]] 1885 me banaawa gais rahaa, jisme uske koi talab nai milat rahaa lekin uu University of Vienna me lecture de sakat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Gay 2006, pp. 42–47.&lt;/ref&gt;


== Duusra websites ==
* [http://www.freud.org.uk/ Freud Museum] in [[London]]
* [http://www.freudfile.org/ Freud's Life and Work]

{{BD|1856|1939|Freud, Sigmund}}
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  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
|  region          = Muslim scholar
|  era             = Medieval era
|  color           = #B0C4DE 

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
|  image_name      = Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg
|  image_caption   =  Ibn Khaldun ke murti [[Tunis]] me

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
|  name             = '''Ibn Khaldun''' |
|  birth       =  27 May, 1332 AD / 732 AH
|  death      =  19 March 1406 AD / 808 AH
|  school_tradition =  Maliki madhab, &lt;br /&gt; Islamic economic jurisprudence
|  main_interests   =  Social&amp;nbsp;Sciences, Sociology, History, Historiography, Cultural&amp;nbsp;History, Philosophy&amp;nbsp;of&amp;nbsp;History, Demography, Diplomacy, Economics, Islamic Studies, Military Theory, Philosophy, Politics, Statecraft, Theology
|  influences       =  &lt;small&gt;[[Aristotle]], [[Muhammad]], [[Malik ibn Anas]], [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]], [[Farabi]], [[Avicenna]], [[al-Ghazali]], [[Averroes]], [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]], [[Islamic economics in the world|Muslim economists]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|  influenced       =  &lt;small&gt;[[Al-Maqrizi]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], [[Robert Flint (theologian)|Robert Flint]], [[Taha Hussein]], [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], [[Ernest Gellner]], [[Franz Rosenthal]], [[Franz Oppenheimer]], [[Arthur Laffer]], [[Fernand Braudel]], [[Social sciences|social scientists]] &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|  notable_ideas    =  Forerunner of [[demography]], [[historiography]], [[cultural history]], [[philosophy of history]], [[sociology]], [[social sciences]], and modern [[economics]]. Developed theories of [[Asabiyyah]] and the rise and fall of [[civilization]]s.
}}
'''Abdul Rahman Ibn Khaldun''', 14th century ke North [[Africa]] ke ek thinker rahaa. Uske janam 1332 me [[Tunis]] me bhaes rahaa. Khaldun sarkar me bahut rakam se kaam karis rahaa. Uu kuchh din talak [[Marrakesh]], [[Morocco]] me rahaa. Uske baad uu [[Cairo]] chal diis jahan pe uske maut 1406 me bhaes jab uu ek judge ke kaam karat rahaa.

Khaldun dui book likis rahaa jon ki Muqaddimah (Proglemena) aurAutobiography rahaa.

Khaldun [[sociology]] ke suruu karis rahaa aur [[Middle Ages]]  me [[Islam]] ke baare me sab se barraa writer rahaa.

== Bachpan ke din aur palwaar ==
[[File:TCCKhaldun.jpg|thumb|200px|Ibn Khaldun ke life-size piital ke bust sculpture jon Arab American National Museum (Catalog Number 2010.02) me hae. Iske Tunisian Community Center commission karis rahaa aur  Patrick Morelli of Albany, New York me, 2009 me banais rahaa. Iske inspire kare waala statue of Ibn Khaldun, jon Avenue Habib Bourguiba in [[Tunis]] me hae, rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Arab American National Museum : Online Collections |url=http://arabamerican.pastperfect-online.com/33769cgi/mweb.exe?request=record;id=A9A7FFF1-3E51-46CC-8C72-966442091673;type=101 |access-date=25 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Ibn Khaldun ke jiwan kahaani, uu timme ke aur log ke mukaable me, achchhaa se documented hae, kaaheki uu ek [[autobiography]] publish karis rahaa({{lang|ar|التعريف بابن خلدون ورحلته غربا وشرقا}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|at-Taʻrīf bi-ibn Khaldūn wa-Riḥlatih Gharban wa-Sharqan}}'';&lt;ref&gt;Published by Muḥammad ibn Tāwīt aṭ-Ṭanjī, Cairo 1951&lt;/ref&gt; ''Presenting Ibn Khaldun and his Journey West and East'') jisme dher  documentuske jindagi ke baare me, ke  word-for-word quote karaa gais hae.

Abū Zayd 'Abdu r-Rahman bin Muhammad bin Khaldūn Al-Hadrami, jiske jaada kar ke &quot;Ibn Khaldūn&quot; ke naam se jaana jaawe hae, jon ek duur ke  ancestor rahaa, ke janam [[Tunis]] me AD&amp;nbsp;1332 (732 [[Anno hegirae|AH]]) ek upper-class [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] palwaar jon Arab descent ke rahaa, me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref name=Barakat1993&gt;{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/arabworldsociety00bara/page/48 48]|title=The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State|url=https://archive.org/details/arabworldsociety00bara|first=Halim|last=Barakat|publisher=University of California Press|year=1993|isbn=9780520914421|quote=The renowned Arab sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun first interpreted Arab history in terms of badu versus hadar conflicts and struggles for power.}}&lt;/ref&gt; TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi ii note kare hae ki uske dher  nisbahs se describe karaa gais hae , jisme hae al-Ḥaḍramī (reflecting claimed origins in Ḥaḍramawt), zur al-Tūnisī aur al-Maghribī bhi, kaaheki uu North Africa me paida bhais rahaa .&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=İBN HALDÛN |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ibn-haldun |access-date=2026-02-22 |website=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |language=tr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii aur note kare hae ki  749/1348 ke plaque uske  youth ke khaas saal rahaa, jon time uu aa aapn dher nagiich ke palwaar aur teacher log ke khoe diis rahaa .&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Uske palwaar ke ancestor ek [[Hadhrami people|Hadhrami]] jon [[Wa'il ibn Hujr]] ke palwaar rahaa, se related rahaa ,jon [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] ke saathi rahaa. Uske palwaar, jon dher    high offices me hold kare rahin  [[al-Andalus]], [[Tunisia]] se  [[Siege of Seville|fall of Seville]] ke rahin . Jab ki uske kuchh palwaar ke log  Tunisian [[Hafsid dynasty]] me political position pe rahin, uske pitaji aur aaja political life se nikal ke [[Tariqa|mystical order]] ke join kar le rahin. Uske bhaiyaa, [[Yahya ibn Khaldun]], bhi ek [[historian]]  rahaa, jon ek book [[Abdalwadid]] dynasty pe likhis  rahaa aur uske ek virodhi maar diis rahaa kaaheki uu  court ke official [[historiographer]] rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |year= 1841 |title=Lettre à Monsieur Garcin de Tassy |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=blQpAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA484 |journal= [[Journal Asiatique]] |language=fr |location=Paris |publisher= [[Société asiatique]] |volume=3 |page=491 |number=12}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Ibn Khaldun aapan maiyaa, bappa aur kuchh teacher log ke  plague of 749, or 1348 me khoe diis rahaa. Iske baad, Sultan Abū al-Ḥasan  Fez laut ke aae gais, aapan  scholars  ke saathe jiske uu  Tunis laais. Ibn Khaldun pahike maangat rahaa  Fez jaawe, aapan  teachers ke saathe, aaur aapan sikchhaa ke jaari rakkis rahaa , lekin uske barraa bhaiyaa  Muḥammad uske ulta advice diis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=ULUDAĞ |first1=SÜLEYMAN |title=İBN HALDÛN |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ibn-haldun#1 |website=Islam Ansiklopedisi |publisher=TDV}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aapan jiwan kahaani me, Khaldun aapan purwaj ke  Prophet Muhammad talak trace kare hae, ek Arab tribe se jon [[Arabian Peninsula]] ke rahin, khaas kar ke the [[Hadhramaut]], jon [[Iberian Peninsula]]  8th century me aae rahin,  Islamic conquest ke suruu me: &quot;Aue hamlog ke purway hae Hadhramaut se,  Arabs , Arabian Peninsula se,  Wa'il ibn Hujr  ke rasta se, jiske  [[Hujr ibn 'Adi]] bhi bola jaawe hae,  Arabs ke sab se achchhaa jan se, jaana-maana aur aadar ke kaabil.&quot; (p.&amp;nbsp;2429, Al-Waraq's edition).

Ibn Khaldunaapan Arab ancestry ke insist karat rahaa, uu time jab  Berber dynasties  dominate karat rahaa, aur ii kaaran se uske daawa ke biswas karaa jaae sake hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hozien&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last=Hozien | first=Muhammad | title=Notes on Ibn Khaludn's Life | website= Muslim philosophy | url= http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n1}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Enan|first=Mohammad Abdullah|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=OQTNO3CWmpAC&amp;pg=PA7 |title=Ibn Khaldūn: His Life and Works|date=2007|publisher=The Other Press|isbn= 978-983-9541-53-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Sikchhaa ===
Uske palwaar ke high rank ke kaaran Ibn Khaldun  [[Maghreb]] ke sab se achchhaa teaher ke niche parrhis rahaa. He received a Uske ek classical [[Madrasah|Islamic education]] mila rahaa, jisme uu [[Quran]] ke parrhis rahaa, aur iske [[Hafiz (Quran)|by heart]] jaanat rahaa, [[Arabic language|Arabic linguistics]] sikhis rahaa; jisse uu Qur'an, [[hadith]], [[sharia]] (law) aur [[fiqh]] (jurisprudence) ke samjhe sakat rahaa. Uske certification ([[ijazah]]) ii sab subject me milaa rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Muhammad Hozien |title=Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Work |url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/klf.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130913010235/http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/klf.htm |archive-date=13 September 2013 |access-date=19 September 2008 |publisher=Islamic Philosophy Online}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
Uu Quran ke  ʿAbd Allāh ibn Saʿd ibn Nazzāl ke khaatir recite karis rahaa, aur iske uu akele aur duusra jan ke saathe bhi karis rahaa. Uu aapan abba se Arbii sikhis rahaa , jiske naam Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Sāʾirī rahaa, aur duusra teacher se bhi . &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=al‑Ḥanbalī |first1=Ibn al‑ʿImād |title=Shadharāt al-dhahab fī akhbār man dhahab |date=1931–1932 |publisher=Maktabat al-Qudsī |location=Cairo |pages=71-72 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2333.1/fn2z38zr}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Mathematician aur philosopher [[Al-Abili]] of [[Tlemcen]] uske  [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|logic]], aur [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]] parrhais rahaa. Uu  [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]], [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi|Razi]] aur [[Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi|Tusi]] ke kaam ke parrhis rahaa. 17 saal ke umar me, Ibn Khaldūn ke maiyaa aur bappa  [[Black Death]], ek intercontinental [[epidemic]] of the [[bubonic plague|plague]] jon Tunis ke 1348–1349 me hit karis rahaa, me mar gay rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Saudi Aramco World: Ibn Khaldun and the Rise and Fall of Empires |url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200605/ibn.khaldun.and.the.rise.and.fall.of.empires.htm |access-date=6 December 2017 |website=archive.aramcoworld.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Al-Sakhāwī batae hae ki uu  Qur’an ke by heart jaanat rahaa aur qirāʾāt (including the seven readings) parrhis rahaa,  Arabic aur Mālikī jurisprudence ke saathe, Tunis me, uske baad ke   travels aur state service se pahile.(entry no. 387)shif

Palwaar ke tradition ke follow kar ke, uu political career liis rahaa.  North Africa ke kharaam political situation ke kaaran, iske khaatir uske  high degree of skill rahe ke rahaa aur uu nawaa alliance banaawat rhaa aur puraana ke chhorrat rahaa uu time ke  short-lived regimes ke kaaran.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ibn Khaldun – His Life and Work |url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/klf.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130913010235/http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/klf.htm |archive-date=13 September 2013 |access-date=6 December 2017 |website=www.muslimphilosophy.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ibn Khaldūn ke autobiography ek adventure ke khissa hae, jisme uu jahel me rahaa, sab se uppar ke position me rahaa aur  exile me bhi rahaa.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1332|1406|Khaldun}}

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    <title>Immanuel Kant</title>
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      <text bytes="11698" sha1="mnoayeycwlx5n1xo4kgk7yjfsp97m97" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Philosopher
|region  = Western Philosophy
|era     = 18th-century philosophy
|color   = #B0C4DE
|image   = Immanuel Kant portrait c1790.jpg
|caption = Immanuel Kant
|name    = Immanuel Kant
|birth   = 22 April 1724&lt;br /&gt; Königsberg, Kingdom of Prussia
|death   = {{death date and age|df=yes|1804|02|12|1724|04|22}}&lt;br /&gt; Königsberg, Kingdom of Prussia
|school_tradition = Kantianism, enlightenment philosophy
|main_interests = Epistemology, Metaphysics, Ethics
|signature = Immanuel Kant signature.svg
}}
'''Immanuel Kant''' ([[22 April]] [[1724]] – [[12 February]] [[1804]]) ek [[Germany|German]] [[philosophy|philosopher]] rahaa. Uske janam Königsberg Prussia me bhaes rahaa, aur uu wahi jagah pe maris bhi rahaa. Kant, university me philosophy parrhis aur baad me philosophy ke professor bhi banaa.

==Bachpan ke din==
Immanuel Kant ke janam 22 April 1724 ke ek [[Prussia]]n German palwaar jon [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] dharam ke [[Königsberg]], [[East Prussia]] (abhi ke [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], Russia) me bhais rahaa. Uske maiyaa, Anna Regina Reuter, ke janam Königsberg me bhais rahaa aur uske pitaji  [[Nuremberg]] ke rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |title=Cosmopolis |website=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de |date=23 April 2001 |access-date=24 July 2009 |archive-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske maiyaa ke surname kabhi-kabhi galti se  Porter bola jaawe hae. Kant ke pitaji , Johann Georg Kant, ek German harness-maker [[Klaipėda|Memel]] se rahaa,{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} jon uu time Prussia ke sab se most northeastern city (now Klaipėda, Lithuania) rahaa. Kant biswas karat rahaa ki uske palwaar  Scottish descent ke rahaa, lekin iske  genealogical research se verify nai sakaa gais hae.&lt;ref&gt;R. K. Murray, &quot;The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name&quot;, ''Kantian Review'' '''13'''(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193.&lt;/ref&gt;

Kant ke Emanuel baptize karaa gais rahaa, aur uu aapan naam ke spellining ke badal ke  Immanuel kar diis rahaa,  [[Hebrew bhasa|Hebrew]] sikhe ke baad.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=26}} Uu nau larrkan me se chauthaa rahaa (jisme se chhe barraa bhay rahin ).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Haupt |first=Viktor |title=Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant |url=https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2015 |website=freunde-kants.com |page=7 |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kant ke gharaana me [[Pietist]] values of religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the [[Bible]] ke stress karaa jaawat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Pasternack |first1=Lawrence |title=Kant's Philosophy of Religion |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Spring 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=25 February 2021 |last2=Fugate |first2=Courtney}}&lt;/ref&gt; Immanuel Kant ke suruu ke parrhai  strict, punitive, aur highly disciplinary rahaa, jisme [[Latin]] aur [[religious instruction]] ke emphasise karaa jaawat rahaa,  mathematics aur science ke jagha.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=47}}

Aapan baad ke zindagi me, Kant ek strictly ordered life rahat rahaa. Ii bataawa jaawe hae ki parrosi aapan gharri ke uske har din ke walk se set karat rahin. {{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=14}} Kant considered marriage twice, first to a widow and then to a [[Westphalia]]n girl, but on both occasions waited too long.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=177}} Jab ki uu kabhi saadi nai karis rahaa, uske achchhaa  social life rahaa; uu ek achchhaa  teacher rahaa aur achchhaa lekhak bhi rahaa, aapan  khaas philosophy waala kaam ke suruu kare se pahile.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=169}}

===Jawaan student===
Kant suruu me dekhais rahaa ke uu parrhe me achchhaa hae. Uu pahile  [[Collegium Fridericianum]] (then directed by [[Franz Albert Schultz]]) me parrhis rahaa, jahaan se uu 1740 ke summer me graduate bhais rahaa.  1740 me, 16 saal ke umar me, uu [[University of Königsberg]] me bharti bhais rahaa, jahaan pe uu aapan baaki professional jindagi talak rahii.&lt;ref&gt;''The American International Encyclopedia'' (New York: J.J. Little &amp; Ives, 1954), Vol. IX.&lt;/ref&gt; U [[Gottfried Leibniz]] aur [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]] ke philosophy ke [[Martin Knutzen]] (Associate Professor of Logic and Metaphysics from 1734 until he died in 1751) ke niche parrhis rahaa, ek [[rationalism|rationalist]] jon baad me  British philosophy aur science ke jaankari rakkhis rahaa aur Kant ke nawaa mathematical physics of [[Isaac Newton]] se introduce karis rahaa. Knutzen Kant ke theory of [[pre-established harmony]] parrhe se dissuade karis, jiske uu regard karat rahaa as &quot;the pillow for the lazy mind&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=What the Tortoise Taught Us: The Story of Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port|url-access=limited|last=Porter|first=Burton|publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|page=[https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145 133]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu Kant ke [[idealism]] se bhi dissuade karis rahaa, jisme biswas karaa jaawe hae ki reality khaali mental chij hae, jiske jaada philosophers  [[18th century]] me regarded negatively. Theory of [[transcendental idealism]] jiske Kant baad me  ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' me saamil karis rahaa,  ke develop karaa gais rahaa partially in opposition to traditional idealism. Kant ke contact students, colleagues, friends aur diners jon local [[Masonic lodge]] me aawat rahin, se rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|title=Die Freimaurer im Alten Preußen 1738–1806|language=de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2020|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske khaas [[publisher]], [[Johann Friedrich Hartknoch]], bhi ek Freemason rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;buch-VlOi7fetEkAC-1044&quot;&gt;Erich Donnert, ''Europa in der frühen Neuzeit: Unbekannte Quellen. Aufsätze zu Entwicklung, Vorstufen, Grenzen und Fortwirken der Frühneuzeit in und um Europa. Inhaltsverzeichnisse der Bände 1-6. Personenregister der Bände 1-7.'' Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar 1997, ISBN 978-3-412-10702-4, p.&amp;nbsp;1044. [https://books.google.de/books?id=VlOi7fetEkAC&amp;pg=PA1044#v=onepage Google Books]&lt;/ref&gt;

Uske pitaji ke stroke aur baad me, 1746 me maut, uske parrhai ke interrupt karis rahaa.   Kant, Königsberg ke August 1748 ke kuchh din baad chhorris rahaa;{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=94}} lekin uu huan  August 1754 me fir lauti.{{sfn|Kuehn|2001|p=98}} Uu ek private tutor banaa rahaa, uu  towns me jon  Königsberg ke aas-paas rahaa, lekin aapan scholarly research karte rahaa. 1749 me uu, aapan pahila  philosophical kaam, ''[[Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces]]'' (written in 1745–1747) ke publish karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;[[Eric Watkins (philosopher)|Eric Watkins]] (ed.), ''Immanuel Kant: Natural Science'', Cambridge University Press, 2012: [http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf &quot;Thoughts on the true estimation...&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf |date=7 March 2016 }}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Königsberg ke Russian occupation,  [[Seven Years' War]] (1758–1762) me, Kant ke  financial circumstances ke achchhaa kar diis, kaaheki uske dher achchhaa talab waala kaam mila rahaa  Russian military officers aur civil administrators jon city me rahin, ke tutor kare ke. December 1758 me, Johann David Kypke ke maut ke baad, Kant, Empress [[Elizabeth of Russia|Elizabeth]] ke petition karis ki uske khaali   chair of logic and metaphysics, University of Königsberg me appoint karaa jaae, lekin ii position ke ek duusra  candidate ke de dewa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kuehn |first=Manfred |title=Kant: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/kantbiography0000kueh_y1q6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kantbiography0000kueh_y1q6/page/118 118]–122}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Suruu ke kaam ==
Kant ke jaada kar ke jaana jaawe hae, uske kaam philosophy of ethics aur metaphysics me, lekin uu khaas yogdaan aur  disciplines me bhi diis rahaa. 1754 me, jab uu ek  prize question [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Berlin Academy]]  ke baare me sochat rahaa, [[dunia]] ke rotation ke ek samasya ke baare me, uu argue karis rahaa ki [[Chandarma]] ke gravity dunia ke spin ke dhire kar di . Uu argue karis ki gravity aakhri me Chandarma ke [[tidal locking]] ke kaaran [[orbital resonance|coincide]] kari dunia ke rotation se. Ii prize ke,  1756 me, P. Frisi ke dewa gais rahaa, jon galti se bahas karis rahaa ki  slowing down of the spin, ke virodh me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Schönfeld |first=Martin |title=The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0195132182 |year=2000 }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}&lt;ref name=&quot;nebulous&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Brush|first=Stephen G.|title=A History of Modern Planetary Physics: Nebulous Earth|year=2014|isbn=978-0521441711|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7 7]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Agle saal uu aapan reasoning ke expand karis rahaa  [[formation and evolution of the Solar System]] talak, aapan ''[[Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens]]'' me.&lt;ref name=&quot;nebulous&quot;/&gt; 1755 me, Kant ke licence milaa rahaa  University of Königsberg me lecture kare ke aur dher topics pe, jisme  mathematics, physics, logic, aur metaphysics rahaa, me lecture suruu karis rahaa. Aapan 1756 essay theory of winds (&quot;New Remarks toward an Elucidation of the Theory of Winds&quot;) pe, Kant laid out a qualitative insight into what is now called [[Coriolis force]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |editor-last=Watkins |editor-first=Eric |title=Kant: Natural Science |chapter=New notes to explain the theory of the winds, in which, at the same time, he invites attendance at his lectures (1756) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |pages=374–385 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139014380.012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Duusra websites ==
{{Commons|Immanuel Kant}}
* [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1/KSPglos.html Stephen Plaquist's Glossary of Kantian Terminology]
* [http://www.rsrevision.com/Alevel/ethics/kant/index.htm Kant's Ethical Theory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305184221/http://www.rsrevision.com/Alevel/ethics/kant/index.htm |date=2010-03-05 }} Kantian ethics explained, applied and evaluated
* {{gutenberg author|id=Kant, |name=Immanuel Kant}}
* [http://www.korpora.org/Kant/ All works of Kant (German)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101095455/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/ |date=2014-11-01 }}
* [http://www.manchester.edu/kant Kant in the Classroom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090903132310/http://www.manchester.edu/kant |date=2009-09-03 }} (background information for Kant's lectures)
* [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT216.HTM Immanuel Kant's works]: text, concordances and frequency list

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1724|1804|Kant, Immanuel}}

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      <text bytes="2269" sha1="3mzwy1gziymnk7jfuui4ihauscyg0lo" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Philosopher
| region          = Western Philosophers
| era             = 17th-century philosophy&lt;br /&gt;(Modern Philosophy)
| color           = #B0C4DE
| image_name      =John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.jpg
| image_caption   = 
| name             = John Locke
| signature        = Locke sig.png
| birth      =    29 August 1632 &lt;br /&gt;Wrington, Somerset, England
| death       =   28 October 1704 &lt;br /&gt;Essex, England
| school_tradition = British Empiricism, Social Contract, Natural Law
| main_interests   = Metaphysics, Epistemology, Political Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind, Education
| influences       = [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ibn Tufail]], [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]], [[Hugo Grotius|Grotius]], [[Samuel Rutherford]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Richard Hooker|Hooker]], [[Robert Filmer]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Two Treatises on Government|url=https://archive.org/details/twotreatisesofgo00john|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|author=Peter Laslett|page=[https://archive.org/details/twotreatisesofgo00john/page/68 68]|chapter=Introduction: Locke and Hobbes|year=1988|isbn=9780521357302}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[Polish Brethren]]
| influenced       = [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[Thomas Paine|Paine]], [[Adam Smith|Smith]] and many subsequent political philosophers, including the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|American Founding Fathers]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer]]
| notable_ideas    = Tabula rasa, &quot;government with the consent of the governed&quot;; state of nature; rights of life, liberty and property 
}}
[[File:Locke-John-LOC.jpg|thumbnail|180px|A portrait of John Locke]]

'''John Locke''' ([[29 August]] [[1632]] – [[28 October]] [[1704]]) ek [[England|English]] [[philosopher]] rahaa. Uu ii maanat rahaa ki admii log ke sochh ke sachchaai ke khoje ke chaahi  aur sarkar ke baat ke sab time biswas nai kare ke chaahi.

John Locke ke janam  Wrington, Somerset, [[England]] me bhaes rahaa. Uske  bachelor's degree  1656 aur master's degree 1658 me mila. Uske maut 28 October 1704  ke Essex [[England]] me bhaes rahaa.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{BD|1632|1704|Locke, John}}
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    <title>Plato</title>
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|region          = Western Philosophy 
|era             = Ancient philosophy
|color           = #B0C4DE 
|image_name      = Plato Silanion Musei Capitolini MC1377.jpg
|image_caption   = Plato: copy of portrait bust by Silanion
|naam           = Plato(Πλάτων)
|janam din     = c. 428–427 BC&lt;ref&gt;http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Plato.html St. Andrews University&lt;/ref&gt;
|janam    = [[Athens]]
|maran     = c. 348–347 BC (age approx 84)&lt;br /&gt;Athens
|school_tradition= Platonism
|main_interests  = [[Rhetoric]], [[Art]], [[Literature]], [[Epistemology]], [[Justice]], [[Virtue]], [[Politics]], [[Education]], [[Family]], [[Militarism]]
|influences      = [[Socrates]], [[Homer]], [[Hesiod]], [[Aristophanes]], [[Aesop]], [[Protagoras]], [[Parmenides]], [[Pythagoras]], [[Heraclitus]], [[Orphism (religion)|Orphism]]  
|influenced      = [[Western Philosophy|Much of subsequent western philosophy]], [[Aristotle]], [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], [[Neoplatonism]], [[Cicero]], [[Plutarch]], [[Stoicism]], [[Anselm of Canterbury|Anselm]], [[Machiavelli]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[John Stuart Mill|Mill]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Hannah Arendt|Arendt]], [[Hans-Georg Gadamer|Gadamer]], [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]] and countless other [[philosopher]]s and [[theologian]]s
|notable_ideas   = [[Platonic realism]]
}}
'''Plato''' ek khaas classical [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] rahaa. Uu 427 BC se 348 talak ii dunia me rahaa. Uu ka janam [[Athens]] me bhawa raha [[Classical Period]] ke dauran. Plato uuka pen name raha jaunke uke uke [[wrestling]] coach dehe rahe jaunki uke sharirik shakti ke darshawat raha kahe ki uke kandhe bahut chaude rahein. Uu [[Socrates]] ke student aur [[Aristotle]] ke teacher rahaa.
Plato, uuke teacher [[Socrates]] aur uuka Student [[Aristotle]] ke sath milke [[History of Philosophy]] ke sabse kendriya kirdar hae. Plato ke [[Neoplatonism]] se [[Islamic]] aur [[Christian]] philosophy bhi bahut prabhavit hae.

== References ==
{{cite book |title=From Socrates to Sartre: the Philosophic Quest |url=https://archive.org/details/fromsocratestosa0000lavi |last= Lavine|first= T.Z.|year= August 1989|publisher=Bantam Books |location= |isbn=0-553-25161-9}}
{{BD|-427BC|-348BC|Plato}}

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[[vibhag:Philosophers]]

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| name = Alexander the Great
| title = [[Basileus]] of [[Macedon]]
| image = 
| caption = &lt;small&gt;Alexander fighting the Persian king [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]]. From [[Alexander Mosaic]], [[Naples National Archaeological Museum]]&lt;/small&gt;
| reign = 336–323 BC
| othertitles = {{plainlist |
* [[King of Macedon]]
* [[Hegemony|Hegemon]] of the [[League of Corinth|Hellenic League]]
* [[Shahanshah]] of [[Persia]]
* [[Pharaoh]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[Lord of Asia]]
}}
| full name = Alexander III of Macedon
| native_lang1 = [[Greek language|Greek]]
| native_lang1_name1 ={{plainlist |
* Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος{{cref|iii}} (Mégas Aléxandros, Great Alexander)
* Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας (Aléxandros ho Mégas, Alexander the Great)
}}
| predecessor = [[Philip II of Macedon]]
| successor = {{plainlist | 
* [[Alexander IV of Macedon]]
* [[Philip III of Macedon]]
}}
| suc-type =
| spouse 1 = [[Roxana|Roxana of Bactria]]
| spouse 2 = [[Stateira II|Stateira II of Persia]]
| spouse 3 = [[Parysatis II|Parysatis II of Persia]]
| issue = Alexander IV of Macedon
| royal house =
| dynasty = [[Argead dynasty]]
| royal anthem =
| father = [[Philip II of Macedon]]
| mother = [[Olympias|Olympias of Epirus]]
| birth_date = 20 or 21 July 356 BC
| birth_place = [[Pella]], Macedon
| death_date = 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)&lt;!-- 32 years, 10 months and 20 days (approx) --&gt;
| death_place = [[Babylon]]
| religion = [[Religion in ancient Greece|Greek polytheism]]
}}


[[file:AlexanderTheGreat Bust.jpg|thumb|180px|A [[sculpture]] of Alexander the Great]]

'''Alexander the Great''' ([[Greek bhasa|Greek]] Μέγας Αλέξανδρος; [[Hindustani bhasa|Hindustani]]: सिकंदर/سکندر ''Sikandar'', [[20 July]] nai to [[26 July]] [[356 BC]] - [[10 June]] [[323 BC]]) ek [[Macedonia]]n Raja rahaa. Uske janam Pella me bhais rahaa aur uske pitaji King Philip II rahaa. Uske [[Athens]] me uske skills ke sikawa gais rahaa. Uske sikhae waala famous Athenian [[philosopher]], [[Aristotle]] rahaa, jiske sikchha se uu dunia ke pahila mashuur militart commander banaa. 20 saal ke umar me uu [[Macedonian Empire|Macedonia]] ke raja banaa, jab uske pitaji ke ek bodyguard hatya kar diis. Alexander ke uske military skills khatir jaana jaawe hae. Uske dunia ke barra military commander, jaise ki [[Hannibal]] Barca, [[Julius Caesar]], [[Genghis Khan]], [[Subutai]], [[Napoleon I of France]], se compare karaa jaawe hae. 
[[file:Conquests_alexander.png|thumb|left|A map of Alexander the Great's empire at its biggest point. Click to enlarge.]]
Uske maut talak uu jetna [[Middle East]]ern world gora logan ke pataa rahaa jisme [[Pakistan]], [[Persia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], aur [[Asia Minor]] bhi hae ke uppar raj kare lagaa rahaa. Uske maut [[Babylon]] me 323 BC me bhais rahaa. Uske maut ke kaaran koi nai jaane hae lekin kuchh log ii soche hae ki uske jahar piawaa gais aur duusra loagn soche hae ki uske muder karaa gais nai to uu fever se maraa. 

==Jawaani ke din==
===Purwaj aur bachpan===

[[File:Archaeological Site of Pella by Joy of Museums.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Pella]], Greece, Alexander ke janam sthaan]]
Alexander III ke janam [[Pella]] me, jon [[Kingdom of Macedon]] ke capital rahaa me bhais rahaa,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |title=Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: a historical biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6Wl4AKGQkIC&amp;pg=PA559 |page=xxxiii |year=1970 |series=Hellenistic culture and society |edition=illustrated, revised reprint |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-07165-0 |quote=356 – Alexander born in Pella. The exact date is not known, but probably either 20 or 26 July. |access-date=20 June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; puraana Greek mahina, Hekatombaion ke 6th day me bhais rahaa, jon saait  20 July 356 BC hae (jab ki aslii taarik certain nai hae).&lt;ref&gt;Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander'' 3.5: {{cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html#7 |title=The birth of Alexander the Great |work=Livius|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320180439/https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html|archive-date=20 March 2015|url-status = dead |access-date=16 December 2011 |quote=Alexander was born the sixth of [[Hekatombaion]].}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=David George Hogarth |date=1897 |title=Philip and Alexander of Macedon : two essays in biography |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028251217/page/n321/mode/2up?view=theater |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |pages=286–287 |access-date=9 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu Macedon ke raja, [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]], aur uske 4th aurat, [[Olympias]] ([[Neoptolemus I of Epirus|Neoptolemus I]] , king of [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] ke larrki)  ke larrkaa rahaa .&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|McCarty|2004|p=10}}, {{harvnb|Renault|2001|p=28}}, {{harvnb|Durant|1966|p=538}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jab ki,  Philip ke saat, nai to aath aurat rahaa, Olympias uske khaas aurat rahii kuchh din talak, saait ii kaaran se ki uu Alexander ke janam diis rahaa{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=171}}[[File:Coin olympias mus theski.JPG|left|thumb|155px|Roman medallion depicting [[Olympias]], Alexander's mother]] Alexander ke janam aur bachpan ke dher legend hae.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=188}} Puraana Greek  biographer, [[Plutarch]] ke anusaar, jab Philip aur Olympias ke saadi  consummate hoe waala rahaa, tab  Olympias sapna dekhis ki uske  womb ke ek bijli (thunderbolt) maaris rahaa jiske kaaran aagi duur talak faelaa, bute se pahile.  Saadi ke kuchh din baad, ii bola jaawe hae ki Philip apne ek sapna me dekhis rahaa ki uu aapan aurat ke   womb ke ek ser ke chaapa se engrave karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;PA2&quot; /&gt; Plutarch ii sab sapna ke kuchh interpretation diis rahaa: ki Olympias saadi se pahile pregnant rahii, jiske uske womb ke seal indicate kare hae; nai to Alexander ke pitaji [[Zeus]] rahaa. Puurana commentators ispe divided rahin ki  ambitious Olympias, Alexander ke divine parentage ke khissa banais rahaa, aus ii bhi bolis rahaa ki uu Alexander ke batais rahaa, nai to uu ii sab suggestion ke or that uu ii suggestion ke  dismiss kar diis rahaa ise adharmik bol ke.&lt;ref name=&quot;PA2&quot; /&gt;

Jon roj Alexander paida bhais rahaa, Philip, city of [[Potidea]]  peninsula of [[Chalcidice]] me, ke [[siege]] ke taeyaari karat rahaa.  Wahii din, Philip ke sandes milaa rahaa ki uske  general [[Parmenion]], [[Illyria]]n aur [[Paeonian]] armies ke ek saathe harae diis rahaa aur uske ghorraa [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] me jiit gais rahaa. Ii bhi bataawa jaawe hae ki ii roj  [[Ephesus]] me [[Temple of Artemis]], [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World|Seven Wonders of the World]] me se ek, jar ke barbaad hoe gais rahaa. Iske kaaran [[Hegesias of Magnesia]] bolis ki ii jar gais rahaa kaaheki [[Artemis]] huan nai rahaa, lekin Alexander ke janam me rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Renault|2001|p=28}}, {{harvnb|Bose|2003|p=21}}&lt;/ref&gt; Aisan  legend saait ii kaaran se suruu bhay rahaa hoi jab  Alexander raja rahaa, aur saait wahii iske  suruu kare hoi, ii dekhae ke khaatir ki uu  superhuman hae aur janam se mashuur hoae ke hae.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=188}}

Uske bachpan ke din me, Alexander ke ek daai (nurse), [[Lanike]],  Alexander ke future general [[Cleitus the Black]] ke bahini,  barraa karis rahaa. Baad me, uske bachpan me strict [[Leonidas of Epirus|Leonidas]], uske maiyaa ke palwaar, aur [[Lysimachus of Acarnania]], Alexander ke tutor karis rahaa.{{sfn|Renault|2001|pp=33–34}} Alexander ke noble Macedonian larrkaa logan ke rakam paala gais rahaa, parrhe ke sikhnaa, [[lyre]] ke play karnaa, ride, fight, aur sikaar khelnaa.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=186}} Jab Alexander das saal ke rahaa, [[Thessaly]] ke ek trader  Philip ke khaatir ek ghorraa kharidis rahaa, jiske uu thirteen [[Attic talent|talents]] me beje maangat rahaa. Uu ghorraa pe baithaa nai jaae sakat rahaa. Alexander, ii samjhis ki ghorraa aapan parrchhaai se daraawat rahaa , aur uu ghorra ke paaltu kar diis.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=188}} Plutarch batais rahaa ki Philip, isse khusi hoe ke aapan larrka ke chumma liis aur ii bolis ki : &quot;Hamaar betaa, tum ke ek rakj ke paawe ke chaahi jon tumhaar  ambition ke baraabar hae. Macedon tumaar khaatir bahut chhotaa hae&quot;, aur ghorraa ke Alexander ke khaatir kharis liis.&lt;ref name=&quot;PA6&quot; /&gt; Alexander iske [[Bucephalas]] naam diis, jiske matlab &quot;ox-head&quot; hae. Bucephalas, Alexander ke [[India]] talak lae gais. Jab ii jaanwar mar gais (30 saal ke umar me, burrhaapa ke kaara,  Plutarch ke anusaar), Alexander ek city ke uske naam diis, [[Alexandria Bucephalous|Bucephala]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Durant|1966|p=538}}, {{harvnb|Lane Fox|1980|p=64}}, {{harvnb|Renault|2001|p=39}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Parrhai===
Jab Alexander 13 saal ke rahaa, tab Philip ek [[tutor]] khoje lagaa, aur  academics jaise [[Isocrates]] aur [[Speusippus]] ke baare me sochis, aur Speusippus aapan [[Platonic Academy|Academy]]  se resign kar ke ii post ke le ke promise karis. Ant me, Philip, [[Aristotle]] ke chunis aur Temple of the Nymphs, [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]] me, ke  classroom banais. Alexander ke parrhae ke badle me, Philip  Aristotle ke hometown, [[Stageira]] ke fir se banae ke promise karis, jiske Philip jarae diis rahaa, aur iske repopulate kare ke,  ex-citizens jin slaves rahin ke khariid ke riha kar ke, aur jon exile me rahin ke maaf kar ke.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lane Fox|1980|pp=65–66}}, {{harvnb|Renault|2001|p=44}}, {{harvnb|McCarty|2004|p=15}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mieza, Alexander aur Macedonian nobles ke larrkan, jaise [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], [[Hephaestion]], aur [[Cassander]] ke khaatir ek boarding school ke rakam rahaa. Isme se dher  students aage chal ke uske dost aur  general banaa rahin, aur ii logan ke jaaada kar ke &quot;Companions&quot; bola jaawe hae. Aristotle, Alexander aur uske companions ke medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, aur art ke baare me parrhais rahaa. Aristotle ke parrhai ke niche, Alexander  [[Homer]] ke kaam ke pasand kare lagaa, khaas kar ke  the ''[[Iliad]]''; Aristotle uske ek annotated copy diis, jiskeAlexander aapan  campaigns me lae gais.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lane Fox|1980|pp=65–66}}, {{harvnb|Renault|2001|pp=45–47}}, {{harvnb|McCarty|2004|p=16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Alexander was able to quote [[Euripides]] from memory.&lt;ref name=&quot;RLF&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lane Fox |first1=Robin |title=Alexander the Great |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000lane_s0y4 | date=1986 |publisher=Penguin Group |isbn=978-0-14-008878-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000lane_s0y4/page/48 48]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jab uu teenager rahaa tab, Alexander, Persian exiles, jiske Philip II kuchh saal talak protection diis rahaa kaaheki uulog [[Artaxerxes III]] ke birod karat rahin,  me milaa.{{sfn|Cawthorne|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oxyz0v9T74sC&amp;pg=PA42 42–43]}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Howe |first1=Timothy |last2=Brice |first2=Lee L. |title=Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean |date=2015 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-28473-9 |page=170 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=248DCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA170|access-date=23 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;EDC&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Elizabeth Donnelly |title=Women and Monarchy in Macedonia |date=2000 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-3212-9 |page=101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbI2hZBy_EkC&amp;pg=PA101|access-date=23 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Isme [[Artabazos II]] aur uske larrki [[Barsine]] bhi rahis, jon Alexander ke aage chal ke ek aurat hoe sakat rahii, jon Macedonian court me 352 se 342 BC me rahat rahin, aur [[Amminapes]] bhi, jon aage chal ke Alexander ke [[satrap]] rahaa, aur ek Persian nobleman jiske naam [[Sisines]] rahaa.{{sfn|Cawthorne|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oxyz0v9T74sC&amp;pg=PA42 42–43]}}&lt;ref name=&quot;JM&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Morgan |first1=Janett |title=Greek Perspectives on the Achaemenid Empire: Persia Through the Looking Glass |date=2016 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-4724-8 |pages=271–272 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49JVDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA271|access-date=23 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Briant |first1=Pierre |title=Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction |date=2012 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15445-9 |page=114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAW6kmL30RUC&amp;pg=PA114|access-date=23 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;EJ&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Jensen |first1=Erik |title=Barbarians in the Greek and Roman World |date=2018 |publisher=Hackett Publishing |isbn=978-1-62466-714-5 |page=92 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QCRtDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA92|access-date=23 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Isse Macedonian court ke  Persian issues keuppar jaankari milaa, aur hoe sake hae ki iske asar  management of the Macedonian state me rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;JM&quot;/&gt;

[[Suda]] likhe hae ki [[Anaximenes of Lampsacus]]  Alexander ke ek teacher rahaa, aur Anaximenes, Alexander  ke saathe uske campaigns me gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/alpha/1989|title=SOL Search|website=cs.uky.edu|access-date=24 August 2019|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809025936/https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/alpha/1989|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;


{{BD|-356BC|-323BC|Alexander}}

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

==References==

{{Reflist}}
{{bio-stub}}

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    <title>Charles de Gaulle</title>
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      <text bytes="11465" sha1="glf01ies729gjhsu4q31i4qoij5awv0" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name = Charles de Gaulle
| nationality   = [[France|French]]
| image         = De Gaulle-OWI.jpg
| order         = 18th [[President of the French Republic]]
| term_start    = [[8 January]], [[1959]]
| term_end      = [[28 April]], [[1969]]
| vicepresident = 
| predecessor   = [[René Coty]]
| successor     = [[Georges Pompidou]]
| birth_date    = [[22 November]], [[1890]]
| birth_place   = [[Lille, France]]
| death_date    = [[9 November]], [[1970]]; age 79
| death_place   = [[Colombey-les-deux-Églises]]
| party         = [[Union des Démocrates pour la République|UDR]]
| spouse        = [[Yvonne de Gaulle]]
| religion      = 
| order2        = 149th [[Prime Minister of France]]
| term_start2   = [[1 June]], [[1958]]
| term_end2     = [[8 January]], [[1959]]
| president     = 
| predecessor2  = [[Pierre Pflimlin]]
| successor2    = [[Michel Debré]]
|}}

'''General Charles-André-Joseph-Marie de Gaulle''' ([[22 November]] [[1890]] - [[9 November]] [[1970]]) ek [[France|French]] military and political leader rahaa. Uu [[1959]] se  [[1969]] talak [[France]] ke President rahaa. 


== Larrakpan ==
=== Bachpan ke din aur origins ===
[[File:Charles de Gaulle, 1890-1970 (during 1900s).jpg|thumb|Charles de Gaulle, [[1900s]] me|left]]
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ke janam 22 November 1890 me Lille me bhais rahaa. Uu paanch larrkan me se tiisra rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://archives.lille.fr/Document-du-moment/p282/1890-l-acte-de-naissance-de-Charles-de-Gaulle |title=1890: l'acte de naissance de Charles de Gaulle |trans-title=1890: Charles de Gaulle's birth certificate |website=Lille Municipal Archives |date=4 February 2016 |access-date=26 January 2021 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126001847/https://archives.lille.fr/Document-du-moment/p282/1890-l-acte-de-naissance-de-Charles-de-Gaulle |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu ek devout [[Catholic]] conservative  monarchist palwaar me barraa bhais rahaa. Uske pitaji, Henri de Gaulle, ek professor of history and literature ek [[Jesuit]] college me rahaa aur baad me aapan school ke suruu karis rahaa. &lt;ref name=&quot;Fenby-2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Fenby|first1=Jonathan|title=The General: Charles De Gaulle and the France He Saved|url=https://archive.org/details/generalcharlesde0000fenb_s5l3|date=2010|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|location=New York|isbn=978-1-84737-392-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{RP|42–47}}

Henri de Gaulle  parliamentary gentry ke ek lambaa line se aais rahaa jon  [[Normandy]] aur [[Burgundy]] ke rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Crawley-1969&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Crawley|first1=Aidan|title=De Gaulle: A Biography|date=1969|publisher=Bobbs-Merrill Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBogAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-00-211161-4|access-date=24 August 2020|archive-date=21 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921103316/https://books.google.com/books?id=WBogAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{RP|13-16}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ledwidge p. 6&quot;&gt;Ledwidge p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Ii socha jaawe hae ki uske naam [[Dutch language|Dutch]] origin ke hae, aur saait ''van der Walle'', ''de Walle'' (&quot;from the rampart, defensive wall&quot;) nai to ''de Waal'' (&quot;the wall&quot;) se aais hae.&lt;ref&gt;Frans Debrabandere: Woordenboek van de familienamen in België en Noord-Frankrijk, L.J. Veen, 2003.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fenby-2010&quot; /&gt;{{RP|42}} De Gaulle ke maiyaa, Jeanne (janam ke naam Maillot), ek entrepreneurs ke dhani palwaar se aae rahii aur Lille ke rahii. Uske French, Irish, Scottish, aur German ancestry rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Crawley-1969&quot; /&gt;{{RP|13–16}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ledwidge p. 6&quot; /&gt;

De Gaulle ke pitaji aapan larrkan me historical aur philosophical bahas ke aapan larrkan me encourage karis rahaa, aur uske protsaan ke kaaran, de Gaulle French itihaas ke chhotaa umar me sikhis rahaa. Uske maiyaa ke kahaani ki uu kaise roe rahii jab  French  Germans se [[Battle of Sedan (1870)|Sedan in 1870]] me surrender kar de rahis, ke kaaran uu military strategy me keen intereest dekhais rahaa. Uu aapn uncle jiske naam bhi Charles de Gaulle rahaa  jon ek itihasik aur kattar [[Celticist]] rahaa jon   union of the Welsh, Scots, Irish, anur [[Bretons]] ke unite kare maangat rahaa, se influenced rahaa,. Uske aaja Julien-Philippe bhi ek historian rahaa , aur uske aaji, Joséphine-Marie kavita likhat rahii jon uske Christian faith dekhat rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schoenbrun&quot;&gt;David Schoenbrun, ''The Three Lives of Charles de Gaulle'' (1966)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fenby-2010&quot; /&gt;{{RP|42–47}}

=== Sikchhaa aue sikchhak ke influence ===
De Gaulle aapan early teens me likhe lagaa rahaa, khaas kal ke kavita; uske palwaar ek composition ke khaatir paisa diis rahaa, ek one-act verse play, jiske privately publish karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pedley&quot; /&gt; Uu dher parrhat rahaa, aur philosophical tomes ke favour karat rahaa, lekhak jaise   [[Bergson]], [[Péguy]], aur [[Barrès]] se.  German philosophers [[Nietzsche]], [[Kant]], aur [[Goethe]] ke saathe, uu ancient Greeks (khaas kar ke [[Plato]]) ke parrhis rahaa aur [[Chateaubriand]] ke prose.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pedley&quot;&gt;Alan Pedley (1996) ''As Mighty as the Sword: A Study of the Writings of Charles de Gaulle''. pp. 170–72. Intellect Books; {{ISBN|978-0950259536}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

De Gaulle ke parrhai Paris me Catholic [[Collège Stanislas de Paris|Collège Stanislas]] bhais rahaa aur uu kuchh din talak  Belgium me bhi parrhis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fenby-2010&quot; /&gt;{{RP|51–53}} 15 saal ke umar me , uu ek essay likhis rahaa jisme uu imagune karat rahaa ki uu  French Army ke victory me Germany ke uppar 1930 me lead karat rahaa; uu baad me likhis rahaa ki uu aapan jawaani me  looked forward with somewhat naive anticipation to the inevitable aage ke larrai Germany se, 1870 ke French haar ke badla le ke khaatir.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, p13&quot;&gt;Lacouture 1991, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;

Gaulle ke jawani ke time France ek  vibhajit samaj rahaa, uu ii time dher chij bhais rahaa jon Gaulle palwaar ke khaatir achchhaa nai rahaa:  socialism ke faelna aur [[syndicalism]], (1905 French ke French kanin jon  Churches aur State ke alag karis rahaa, aur military service ke kanti kar ke dui saal kar dewa gais rahaa. Uu lo ''[[Entente Cordiale]]'' Britain se, nai kush rahin,  pahila Moroccan Crisis, aur[[Dreyfus Affair]]. Henri de Gaulle  Dreyfus ke samarthak ban gais rahaa, lekin aapan innocence se kamti concerned rahaa ''per se'' army ke mukable me jon des pe disgrace laais rahaa. Ii time evangelical Catholicism jaada bhais rahaa, the dedication of the [[Sacré-Cœur, Paris]], aur [[Joan of Arc]] ke cult bhi barrha rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fenby-2010&quot; /&gt;{{RP|50–51}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, p13&quot; /&gt;

De Gaulle ek achchhaa student rahaa aapan  mid-teens talak, lekin July 1906 se uu  military academy ek place ke khaatir concentrate karat rahaa, [[École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr|Saint-Cyr]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, pp9-10&quot;&gt;Lacouture 1991, pp. 9–10&lt;/ref&gt; [[Jean Lacouture]] ii suggest karis hae ki Gaulle  army join karis rahaa , jab uu ek career lekhak nai to itihasik ke suited rahaa, Uu army ke join karis rahaa aapan pitaji ke khusi kare ke khaatir, kaaheki army french society me ek unifying force rahaa. &lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, pp14-15&quot;&gt;Lacouture 1991, pp. 14–15&lt;/ref&gt; Uu baad me likhis rahaaki &quot;when I entered the Army, it was one of the greatest things in the world&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;Fenby-2010&quot; /&gt;{{RP|51}} ek claim jiske Lacouture point out karis rahaa ki  caution se treat kare ke chaahi: army ke reputation kharaab rahaa. Iske jaada kar ke strike-breaking ke khaatir kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa aur 700 se kamti log Saint-Cyr me 1908 me apply kare rahin, jon 2,000 raha at the turn of the century.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, pp14-15&quot; /&gt;

== Suruu ke kaam ==
=== Officer cadet aur lieutenant ===
[[File:Charles de Gaulle Saint-Cyrien.jpg|thumb|De Gaulle ek cadet ke ruup me Saint-Cyr me 1910 me]]
De Gaulle ke 1909 me Saint-Cyr me jagha milaa. Uske class rankingaverage rahaa (119th out of 221).&lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, pp9-10&quot; /&gt;  21 March 1905 ke ek kaanun ke anusaar, jon log  army officer bane maangat rahin ke ranks me ek saal talak serve kare ke parra rahaa jisme uu log a private nai to NCO rahe sakat rahin, academy me parrhe se pahile. Ii kaaran se,  October 1909 me, de Gaulle enlist bhais rahaa (chaar saal ke khaatirs, jaise required rahaa, aur dui saal nai jon ki khaali conscripts logan khaatir rahaa {{ill|33rd Infantry Regiment (France)|fr|33e régiment d'infanterie|lt=33rd Infantry Regiment}}, [[French Army]] ke,jon Arras me based rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, p16-17&quot;&gt;Lacouture 1991, pp. 16–17&lt;/ref&gt; Ii ek historic regiment rahaa, jon  [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]], [[Battle of Wagram|Wagram]], aur [[Borodino]] me rahaa. &lt;ref&gt;Lacouture 1991, p. 16&lt;/ref&gt; April 1910 me uske corporal  promote karaa gais rahaa. Uske company commander uske sergeant nai promote karis rahaa, jon potential officer ke usual rank rahaa, ii comment kar ke ki uu ek Constable of France ke khaatir khaali achchhaa rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Fenby writes that he did promote him to sergeant at this point, which does not tally with Lacouture and other more detailed accounts&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, p16-17&quot; /&gt; Uske ant me sergeant, September 1910 me promote karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;charles-de-gaulle.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1890-1940-la-genese/la-grande-guerre/reperes/chronologie-1909-1918.php|title=Chronologie 1909–1918|publisher=charles-de-gaulle.org|access-date=14 January 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307082919/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1890-1940-la-genese/la-grande-guerre/reperes/chronologie-1909-1918.php|archive-date=7 March 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De Gaulle  Saint-Cyr me aapan sthaan October 1910 me liis rahaa. Pahila saal ke ant talak uu aapan class me aage hoe ke 45th rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Lacouture 1991, p. 19&lt;/ref&gt; Uske nickname &quot;the great asparagus&quot; rahaa, kaaheki uske uunchaai  (196&amp;nbsp;cm, 6'5&quot;) rahaa, chaklaa maathaa aur naak.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fenby-2010&quot; /&gt;{{RP|301}} Uu academy me achchhaa karis rahaa aur aapan   conduct, manners, intelligence, character, military spirit, aur resistance to fatigue ke khaatir praise liis rahaa. 1912 me, uu graduated bhais rahaa 13th aapan class me&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://spartacus-educational.com/2WWdegaulle.htm | title=Charles de Gaulle | access-date=16 April 2018 | archive-date=2 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502124824/https://spartacus-educational.com/2WWdegaulle.htm | url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; aur uske passing-out report note karis ki uu ek gifted cadet rahaa jon ek  excellent officer banii. Uske aage waala Marshal [[Alphonse Juin]] uske class me pahila sthaan pe rahaa, lekin duuno ek duusre ke achchhaa se nai jaanat rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, p21&quot;&gt;Lacouture 1991, p. 21&lt;/ref&gt;

De Gaukke France me serve kare ke prefer karis rahaa, aur bahaar ke colony me nai aur October 1912 me uu 33rd Infantry Regiment ke  second lieutenant ke ruup me join karis rahaa. Uske regiment ke command kare waala Colonel (aur aage ke Marshal) [[Philippe Pétain]] rahaa, jiske de Gaulle agle 15 saal talak follow kari. Uu aapan memoirs me likhis hae: &quot;My first colonel, Pétain, taught me the art of command&quot;.{{r|time19590105}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Lacouture 1991, p21&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1890|1970|De Gaulle, Charles}}

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    <title>Genghis Khan</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="10854" sha1="kyp8o27pclre9or7eu2sqhrkezl2fpj" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox monarch
| name        = Genghis Khan| title       = Dalai [[Khagan]] of the [[Mongol Empire|Great Mongol State]]&lt;br&gt;(Supreme [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the [[Mongols]])&lt;br&gt;[[King of Kings]]&lt;br&gt;[[Khagan]] of [[Khamag Mongol]]&lt;br&gt;Lord of the Four Colors and Five Tongues&lt;br&gt;Son of Khan [[Tengri]]&lt;br&gt;Emperor of All Men
| image       = 
| caption     =
| reign       = Spring 1206 – August 25, 1227&lt;br&gt;(more than 21 years)
| coronation  = Spring 1206 in [[Kurultai|khurultai]] at the [[Onon River]], Mongolia
| othertitles = [[Khan (title)|Khan]], [[Khagan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Temple name]]: &lt;br /&gt;[[Posthumous name]]: Emperor Fatian Qiyun Shengwu&lt;br /&gt;(法天啟運聖武皇帝)
| full name   = [[File:Cinggis qagan.svg|right|26px]]Genghis Khan &lt;br /&gt;[[Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet|Mongol]]: Чингис Хаан &lt;br&gt;''Chingis Khaan''&lt;br&gt;[[Mongol script]] (right): &lt;br&gt;''Chinggis Khagan''&lt;br&gt;
'''[[Birth name]]''': &lt;br /&gt; Temujin {{IPAc-en|t|ə|ˈ|m|uː|dʒ|ɪ|n}}; &lt;br&gt; ''Temujin'' ; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1959 |title= |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |volume=5 |pages=239 |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PjjjAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=July 29, 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 
| successor    = [[Ögedei Khan]]
| consort      = [[Borte|Borte Ujin]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Khulan (wife of Genghis Khan)|Khulan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Yesugen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Yesui]]&lt;br /&gt;others
| issue        = [[Jochi]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tolui]]&lt;br /&gt;Others
| royal house  = [[Borjigin]]
| royal anthem =
| father       = [[Yesügei]]
| mother       = [[Oulen]]
| birth_date   = probably 1162
| birth_place  = [[Khentii Mountains]], Mongolia
| death_date   = August 1227&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Ratchnevsky|title=Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy|url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanhisli0000paul|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]]|year=1991|isbn= 0-631-16785-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanhisli0000paul/page/142 142]|quote=It is possible, however, to say with certainty that Genghis Khan died in August 1227; only in specifying the actual day of his death do our sources disagree.}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Aged 65)
}}

[[File:Genghis Khan.jpg|thumb|Genghis Khan]]
'''Genghis Khan''' ([[Circa|c.]] [[1162]] - [[18 August]] [[1227]]) ek bahut jaana maana [[military]] leader rahaa jon ki Mongol tribes ke ek kar ke [[Mongol Empire]] banais rahaa. Uske baad waala khan logan, Mogolia ke dunia ke sab se barraa empire banain rahaa.

Genghis Khan, [[Kublai Khan]] ke aaja rahaa, jon ki [[China]] ke [[Yuan Dynasty]] ke pahila raja rahaa.

==Naam aur title==
[[Dunia]] me koi rakam ke system nai hae jisme [[Mongolian bhasa]] ke [[Roman script]] me likha jaae sake hae. Ii kaaran se jon rakam se [[Mongolia]]n naam ke likha jaawe hae, original pronunciation se kaafi ifferent hae. 
{{sfn|Ratchnevsky|1991|pp=x–xi}} Padwi ke naam, jiske jaada kar ke &quot;Genghis&quot; likha jaawe hae, &lt;!--autochthonous--&gt; Mongolian {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ|h}} se aais hae, jiske {{Transliteration|mn|Činggis}} Romanise karaa jaawe sake hae. Iske [[Chinese bhasa]] me adopt karaa gais rahaa  {{Transliteration|zh|Chéngjísī}} ke ruup me, aur [[Persian bhasa]] me  {{lang|fa|چنگیز }} {{Transliteration|fa|Čəngīz}} ke ruup me. Kaaheki [[Arbii bhasa]] me {{IPAblink|tʃ}} ke rakam awaaj nai hae, iske Mongolian aur Persian romanisations me  angbr likha gais hae, lekhak transcribed kare rahin ii naam  as {{Transliteration|ar|J̌ingiz}}, jab ki [[Syriac bhasa|Syriac]] lekhak {{Transliteration|syc|Šīngīz}}.{{sfn|Pelliot|1959|p=281}} ke kaam me laaw rahin.

&quot;Genghis&quot; ke saathe, jiske English bhasa me  18th century me pahila dafe kaam me laawa gais rahaa,   Persian sources ke galti se parrhe ke kaaran, aaj-kal ke English spellings hae &quot;Chinggis&quot;, &quot;Chingis&quot;, &quot;Jinghis&quot;, aur &quot;Jengiz&quot;. Uske janam ke naam &quot;Temüjin&quot; ({{MongolUnicode|ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ|h}}; {{Transliteration|zh|Tiěmùzhēn}}) ke kabhi-kabhi &quot;Temuchin&quot; English me likha jaawe hae.{{sfn|Bawden|2022|loc=§ &quot;Introduction&quot;}}

Genghis ke potaa [[Kublai Khan]]  [[Yuan dynasty]] ke 1271 me suruu karis rahaa, tab uu temple naam ''Taizu'' ( jiske matlab 'Supreme Progenitor' hae) aur mare ke baad ke naam   ''Shengwu Huangdi'' ( jiske matlab 'Holy-Martial Emperor hae') aapn aaja ke. Kublai ke par-potaa Külüg Khan baad me iske expand kar ke  ''Fatian Qiyun Shengwu Huangdi'' ( karis rahaa, jiske matlab 'Interpreter of the Heavenly Law, Initiator of the Good Fortune, Holy-Martial Emperor hae').

==Jawaani ke din==

===Janam aur bachpan===
Ispe sahmati nai hae ki Temüjin kon saal me paida bhais rahaa, lekin historians : 1155, 1162, aur 1167 ke favour kare hae. Kuchh sanskriti ke anusaar, uske janam [[Pig (zodiac)|Year of the Pig]], jon 1155 nai to 1167 me hae, me uske janam bhais rahaa.{{sfn|Morgan|1986|p=55}} Jab 1155 ke duuno  Zhao Hong aur Rashid al-Din ke lekh samarthan kare hae, duusra khaas sources jaise ''History of Yuan'' aur ''Shengwu''  1162 ke favour kare hae.{{sfn|Ratchnevsky|1991|pp=17–18}} 1167 ke taarik, jiske sinologist [[Paul Pelliot]] fanour kare hae, Yuan artist [[Yang Weizhen]] ke lekh se aais hae—aur ii Genghis Khan se kaada compatible hae, 1155 ke jagha, jiske matlab hae ki uspe lage koi larrkan nai rahaa 30 saal ke umar ke baad  aur actively campaign karte rahaa aapan 70s talak.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1pp=17–18|Pelliot|1959|2pp=284–287}} 1162 ke taarik ke jaada  historians support kare hae;{{sfnm|Man|2004|1p=70|Biran|2012|2p=33|Atwood|2004|3p=97|May|2018|4p=22|Jackson|2017|5p=63}} the historian Paul Ratchnevsky note karis hae ki Temüjin apne sachchaai ke nai jaanat rahaa.{{sfn|Ratc hnevsky|1991|p=19}}  Temüjin ke janam sthaan, ''Secret History'' record kare hae as [[Delüün Boldog]]  [[Onon River]] pe, iske yahii rakan se debate raraa gais hae: ii saait [[Dadal]], [[Khentii Province]] me, nai to southern [[Agin-Buryat Okrug]], Russia ne hae.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=97}}

[[File:OnonRiver.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.63|[[Onon Naddi]], jon uu jagha ke nagiich hae jahaan pe Temüjin paida bhais rahaa, ke nagiich hae  jiske chhaapa hian pe [[Khentii Province]] me hae, Mongolia|alt=A dark river flowing between bushes and open ground, curving to avoid a high ridge]]
{{anchor|Meaning of Temüjin}}

Temüjin  [[Borjigin]] clan of the Mongol tribe me paida bhais rahaa, aur uske pitaji ek [[Yesügei]] rahaa, ek chieftain jon legendary warlord [[Bodonchar Munkhag]] se descent claim karis rahaa, aur uske maiyaa pitaji ke khaas aurat rahii jiske naam [[Hö'elün]] rahaa, jon originally  [[Olkhonud]] clan ke rahii, jahaan se Yesügei  uske apharan kar liis rahaa uske [[Merkit]] bridegroom Chiledu se. Uske maiyaa ke paidais waala naam ke contest karaa jaawe hae: sab se puraana itihaas ii batae hae ki jab uske pitaji [[Tatar confederation|Tatars]] se larr ke lautat rahaa, captive jiske naam Temüchin-uge rahaa, tab uu aapan nawaa paidaa bhais ke wahii naam diis rahaa, jab ki baad ke itihaas [[Root (linguistics)|root]] {{lang|mn|temür}} (jiske matlab 'iron' hae) ke emphasise kare hae aur ii  theories kare hae ki &quot;Temüjin&quot; ke matlab 'blacksmith' hae.{{sfnm|Pelliot|1959|1pp=289–291|Man|2004|2pp=67–68|Ratchnevsky|1991|3p=17}}

Temüjin ke janam ke baare me dher legend hae. Isme se sab se jaada hae ki uu paida bhais rahaa ek [[blood clot]] ke aapan haanth me pakarr ke, jiske matlab  Asian folklore me hae ki larrkaa ek warrior banii.{{sfnm|Brose|2014|1loc=§ &quot;The Young Temüjin&quot;|Pelliot|1959|2p=288}} Duusra jane ii claim kare hae ki Hö'elün ek [[Miraculous births|impregnated by a ray of light]] rahaa jon larrkaa ke destiny ke announce karis rahaa, ek  legend jon mythical Borjigin ancestor [[Alan Gua]] ke rakam rahaa.{{sfn|Ratchnevsky|1991|p=17}} Yesügei aur Hö'elün ke Temüjin ke baad tiin aur xhhotaa larrka rahin : [[Qasar]], [[Hachiun]], aur [[Temüge]], aur ek larrki, [[Temülün]]. Temüjin ke dui half-brothers, [[Behter]] aur [[Belgutei]] rahaa, Yesügei ke duusra aurat [[Sochigel]] se, jiske identity ke baare me bahut nai jaana jaawe hae. Ii larrkan Yesugei ke khaas camp Onon ke kinaare barraa bhae rahin, jahaan pe uu logan ghorraa daurrae aur dhanus chalae sikhe rahin. {{sfn|Ratchnevsky|1991|pp=15–19}}

Jab Temüjin aath saal ke rahaa, tab uske pitaji uske saadi ke right kar diis rahaa. Yesügei aapan heir ke pastures of Hö'elün's prestigious [[Onggirat]] tribe lae gais rahaa, jon  Mongols ke saathe pahile dher dafe saadi kare rahin. Huan pe uu Temüjin aur [[Börte]],  Onggirat chieftain  jiske naam [[Dei Sechen]] rahaa ke larrki se saadi karis raha. Saadi ke kaaran Yesügei ek taagatwar ally milaa, kaaheki  Börte jaada dahej rahaa, Dei Sechen ke stronger negotiating position rahaa, aur deman karis ki Temüjin uske ghar me rahe aapan aage ke kharchaa ke bhare ke khaatir

Ii sarat ke maan ke, Yesügei ek band of Tatars se khaana ke request karis, jisse uu mila rahaa jab uu akele ghar lautat rahaa.  Tatar log aapan puraana dusman ke cheenh liin aur uske khaana me jahar daal diin. Yesügei dhire-dhire bemaar hoe lagaa lekin aapan ghar pahunch gais ; jab uu mare waala rhaa tab uu ek  trusted retainer ke Temüjin se balae ke batais. Iske kuchh din baad uu mar gais rahaa. 

===Jawaani ke din===
[[File:The Hoelun Monument to Genghis Khan's Mother at the Mother Hoelun Memorial Complex in Tsonjin Boldog 02.jpg|thumb| Hö'elün  ke murti jon [[Equestrian statue of Genghis Khan|equestrian statue of her son]]  ke lage hae  Tsonjin Boldog, [[Mongolia]] me|alt=A large stone statue, atop a podium, of a robed woman with an elaborate headdress]]

Yesügei ke maut se uske janata log me vibhajan hoe gais, jisme Borjigin, [[Tayichiud]], aur duusra clans rahaa. Jab Temüjin abhi das saal se chhotaa rahaa aur Behter dui saal barraa rahaa, duuno ke raaj kare ke kaabil nai maana jaawat rahaa. Tayichiud faction  Hö'elün ke [[ancestor worship]] ceremonies se alag kar diin, jon ek neta ke ke mare ke baad karaa jaawat rahaa aur camp ke chhorr se rahin.    ''Secret History'' ii batae hae ki puura Borjigin clan folow karis, chaahe jetna Hö'elün's kosis karis uu logan ke sarmawae ke , rahe jaawe ke.. Lekin Rashid al-Din aur ''Shengwu''  imply  karin hae ki Yesügei ke bhaiyaa logan  widow ke saath de rahin. Ii hoe sake hae ki  Hö'elün may  have refused to join in [[levirate marriage]] with one, resulting in later tensions, or that the author of the ''Secret History'' dramatised the situation. Sab sources isme sahmat hae ki dher  Yesügei ke log palwaar ke renounce kar ke  Tayichiuds ke join kar le rahin aur  Hö'elün ke palwaar were reduced to a much harsher life. Taking up a [[hunter-gatherer]] lifestyle, they collected roots and nuts, hunted for small animals, and caught fish.{{sfn|May|2018|p=25}}


== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
{{bio-stub}}
{{BD|12th century|1227|Khan, Genghis}}

[[Category:Mongolia ke log]]
[[Category:Raja aur rani]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Che Guevara</title>
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      <comment>Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="11417" sha1="e88k47fwj6kcckynipsw1mfbpq9b378" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Che Guevara
| image               = Che Guevara - Guerrillero Heroico by Alberto Korda.jpg
| caption             = ''[[Guerrillero Heroico]]'', 1960
| office              = [[Industry minister|Minister of Industries]] of Cuba
| primeminister       = [[Fidel Castro]]
| president           = [[Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado]]
| term_start          = 11 February 1961
| term_end            = 1 April 1965
| predecessor         = ''Office established''
| successor           = Joel Domenech Benítez
| office2             = President of the [[National Bank of Cuba]]
| term_start2         = 26 November 1959
| term_end2           = 23 February 1961
| predecessor2        = [[Felipe Pazos]]
| successor2          = Raúl Cepero Bonilla
| birth_name          = Ernesto Guevara
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|df=y|1928|05|14}}
| birth_place         = [[Rosario]], Santa Fe, Argentina
| death_date          = {{Death date and age|df=y|1967|10|09|1928|05|14}}
| death_place         = [[La Higuera]], Santa Cruz, Bolivia
| death_manner        = [[Execution by shooting]]
| resting_place       = [[Che Guevara Mausoleum]], Santa Clara, Cuba
| alma_mater          = [[University of Buenos Aires]]
| citizenship         = {{hlist|Argentina|Cuba}}
| honorific_prefix    = ''[[Comrade]]''
| party               = [[M-26-7]] (1955–1962)&lt;br&gt;[[United Party of the Socialist Revolution of Cuba|PURSC]] (1962–1965)
| occupation          = {{hlist|Author|diplomat|[[guerrilla]]|physician}}
| known_for           = [[Guevarism]]
| spouse              = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Hilda Gadea]]|1955|1959|reason=div}}
* {{marriage|[[Aleida March]]|1959}}
}}
| parents = Ernesto Guevara Lynch
Celia de la Serna
| children            = 5, including [[Aleida Guevara|Aleida]]
| signature           = CheGuevaraSignature.svg
| signature_size      = 
| nickname            = {{hlist|''[[Che (interjection)|Che]]''|''Fuser''}}
| allegiance          = Cuba&lt;ref&gt;Partido Unido de la Revolución Socialista de Cuba, a.k.a. PURSC.&lt;/ref&gt;
| branch              = {{plainlist|
* [[Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces]] (FAR)
* [[National Liberation Army of Bolivia]]
}}
| serviceyears        = 1955–1967
| rank                = {{lang|es|Comandante}}
| unit                = [[26th of July Movement]]
| commands            = [[Commanding officer]], FAR
| battles             = {{tree list}}
*  [[Cuban Revolution]]
** [[Attack on El Uvero]]
** [[Operation Verano]]
*** [[Battle of Las Mercedes]]
** [[Battle of Santa Clara]]
* [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]
* [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]
* [[Simba rebellion]]
**[[Operation South]]
* [[Ñancahuazú Guerrilla]]{{executed}}{{tree list/end}}
| module              = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=06 ERNESTO CHE GUEVARA.ogg|title=Che Guevara's voice|type=speech|description=Guevara speaking to the youth in Havana&lt;br /&gt;Recorded 1962}}
}}
'''Ernesto Guevara''' ([[14 June]] [[1928]] - [[9 October]] [[1967]]), [[Karl Marx]] ke chela aur ek [[doctor]] rahha jon ki [[Argentina]] me paida bhaes rahaa. Uske jaada kar ke '''Che Guevara''' nai to '''El Che''' ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa aur ii [[socialist]] log me bahut popular hae. Time magazine uske 100 most [[wikt:influential|influential]] people of the 20th century batais hae&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/time100/heroes/profile/guevara01.html |title=Archive copy |access-date=2009-09-30 |archive-date=2000-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000409003739/http://www.time.com/time/time100/heroes/profile/Guevara01.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; aur ''Guerrillero Heroico'', jiske chapa hian pe dekhae hae kr &quot;the most famous photograph in the world.&quot; bola jaawe hae&lt;ref&gt;Maryland Institute of Art, referenced at BBC News, &quot;Che Guevara photographer dies&quot;, 26 May 2001. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1352650.stm Online at BBC News], accessed January 4, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Uske janam [[1928]] me Argentina me bhaes rahaa. Uu jab Buenos Aires ke medieval college me rahaa tab uu aapan chhutti ke time jaae ke dekhat rahaa ke Argentina ke garib log kaise rahe hae aur ii sochis ki khaali larrai se iske thiik karaa jaawe sake hae.

Iske baad uu [[Mexico]] gais jahaan pe uske [[Fidel Castro]] milaa, jon ki [[Cuba]] me ek communist rebellion ke taiyari karat rahaa. Ernesto, Fidel ke saathe hoe ke revolution me hissa liis. 1959 me , Fidel jiit ke Cuba ke president banaa. 1965 me [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo-Kinshasa]] aur [[Bolivia]] me revolution suruu karis. Uske Bolivian Army pakarr ke 1967 memaar diis . Uske body 1997 e mila.

== Bachpan ke din ==
[[File:Che Guevara - 1 año - 1929.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|left|Baby Ernesto]]
Ernesto Guevara ke janam Ernesto Guevara Lynch aur Celia de la Serna y Llosa ke bhais rahaa, &lt;!-- Note: Please do not change birth date without discussing on talk page first. --&gt;[[14 May]] [[1928]], Rosario, [[Argentina]] me. Jab ki uske janam patri ke naam &quot;Ernesto Guevara&quot; rahaa, uske naam kabhi-kabhi  &quot;de la Serna&quot; nai to &quot;Lynch&quot; ke saathe likha jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;In Spanish a person may carry the surname of their father as well as that of their mother, albeit in that order. Some people carry both, others only that of their father. In Guevara's case, many people of Irish descent will add &quot;Lynch&quot; to emphasize his Irish relations. Others will add &quot;de la Serna&quot; to give respect to Guevara's mother.&lt;/ref&gt; Uu paanch larrkan me se sab se barraa rahaa, ek upper-class [[Argentines|Argentine]] palwaar jon pre-independence immigrants rahin jiske [[Spanish Argentines|Spanish]], [[Basque Argentines|Basque]], aur [[Irish Argentines|Irish]] ancestry rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.euskalnet.net/laviana/gen_bascas/guevaraelche.html |title=''The Origins of Guevara's Name'' |access-date=10 June 2016 |archive-date=28 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628182241/http://www.euskalnet.net/laviana/gen_bascas/guevaraelche.html |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Guevara ke dui [[18th century]] ancestors me rahin [[Luis María Peralta]], ek [[Californio]] landowner colonial California ke, aur [[Patrick Lynch (Argentina)|Patrick Lynch]], jon [[Ireland]] se migrate bhais rahaa  [[Governorate of the Río de la Plata|Río de la Plata Governorate]] me.&lt;ref&gt;[https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c8nv9ppp/entire_text/ Online Archive of California: Pinedo Family Papers] from the [[Santa Clara University]] Library, 2015&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |publisher=[[Mercury News]] |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2010/11/23/zorro-to-the-rescue-at-dec-2-fundraiser-for-friends-of-peralta-hacienda-historical-park/ |title=Fundraiser for Friends of Peralta Hacienda Historical Park |first=Angela |last=Woodall |work=[[Oakland Tribune]] |date=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Che ke&quot;restless&quot; swabhao ke baare me uske pitaji batais rahaa,  &quot;the first thing to note is that in my son's veins flowed the blood of the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|Irish rebels]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLavretsky1976|Lavretsky 1976]].&lt;/ref&gt; Che Guevara  Ireland ke pasand karat rahaa, aur Irish actress [[Maureen O'Hara]] ke anusaar, &quot;Che would talk about Ireland and all the guerilla warfare that had taken place there. He knew every battle in Ireland and all of its history&quot; aur uske batais rahaa ke uu jon kuchh Ireland ke baare me jaane hae ke aapan naani ke godi me sukhis hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=O'Hara |first1=Maureen |last2=Nicoletti |first2=John |title='Tis Herself: An Autobiography |url=https://archive.org/details/tisherself0000ohar_y5k3 |date=2005 |publisher=[[Simon &amp; Schuster]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/tisherself0000ohar_y5k3/page/209 209]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Che1933.jpg|thumb|upright=.5|left|Ernesto, 1933 me paanch saal ke umar me]]

Bachpan me, Ernestito (jaise uske uutime balaawa jaawat rahaa) ek &quot;affinity for the poor&quot; develop karis rahaa.{{sfn|Kellner|1989|p=23}} Kaaheki uu ek palwaar me barraa bhais rahaa, jiske  [[Left-wing politics|leftist]] leanings rahaa, Guevara ke ek spectrum of political perspectives se introduce karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20130826054445/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,872604,00.html Argentina: Che's Red Mother] ''[[Time Magazine]]'', 14 July 1961.&lt;/ref&gt; Uske pitaji, [[Second Spanish Republic|Republicans]] ke ek kattar supporter,  [[Spanish Civil War]] me,  veterans ke aapan ghare balaawat rahaa.{{sfn|Anderson|1997|pp=22–23}} Jab uu barraaa bhais tab uu, kirwa ke maare waala dawai ke beche ke sochat rahaa, aur ek  laboratory ke palwaar ke  garage me banais rahaa, experiment kare ke khaatir  mixtures of [[talc]] aur [[lindane|gammaxene]] ke, ''Vendaval'' ke brand naam ke niche, lekin uske ii band kare ke parraa rahaa, jab isse uske asthmatic bhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Guevara Lynch |first=Ernesto |title=Young Che: Memories of Che Guevara by His Father |date=14 September 2011 |publisher=[[Vintage Books]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kharaab [[asthma]] ke baawajuut, jisse uu jindagi bhar bemaar rahat rahaa,  uu ek achchhaa athlete rahaa, jon swimming, football, golf, aur shooting ke like karat rahaa, jiske saathe uu ek &quot;untiring&quot; cyclist rahaa.{{sfn|Sandison|1996|p=8}}{{sfn|Kellner|1989|p=24}} Uu ek achchhaa [[rugby union]] khilaarri rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/columnists/brendangallagher/2322711/Argentine-rugby-inspired-by-Che-Guevara.html |title=Argentine Rugby Inspired by Che Guevara |first=Brendan |last=Gallagher |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=5 October 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuchh log batae hae ki uu pahila dafe  Estudiantes of Córdoba ke khaatir khelis rahaa, fir San Isidro Club (1947), Yporá Rugby Club (1948), aur Atalaya Polo Club (1949),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.clarin.com/deportes/che-guevara-jugaba-rugby-deporte-favorito_0_BysbcYn8L.html |title=Cuando el Che Guevara jugaba al rugby, su deporte favorito |language=es |trans-title=When Che Guevara played rugby, his favorite sport |last=Iglesias |first=Waldemar |date=18 December 2020 |website=Clarín |access-date=27 June 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.elgrafico.com.ar/articulo/1088/34220/el-diario-del-che-en-el-rugby |title=El diario del Che en el rugby |language=es |trans-title=Che's diary in rugby |last= |first= |date=26 July 2019 |website=El Gráfico |publisher=Atlántida |access-date=27 June 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.efdeportes.com/efd9/che2.htm |title=Ernesto Guevara y el deporte |language=es |trans-title=Ernesto Guevara and sport |last= |first= |date=March 1998 |website=EF Deportes |publisher= |access-date=27 June 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; lekin duusra  sources claim kare hae ki uu [[Club Universitario de Buenos Aires]] (CUBA) ke khaatir bhi khelis rahaa,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Cain |first1=Nick |last2=Growden |first2=Greg |chapter=21: Ten Peculiar Facts about Rugby |title=Rugby Union for Dummies |year=2006 |url=https://archive.org/details/rugbyunionfordum0000unse_u8s8 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons]] |isbn=978-0470035375 |page=[https://archive.org/details/rugbyunionfordum0000unse_u8s8/page/293 293]}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Rugby union positions#Fly-half|fly-half]] ke position me. Uske rugby khele ke kaaran uske  nickname &quot;Fuser&quot;—a contraction of {{lang|es|El Furibundo}} (furious) and his mother's surname, de la Serna— rahaa, uske aggressive khel ke khaatir.{{sfn|Anderson|1997|p=28}}


== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1928|1967|Guevara, Che}}

[[vibhag:Argentina ke log]]
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    <title>Abraham Lincoln</title>
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      <text bytes="10255" sha1="bv4h0gho3mz9vsdknqhc6ueki2701w5" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox officeholder
| image               = Abraham Lincoln 1863 Portrait (3x4 cropped).jpg
| caption             = Lincoln in 1863
| alt                 = Portrait of a bearded Abraham Lincoln showing his head and shoulders
| order               = 16th
| office              = President of the United States
| vicepresident       = {{plainlist|
* {{longitem|[[Hannibal Hamlin]]&lt;br /&gt;(1861–1865)}}
* {{longitem|Andrew Johnson&lt;br /&gt;(Mar–Apr. 1865)}}
}}
| term_start          = March 4, 1861
| term_end            = April 15, 1865
| predecessor         = [[James Buchanan]]
| successor           = [[Andrew Johnson]]
| state1              = [[Illinois]]
| district1           = {{ushr|IL|7|7th}}
| term_start1         = March 4, 1847
| term_end1           = March 3, 1849
| predecessor1        = [[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]]
| successor1          = [[Thomas L. Harris]]
| state_house2        = Illinois
| constituency2       = {{nowrap|from [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]]}}
| term_start2         = December 1, 1834
| term_end2           = December 4, 1842
| predecessor2        = [[Achilles Morris]]
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1809|2|12}}
| birth_place         = [[LaRue County, Kentucky]], U.S.
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1865|4|15|1809|2|12}}
| death_place         = Washington, D.C.&lt;!--Links not needed per MOS:OVERLINK--&gt;, U.S.
| death_cause         = [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Assassination by gunshot]]
| occupation          = {{hlist|Politician|lawyer}}
| resting_place       = [[Lincoln Tomb]]
| party               = {{plainlist|
* [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (before 1856)
* [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] (after 1856)
}}
| otherparty          = [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] (1864–1865)
| height              = 6 ft 4 in&lt;ref name=anb&gt;{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=American National Biography|title=Lincoln, Abraham|last=McPherson|first=James|date=September 26, 2024|doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0400631}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]|November 4, 1842}}
| relatives           = [[Lincoln family]]
| signature           = Abraham Lincoln 1862 signature.svg
| signature_alt       = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance          = &lt;!-- United States, Illinois --&gt;
| branch              = [[Illinois Militia]]
| serviceyears        = April–July 1832
| rank                = {{plainlist|
* [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]]
* [[Private (United States)|Private]]
}}
| battles             = [[Black Hawk War]] (see [[Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War]])
}}
'''Abraham Lincoln''' ([[12 February]] [[1809]] &amp;nbsp;– [[15 April]] [[1865]]), [[United States]] ke 16th [[President]] the. Uu 1861 se 1865 talak  [[American Civil War]] ke time pe President rahaa. Jab jaada Confederate army surrender kar diis rahaa aur larrai khalaas hoe waala rahaa tab John Wilkes Booth uske maar diis rahaa, kaahe ki uu bachaa Confederate army ke larrte rahe maangat rahaa.  Lincoln ke United States me gulami khalaas kare khatir jaana jaawe hae.

== Jindagi ==
Abraham Lincoln ka janam 12  February 1809 me, Hardin County, [[Kentucky]] me bhais rahaa . Unke pitaji, Thomas Lincoln, ek kisaan rahaa, aur maiyaa, Nancy Hanks, rahii aur ii logan bahut garib rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;lincolnbook&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Thornton|first=Brian|coauthors=Richard W. Donley|title=101 things you didn't know about Lincoln: loves and losses, political power|url=https://archive.org/details/101thingsyoudidn0000thor|publisher=Adams Media|date=October 31, 2005|isbn=9781593373993|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; Abraham ke ek bhaeya aur ek bahini rahis aur bhaiya bachpan me mar gais rahaa. uu loganek chhota [[log cabin]] house, jisme khaali ek room rahaa me rahat rahin. Uske baap gulam nai rakkhis rahaa kaahe ki uu bahut dharmik rahaa. Jab Abraham saath saal ke rahaa tab uske pariwaar [[Indiana]] aur baad me [[Illinois]] jake  rehne lage.&lt;ref&gt;
{{cite web
|accessdate=2008-05-21
|url=http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/sites/decaturock.htm
|title=Lincoln Trail Homestead State Park
|publisher=Abraham Lincoln Online}}
&lt;/ref&gt; Uu jab chhota rahaa tab uu aapan baap ke khet me madat kaat rahaa lekin 22 saal ke umar me uu  [[New Salem]],  Illinois jaae ke ek salesmanke kaam kare lagaa.&lt;ref&gt;
{{cite book
|last=Fehrenbacher
|first=Don
|title=Speeches and Writings 1859-1865
|publisher=Library of America
|year=1989
|page=163
|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UWJStTs8-A4C&amp;dq=lincoln+canoe+sangamon+river&amp;source=gbs_summary_s&amp;cad=0}}
&lt;/ref&gt; Baad me uu [[school]] ek saal khatir school aur isse uu likhe, parrhe aur sahaj mathemeatics kare sikhis.  1842 me uu Mary Todd se saadi karis aur uu logan ke chaar larrkan bhais jisme se tiin chhote pe mar gain.&lt;ref name=&quot;teamofrivals&quot;&gt;
{{cite book
|last=Goodwin
|first=Doris Kearns 
|title=Team of Rivals
|url=https://archive.org/details/teamofrivalspoli0000good_f2e0
|location=New York, NY
|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster, Inc.
|year=2005}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

===Saadi aur larrkan===

[[File:Mary, Willie, and Tad Lincoln, c1860.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Black-and-white photo of a woman with two young boys|[[Mary Todd Lincoln]]  [[William Wallace Lincoln|Willie]] aur [[Tad Lincoln|Tad]] ke saathe]]
Kuchh historians, jaise Michael Burlingame, ii batawe hae ki Lincoln ke pahila romantic interest  [[Ann Rutledge]] rahaa, jon Kentucky ke rahii aur jiske uu milis rahaa jab uu  [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem, Illinois]] me rahe gais rahaa.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 98}} [[Lewis Gannett]] iske galat batae hae ki duunu ke biich me koi  romantic sambandh rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last=Gannett | first=Lewis | date=Winter 2005 | title='Overwhelming evidence' of a Lincoln–Ann Rutledge romance?: reexamining Rutledge family reminiscences | url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala/2629860.0026.104/--overwhelming-evidence-of-a-lincoln-ann-rutledge-romance?rgn=main;view=fulltext | journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association | pages=28–41 | volume=26 | issue=1 | doi=10.5406/19457987.26.1.04}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Herbert Donald]] ii batais hae ki &quot;How that friendship [between Lincoln and Rutledge] developed into a romance cannot be reconstructed from the record&quot;.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=56–57}} Rutledge August 25, 1835 me mar gay rahii, [[typhoid fever]] se. Lincoln isse bahut soch me rahaa, aur gambhir depression me rahaa aur  atm-hatys ke bhi sochis rahaa. {{sfn|Donald|1996|1pp=55–58|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 p. 100}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Atlanticoct2005&quot; /&gt;

[[1830s]] ke suruu me, Lincoln  [[Mary Owens (Abraham Lincoln fiancée)|Mary Owens]] jon Kentucky ke rahii, milis rahaa.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=56–57, 69–70}} 1836 ke ant me, Lincoln  Owens se saadi kare ke agree hoe gais, agar uu  New Salem laut aawe. Owens  November me aais, aur uu duuno ef-duusre ke dekhat rahin, lekin duuno aapan mibd badal liin.   August 16, 1837 ke, uu ek chotthi likhis Owens lage jisme uu batais ki uu Owens ke blame nai kari agar  Owens relationship ke khalaas kar di, aur iske baad Owens usse saadi kare ke inkaar kar dis. {{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=67–69}}

1839 me, Lincoln  [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]] ke [[Springfield, Illinois]] me milis rahaa, aur agle saal, duuno engaed hoe gay rahin. {{sfn|Donald|1996|1pp=80–86|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 174–176}} Uu [[Robert Smith Todd]], ek dhani wakiil aur businessman  [[Lexington, Kentucky]] me, ke larrki rahii.{{sfn|Lamb|Swain|2008|p=3}} Lincoln suruu me engaement ke tuurr diis rahaa  early 1841 me, lekin baad me uulog saathe hoe gay rahin aur November 4, 1842 me saadi kar le rahin.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 182, 194–195}} 1844 me, duuno [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|a house]] Springfield me, uske law office ke nagiich, kharide rahin.{{sfn|Baker|1989|p=142}} Saadi turbulent rahaa; Mary ke muh bahut chalat rahaa aur kabhi-kabhi uu aapan admi ke maarat bhi rahii.    {{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 202}}

Uulog ke chaar larrka rahaa. Sab se barraa, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]],  1843 me paida bhais rahaa, aur uu khaali ekke larrka rahaa jon bachpan me nai maraa rahaa. [[Edward Baker Lincoln|Edward Baker &quot;Eddie&quot; Lincoln]],  1846 me paida bhais rahaa, aur February 1, 1850 me maris rahaa, saait [[tuberculosis]] se. Lincoln ke tiisra larrka, [[William Wallace Lincoln|William Wallace &quot;Willie&quot; Lincoln]], ke janam December 21, 1850 me bhais rahaa, aur fever se [[White House]] me February 20, 1862 me maraa rahaa. Sab se chhotaa, [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas &quot;Tad&quot; Lincoln]],  April 4, 1853 ke paida bhais rahaa, aur [[edema]] se  18 saal ke umar me  July 16, 1871 me maraa rahaa.{{sfn|White|2009|1pp=179–181, 476|Manning|2016|2pp=24, 34, 58, 73, 75, 139, 181}} Lincoln  larrkan ke like karat rahaa,{{sfn|White|2009|p=126}} aur Lincolns aapan larrkan se strict nai rahin.  {{sfn|Baker|1989|1p=120|Manning|2016|2pp=39, 42}} Eddie aur Willie ke maut ke gahiraa asar duuno mai aur baap pe rahaa.  Lincoln  &quot;[[history of depression|melancholy]]&quot; se suffer karat rahaa, ek condition jiske aaj-kal  [[major depressive disorder|clinical depression]] maana jaawe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atlanticoct2005&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200510/lincolns-clinical-depression |title=Lincoln's great depression |first=Joshua Wolf |last=Shenk |date=October 2005 |work=The Atlantic |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009044732/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/10/lincoln-apos-s-great-depression/4247/ |archivedate=October 9, 2011 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==

{{reflist|2}}

== Duusra websites ==
* [https://abrahamlincoln.org/ The Lincoln Institute]
* [https://rogerjnorton.com/Lincoln2.html Abraham Lincoln Research Site]
* [https://rogerjnorton.com/Lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln Assassination]
* [https://rogerjnorton.com/Lincoln77.html A One Page Summary of Abraham Lincoln's Life]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/al16.html Lincoln's White House biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117204742/http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/al16.html |date=2009-01-17 }}
{{BD|1809|1865|Lincoln, Abraham}}

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    <title>Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</title>
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| name                = Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
| image               = Ataturk1930s.jpg
| caption             = Atatürk {{circa|1930}}
| office1             = [[President of Turkey]]
| term_start1         = 29 October 1923
| term_end1           = 10 November 1938
| primeminister1      = {{ubl|İsmet İnönü|[[Fethi Okyar]]|[[Celâl Bayar]]}}
| predecessor1        = ''Office established''
| successor1          = [[İsmet İnönü]]
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Other political positions|titlestyle=border: 1px dashed lightgrey;}}
| office2             = [[Leader of the Republican People's&amp;nbsp;Party]]
| term_start2         = 9 September 1923
| term_end2           = 10 November 1938
| predecessor2        = ''Office established''
| successor2          = İsmet İnönü
| office3             = [[Prime Minister of Turkey|Prime Minister of the Government of the Grand National Assembly]]
| term_start3         = 3 May 1920
| term_end3           = 24 January 1921
| deputy3             = [[Fevzi Çakmak]]
| predecessor3        = ''Office established''
| successor3          = Fevzi Çakmak
| office4             = [[Speaker of the Grand National Assembly]]
| term_start4         = 24 April 1920
| term_end4           = 29 October 1923
| predecessor4        = ''Office established''
| successor4          = Fethi Okyar
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}
| birth_name          = Ali Rıza oğlu Mustafa{{efn|{{langx|ota|علی رضا اوغلی مصطفی}}, meaning 'Mustafa, son of Ali Rıza'.}}
| birth_date          = {{circa|1881}}
| birth_place         = [[Thessaloniki|Salonica]], Ottoman Empire
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1938|11|10|1881|5|19|df=y}}
| death_place         = Istanbul, Turkey
| resting_place       = [[Anıtkabir]], [[Ankara]]&lt;!--Use Ankara here as the city is known under that name today--&gt;{{Efn|Previously interred at [[Ethnography Museum of Ankara]] until 10 November 1953}}
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Political affiliations|titlestyle=border: 1px dashed lightgrey;}}
| party               = [[Republican People's Party]]
| otherparty          = {{ubl|[[Vatan ve Hürriyet|Motherland and Liberty]] (1906–1907)|[[Committee of Union and Progress]] (1907–1918)|[[Ottoman Liberal People's Party]] (1918–1919)|[[Association for Defence of National Rights|Association for the Defence of the Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia]] (1919–1923)}}{{Collapsed infobox section end}}{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Family|titlestyle=border: 1px dashed lightgrey;}}
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Latife Uşaklıgil]]|1923|1925|end=div}}
| father              = [[Ali Rıza Efendi]]
| mother              = [[Zübeyde Hanım]]
| relatives           = [[Makbule Atadan]] (sister){{Collapsed infobox section end}}
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Military positions|titlestyle=border: 1px dashed lightgrey;}}
| allegiance          = {{ubli|[[Ottoman Empire]] {{nowrap|(1893–1919)}}|[[Government of the Grand National Assembly|State of Turkey]] {{nowrap|(1921–1923)}}|[[Republic of Turkey]] (1923–1927)}}
| branch              = {{ubl|[[Ottoman Army (1861–1922)|Ottoman Army]]|[[Turkish Land Forces#War of Independence|Army of the GNA]]|[[Turkish Land Forces|Turkish Army]]}}
| rank                = {{ubli|[[Mirliva|Brigadier General]] (Ottoman Army)|[[Mareşal (Turkey)|Marshal]] (Turkish Army)}}
| commands            = {{plainlist|
* [[19th Infantry Division (Ottoman Empire)|19th Division]]
* [[XVI Corps (Ottoman Empire)|16th Corps]]
* [[Second Army (Ottoman Empire)|2nd Army]]
* [[Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire)|7th Army]]
* [[Yildirim Army Group|Yıldırım Army Group]]
* [[Turkish Land Forces#War of Independence|Army of Grand National Assembly]]
}}
| battles             = {{collapsible list|title = {{nobold|''See list''}}|
{{Tree list}}
*[[Macedonian Struggle]]
*[[Young Turk Revolution]]
*[[31 March Incident]]
*[[Albanian Revolt of 1910]]
*[[Italo-Turkish War]]
**[[Battle of Tobruk (1911)|Battle of Tobruk]]
**[[Battle of Derna (1912)|Battle of Derna]]
*[[Balkan Wars]]
**[[First Balkan War]]
***[[Battle of Bulair]]
**[[Second Balkan War]]
***[[Siege of Adrianople (1913)]]
*[[World War I]]
**[[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Middle Eastern theatre]]
***[[Gallipoli campaign]]{{WIA}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Konyalı Saat |title=Atatürk'ü Ölmekten Kurtaran Saate Ne Oldu? |url=https://www.konyalisaat.com.tr/ilham/atamizi-olmekten-kurtaran-saate-ne-oldu |website=Konyalı Saat |access-date=October 25, 2024 |archive-date=11 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241211054147/https://www.konyalisaat.com.tr/ilham/atamizi-olmekten-kurtaran-saate-ne-oldu |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
****[[Landing at Anzac Cove|Anzac Cove]]
****[[Battle for Baby 700|Baby 700]]
****[[Battle for No.3 Post|No. 3 Post]]
****[[Battle of the Nek|Nek]]
****[[Battle of Chunuk Bair|Chunuk Bair]]
****[[Battle of Scimitar Hill|Scimitar Hill]]
****[[Battle of the Nek|Kılıçbayır]]
****[[Battle of Hill 60 (Gallipoli)|Hill 60]]
****[[Landing at Suvla Bay|Suvla Bay]]
*****[[:tr: Birinci Anafartalar Muharebesi|Anafartalar I]]
*****[[:tr: İkinci Anafartalar Muharebesi|Anafartalar II]]
*****[[:tr: Kocaçimen Tepe Muharebesi| Kocaçimen tepe]]
****[[Battle of Sari Bair|Sari Bair]]
***[[Caucasus campaign]]
****[[Battle of Bitlis]]
****[[Battle of Muş|Ognot campaign]]
*****[[Battle of Çapakçur]]
***[[Sinai and Palestine campaign]]
*****[[Stalemate in Southern Palestine|Southern Palestine]]
*****[[Third Transjordan attack|Transjordan III]]
*****[[Battle of Nablus (1918)|Nablus]]
*****[[Battle of Megiddo (1918)|Megiddo]]
*****[[Capture of Jisr ed Damieh|Jisr ed Damieh]]
*****[[Capture of Damascus (1918)|Damascus]]
*****[[Battle of Jisr Benat Yakub|Jisr Benat Yakub]]
*****[[Charge at Kiswe|Kiswe]]
*****[[Charge at Kaukab|Kaukab]]
*****[[Pursuit to Haritan|Haritan I]]
*****[[Charge at Khan Ayash|Khan Ayash]]
*****[[Battle of Aleppo (1918)|Aleppo]]
*****[[Charge at Haritan|Haritan II]]
*[[Turkish War of Independence]]
**[[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish War]]
***[[Battle of the Sakarya|Sakarya]]
***[[Great Offensive]]
****[[Battle of Dumlupınar|Dumlupınar]]
**[[Turkish-Armenian War]]
**[[Revolts during the Turkish War of Independence|Revolts]]
**[[Anglo-Turkish War (1918–1923)|Anglo-Turkish War]]
* [[Assyrian rebellion]]
* [[Simko Shikak revolt (1918–1922)]]
*[[Kurdish–Turkish conflict]]
** [[Koçgiri rebellion]]
**[[Beytussebab rebellion]]
**[[Sheikh Said rebellion]]
**[[Ararat rebellion]]
***[[First Operation Ararat|Ararat I]] [[:tr: Birinci Ağrı Harekatı|[tr]]]
***[[Second Operation Ararat|Ararat II]] [[:tr: İkinci Ağrı Harekatı|[tr]]]
***[[Third Operation Ararat|Ararat III]]
**[[Dersim rebellion]]
{{Tree list/end}}
}}
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}
}}
'''Mustafa Kemal Atatürk''' ([[1881]] - [[10 November]] [[1938]]), jiske 1921 talak '''Mustafa Kemal Pasha''' aur 1921 se 1934 talak '''Ghazi Mustafa Kemal''' ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa,  Republic of [[Turkey]]  ke pahila  [[President of Turkey|President]] rahaa 1923 se 1938 talak. 

Mustafa Kemal ke janam [[1881]] me Selanik (abhi Thessaloniki, [[Greece]]) me bhais rahaa. Uske naam me Atatürk (Father of the Turks) baad me jorraa gais rahaa. 

[[World War I|First World War]] ke baad jab [[Ottoman Empire]] collapsed hoe gais tab  tab Atatürk ek Nationalist movement ke organise kar ke modern secular Republic of Turkey ke banais. 

Uu Turkey me dher badlao laais rahaa jisse Turkey ek aadhmik secular des bangais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;ÁgostonMasters20092&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |location=[[New York City|New York]] |access-date=23 January 2021 |last=Cuthell Jr. |first=David Cameron |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |pages=56–60 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |chapter=Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&amp;pg=PA56}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ataturk ke 1915 me [[World War I]] ke [[Battle of Gallipoli]] me Tuskey ke jiit ke khaatir khaas haanth rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Zürcher |first=Erik Jan |url=https://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Zurcher,%20Turkey-A%20Mod%20Hist.PDF#page=395 |title=Turkey : a modern history |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=1993 |isbn=9781850436140 |publication-place=London |page=384 |chapter=BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES |oclc=29416622 |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227062237/https://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Zurcher,%20Turkey-A%20Mod%20Hist.PDF#page=395 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Uu primary sikchha ke muft aur aniwaar karis rahaa, ayr des bhar me hajaro nawaa school banwais rahaa. Uu Turkish bhasa ke likhe ke script ke Arbii script se badal ke Latin script lkar diis rahaa. Uske niche Turkey ae aurat ke saaman adhikaar milaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Lowe |first=Norman |title=Mastering Modern World History |url=https://archive.org/details/masteringmodernw0000lowe_h6w5 |date=1988 |publisher=MacMillan Education |isbn= |edition=2nd |series=Macmillan Master Series |location=Basingstoke or London |oclc=19922607}} {{ISBN|978-0-333-48553-8|978-0-333-46576-9|9780333465776}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Turkish aurat log ke vote kare ke adhikaar bhi milaa rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;tempo2&quot;&gt;''Türkiye'nin 75 yılı'', Tempo Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 1998, pp. 48, 59, 250&lt;/ref&gt;

Uske sarkar, Turkey ke ek secular des banae ke kosis karis rahaa jahaan pe sab log ke public me Turkish bhasa me baat kare ke maang karaa gais rahaa. &lt;ref name=&quot;Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Sofos |first=Umut Özkırımlı &amp; Spyros A. |title=Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey |url=https://archive.org/details/tormentedbyhisto0000zkrm |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780231700528 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/tormentedbyhisto0000zkrm/page/167 167]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sab jagha ke naam ke Turkish naam me badlaa gais rahaa aur minority log ke bataawa gias rahaa ki uu log aapan surname ke badal ke Turkish naam rakkhe.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Öktem |first=Kerem |year=2008 |title=The Nation's Imprint: Demographic Engineering and the Change of Toponymes in Republican Turkey |url=http://ejts.revues.org/index2243.html |journal=European Journal of Turkish Studies |issue=7 |doi=10.4000/ejts.2243 |access-date=18 January 2013 |doi-access=free |archive-date=29 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229074313/http://ejts.revues.org/index2243.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
1934 me Turkey ke Parliament uske &quot;Ataturk&quot; surname diis rahaa jiske matlab &quot;Father of the Turks&quot; hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'ün Nüfus Hüviyet Cüzdanı. (24.11.1934) |url=https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/Tarih/1934/11/24/Mustafa-Kemal-Ataturkun-Nufus-Huviyet-Cuzdani-24111934/1 |access-date=3 October 2023 |website=İşte Atatürk {{!}} Atatürk Hakkında Bilmek İstediğiniz Herşey |publisher=www.isteataturk.com |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005174851/https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/Tarih/1934/11/24/Mustafa-Kemal-Ataturkun-Nufus-Huviyet-Cuzdani-24111934/1 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{wikiquote-en}}
{{commons}}

{{BD|1881|1938|Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal}}


{{bio-stub}}

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    <title>Suleiman the Magnificent</title>
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      <text bytes="7466" sha1="gn235tv6vk8zsxxs37oh3btn5bwqrv1" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Suleiman I
| title        = {{unbulleted list|[[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques]]|Shah of Baghdad in Iraq&lt;ref name=caesar&gt;{{cite book|title=medieval worlds comparative &amp; interdisciplinary studies|volume=14|year=2021|chapter=These are the narratives of bygone years: Conquest of a Fortress as a Source of Legitimacy|author=Dimitri Korobeinikov|url=https://www.medievalworlds.net/0xc1aa5576%200x003d0810.pdf|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press|quote=That the Ottomans might have had a different view was demonstrated by Sultan Sulaymān the Magnificent, who called himself the shah of Baghdad in ‘Iraq (Shah-i Bagdād-i ‘Irāq), the Caesar of Rome (qayṣar-i Rūm), and the sultan in Egypt (Miṣra (i.e. Mısıra) Sulṭān) in the inscription in the fortress of Bender (Bendery, Tighina) in Moldova, AH 945 (29 May 1538–18 May 1539). The title qayṣar-i Rūm (Caesar of Rome) was a traditional designation of the Byzantine emperor in Persian and Ottoman sources (from the Arabic al-qayṣar al-Rūm).|page=180}}&lt;/ref&gt;|[[Sultan of Egypt]]&lt;ref name=caesar /&gt;|[[Caesar of Rome]]&lt;ref name=caesar /&gt;|[[Khagan]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Oriental Translation Fund|volume=33|year=1834|page=19}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
| titletext    = 
| more         = 
| image        = EmperorSuleiman.jpg
| alt          = 
| caption      = Portrait of Suleiman by [[Titian]] ({{circa|1530}})
| succession   = [[Sultan of the Ottoman Empire]] ([[Padishah]])
| moretext     = 
| reign        = 30 September 1520 &lt;br/&gt;– 6 September 1566
| predecessor  = [[Selim I]]
| successor    = [[Selim II]]
| succession1  = [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman caliph]] (''[[Amir al-Mu'minin]]'')
| predecessor1 = Selim I
| successor1   = Selim II
| birth_date   = 6 November 1494&lt;ref name= AG-BM-encyc&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |editor-first2= Bruce |editor-last2= Masters |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/agoston-and-masters-enc-of-ott-empire |chapter=Süleyman I |date=2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| birth_place  = [[Trabzon]], [[Trebizond Eyalet|Trabzon Eyalet]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Ottoman Empire]]
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|1566|09|06|1494|11|06|df=y}}&lt;ref name= AG-BM-encyc /&gt;
| death_place  = [[Szigetvár]], [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Kingdom of Hungary]]
| burial_place = {{Indented plainlist|
* Organs buried at [[Turbék]],&lt;br/&gt; Szigetvár, Hungary
* Body buried at [[Süleymaniye Mosque]],&lt;br/&gt; Istanbul, Turkey
}}
| spouse      = {{marriage|[[Roxelana|Hürrem Sultan]]|May 1534|15 April 1558|end=died}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Peirce 2017&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Peirce|2017|pages=114}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br/&gt;[[Mahidevran Hatun]]
| spouse-type  = Consorts
| issue        = {{plainlist|
* Şehzade Mahmud
* Şehzade Murad 
* [[Şehzade Mustafa]]
* [[Raziye Sultan]]
* [[Şehzade Mehmed]]
* [[Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Suleiman I)|Mihrimah Sultan]]
* [[Selim II]]
* [[Şehzade Abdullah]]
* [[Şehzade Bayezid]]
* [[Şehzade Cihangir]]
}}
| full name    = Süleyman Şah bin Selim Şah Han&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Manuscript and Ferman Ornamentation Art in the Ottoman Empire|author1=Hüseyin Odabaş|author2=Coşkun Odabaş|page=123|year=2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| house        = [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottoman]]
| house-type   = Dynasty
| father       = [[Selim I]]
| mother       = [[Hafsa Sultan]]
| signature_type = [[Tughra]]
| religion     = [[Sunni Islam]]
| burial_date  = 
| signature    = Tughra of Suleiman I the Magnificent.svg
}}

'''Suleiman I''' (سليمان ''Sulaymān'', Süleyman; almost always ''Kanuni Sultan Süleyman'' [[Turkish bhasa|Turkish]] me) ([[6 November]] [[1494]] – [[5 September]]  [[1566]]), Ottoman Empire ke 10th Sultan rahaa. Uu [[1520]] se 1566 talak raj karis rahaa. UAke West me '''Suleiman the Magnificent''' ke naam se jaana jaawe hae &lt;ref&gt;Merriman.&lt;/ref&gt; aur [[Islamic world]], me '''the Lawgiver''' (in Turkish ''Kanuni''; {{lang-ar|القانونى}}, ''al‐Qānūnī''), kahe ki uu Ottoman legal system ke badal diis rahaa. 

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
&lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;
* {{cite web |url= http://www.bartleby.com/67/794.html|title= 1548-49|accessdate=2007-04-18 |work=The Encyclopedia of World History|year=2001}}
* {{cite web |url= http://www.bartleby.com/67/795.html|title= 1553-55|accessdate=2007-04-18 |work=The Encyclopedia of World History|year=2001}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/sample-10.html |title= A 400 Year Old Love Poem|accessdate=2007-04-18 |work=Women in World History Curriculum Showcase}}
* {{cite web|url= http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/04/embree/embree.htm|title= Suleiman The Magnificent|accessdate= 2007-04-18|first= Mark|last= Embree|year= 2004|archive-date= 2006-09-30|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060930054118/http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/04/embree/embree.htm|url-status= dead}}
* {{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060309091926/http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayinlarimiz/NEWSPOT/1999/JulyAug/N6.htm|title=Suleyman the Magnificent Poet|archivedate=2006-03-09|url=http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayinlarimiz/NEWSPOT/1999/JulyAug/N6.htm|accessdate=2007-04-18|last=Halman|first=Talat|year=1988|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.malta.com/about-malta/history-of-malta.html |title=The History of Malta |accessdate=2007-04-27 |first= |last= |year=2007 |archive-date=2007-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501155037/http://www.malta.com/about-malta/history-of-malta.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/save/hope/hope.html|title=Suleiman The Magnificent|accessdate=2007-04-18|last=Hope|first=Maggie|archive-date=2006-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060404062425/http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/save/hope/hope.html|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.turkcebilgi.net/kim-kimdir/m/muhibbi-kanuni-sultan-suleyman-31612.html |title=Muhibbî (Kanunî Sultan Süleyman) |accessdate=2008-01-13 |work=Türkçe Bilgi—Kim kimdir? |language=Turkish }}
* {{cite news |url= http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE7D6163EF935A15752C0A961948260|title=The Age of Sultan Suleyman |accessdate=2007-08-09 |first= John |last= Russell|date=[[2007-01-26]]|publisher=New York Times}}
&lt;/div&gt;

== Further reading ==
&lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;
* {{cite book |last= Bridge |first= Anthony|title=Suleiman the Magnificent, Scourge of Heaven |url= https://archive.org/details/suleimanmagnific0000brid |year= 1983 |location= New York |publisher= F. Watts |oclc=9853956}}
* {{cite book |last= Downey |first= Fairfax Davis |title= The Grand Turke, Suleyman the Magnificent, sultan of the Ottomans |year= |publisher= Minton, Balch &amp; Company |location= New York|oclc=25776191}}
* {{cite web |url = http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/SULEYMAN.HTM |last= Hooker|first= Richard |title= The Ottomans: Suleyman |accessdate=2007-09-02 }}
* {{cite book |last= Lybyer|first= Albert Howe |title=The government of the Ottoman empire in the time of Suleiman the Magnificent |url= https://archive.org/details/governmentottom01lybygoog|year= 1913 |location= Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher= Harvard University Press |oclc=1562148}}
&lt;/div&gt;

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://www.sinanasaygi.com/en/eserler.asp?action=eserDetay&amp;ID=77 Sultan Suleyman Tomb]

{{BD|1494|1566|Suleiman the Magnificent}}

[[vibhag:Raja aur rani]]
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    <title>Mohammed</title>
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      <text bytes="11305" sha1="42wcmz3msj5xpocb42yrfepfqnhgqps" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox religious biography
| honorific_prefix   = &lt;!-- see [[MOS:PBUH]] --&gt;
| name               = Muhammad
| native_name        = {{nobold|{{lang|ar|{{Script|Arab|مُحَمَّد}}}}}}
| native_name_lang   = ar
| image              = Dark vignette Al-Masjid AL-Nabawi Door800x600x300 (cropped).jpg
| caption            = &quot;Muhammad, the Messenger of God&quot; ke  Prophet's Mosque,&lt;br/&gt; [[Medina]] ke getaa me likhaa hae
| alt                = Inscription proclaiming Muhammad as the messenger of God
| birth_date         = {{Circa|570&amp;nbsp;CE}} (53 [[Hijri year|BH]]){{sfn|Conrad|1987}}
| birth_place        = {{Longitem|[[Mecca]], Hejaz, Arabia}}
| death_date         = {{Death date|632|6|8|df=y}} CE (11 AH; aged 61–62)
| death_place        = {{Longitem|[[Medina]], [[State of Medina]]}}
| resting_place      = {{Longitem|style=white-space; |[[Green Dome]] at the [[Prophet's Mosque]],&lt;br/&gt; Medina, Arabia}}
| resting_place_coordinates = {{coord|24|28|03|N|39|36|41|E|type:landmark_scale:5000_region:SA|display=inline|name=Green Dome}}
| other_names        = {{tlit|ar|Rasūl Allāh}} ({{literal translation|Messenger of God}})&lt;br /&gt;See [[names and titles of Muhammad]]
| known_for          = [[Islam]] suruu kare ke khaatir
| spouse             = [[Wives of Muhammad|11 to 13 wives]]
| children           = [[children of Muhammad]] ke dekho
| parents            = {{plainlist|
*[[Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] (abbaa)
*[[Amina bint Wahb]] (ammi)
}}
| relatives          = [[Ahl al-Bayt]] ({{literal translation|People of the House}})&lt;br /&gt;See [[family tree of Muhammad]]
| module             = {{Infobox Arabic name|embed=yes
|ism=Muḥammad
|ism-ar={{Script|Arab|مُحَمَّد}}
|nasab=Ibn [[Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib|ʿAbd Allāh]] ibn [[Abd al-Muttalib|ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib]] ibn [[Hashim ibn Abd Manaf|Hāshim]] ibn [[Abd Manaf ibn Qusai|ʿAbd Manāf]] ibn [[Qusai ibn Kilab|Quṣayy]] ibn [[Kilab ibn Murrah|Kilāb]]
|nasab-ar={{Script|Arab|ٱبْن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه بْن عَبْد ٱلْمُطَّلِب بْن هَاشِم بْن عَبْد مَنَاف بْن قُصَيّ بْن كِلَاب}}
|kunya=[[Abū al-Qāsim]]
|kunya-ar={{Script|Arab|أَبُو ٱلْقَاسِم}}
|laqab=[[Seal of the Prophets|Khātam al-Nabiyyīn]] 
|laqab-ar={{Script|Arab|خَاتَم ٱلنَّبِيِّين}} {{nwr|{{literal translation|Seal of the Prophets}}}}
}}
| religion           =
}}

'''Muhammad''' ([[Arbii bhasa|Arbii]]: محمد )([[20 April]] [[571]] - [[8 June]] [[632]] AD)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9105853/Muhammad|title= Muhammad|work=Encyclopedia Britannica |accessdate=2008-07-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ek [[Muslim]]  prophet aur [[politics|political leader]] rahaa, jiske [[Muslim]] log  [[Allah]] ([[God]]) ke aakhri [[prophet]] maane hae. Uu [[Ishmael]], [[Abraham]] ke larrka ke larrka rahaa.

Muhammed ke janam [[Mecca]] me Qurayah clan ke Banu Hashim me bhais rahaa. Uu Abdulla ibn Abd al-Muttalib aur Amuna bint Wahb ke larrka rahaa. Uske abba, Abdullah, jon tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Wahb ke larrka rahaa, Mohammed ke janam ke time mar gais rahaa. Uske ammi, Amina, maut uu time bhais jab Mohammed 6 saal ke rahaa. Mohammed ke uke Daada, Abd al-Muttalib aur ammi ke bhiyaa, Abu TAlib paale rahin.  Baad ke saal me Muhammed akele Hira gufaa me rahat rahaa. Jab uu 40 saal ke rahaa tab uu ii batais ki gufaa me [[Gabriel]] aais rahaa aur uske Allah se pahila relevation mila rahaa. 613 me, &lt;ref&gt;Howarth, Stephen. ''Knights Templar''. 1985. {{ISBN|978-0-8264-8034-7}} p.&amp;nbsp;199.&lt;/ref&gt; Muhammed ii relevations ke parrhae lagaa,&lt;ref name=&quot;AlAzami2003&quot;&gt;[[Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami]] (2003), ''The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments'', pp.&amp;nbsp;26–27. UK Islamic Academy. {{ISBN|978-1-872531-65-6}}.&lt;/ref&gt; aur ii batais ki Allah ek hae, aur insaan ke aapan puura jindagi ke Allah ke message ke failae me lagae ke chaahi.

Suruu me Mohammed ke chelaa kamtii rahin aur uu log ke sarkar 13 saal talak prosecute karat rahaa. Prosecution se bache ke khaatir, Mohammed aapan kuchh chelaa log ke 615 me Abyssinia bhej diis rahaa. 622 Muhammed aur uske chelaa log Mecca ke shorr ke Medina me jaae ke rahe lagin. Ii saal ke Islamic calendar ke suruu maana jaae hae. 629 me Muhammed 10,000 chela ke lae ke Mecca ke uppar charrhai kar diis aur Mecca uske niche hoe gais. 632 me Muhammed bemaar hoe ke mar gais. Uske maut ke time Arabian Peninsula ke jaada log Muslim hoe gae rahin.

Jon revelations ke Muhammed batais ki uske maut talak milat rahaa, ke [[Quran]] ke verse me likha gais hae aur iske Muslim log Allah ke baat maane hae. Mohammed ke teaching aur practice ke hadith aur uske biography, sirah, me mile hae. Islam ke alaawa, Druze log Mohammed ke bhi ek prophet maane hae aur [[Bahai Faith]] me Allah ke autar maana jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Qurʾān |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran |access-date=24 September 2013 |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505001543/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran |archive-date=5 May 2015 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths'', Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, p. 338, I. B. Tauris.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{qref|17|106|b=y}}&lt;/ref&gt; Quran ke ek Allah ke duut ke reveal karaa gais hae aur iske Mohammed ke reveal karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Watt2024&quot;&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2024 |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad |access-date=4 February 2023 |last1=Watt |first1=William Montgomery |author-link1=W. Montgomery Watt |last2=Sinai |first2=Nicolai |author-link2=Nicolai Sinai}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Quran===
Quran Islam ke khaas dharmik book hae. Muslim log ii biswas kare hae ki ii Allah ke sabd hae jiske angel Gabriel, Muhammmed ke batais hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Watt2024&quot;/&gt;

== Aur Parho==
&lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;
* {{cite book | author=Adil Salahi | title=Muhammad: Man and Prophet| url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadmanproph0000sala_q2x9 | publisher=Islamic Foundation (UK) | year=[[2002]] | id=ISBN 1-86204-290-X}}
* {{cite book | author=Andrae, Tor | title=Mohammed: The Man and His Faith | publisher=Dover | year=[[2000]] | id=ISBN 0-486-41136-2}}
* {{cite book | author=Armstrong, Karen | title=Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet | url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadbiograph0000arms_e2o3 | location=San Francisco | publisher=Harper | year=[[1993]] | id=ISBN 0-06-250886-5}}
* {{cite book | author=Berg, Herbert, ed. | title=Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins | publisher=E. J. Brill | year=[[2003]] | id=ISBN 90-04-12602-3}}
* {{cite book | author=Cook, Michael | title=Muhammad | url=https://archive.org/details/muhammad0000cook_h0b4 | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=[[1983]] | id=ISBN 0-19-287605-8 (reissue 1996)}}
* {{cite book | author=Dashti, Ali | title=Twenty-Three Years: A Study of the Prophetic Career of Mohammad | url=https://archive.org/details/twentythreeyears0000alid | publisher=Mazda | year=[[1994]] | id=ISBN 1-56859-029-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Hamidullah, Muhammad | title=The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam | publisher=(s.n.)(Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute) | year=[[1998]] | id=ISBN 969-8413-00-6}}
* {{cite book |author=Motzki, Harald, ed. | title=The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources (Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32) | publisher=Brill | year=[[2000]] |id=ISBN 90-04-11513-7}}
* {{cite book | author=Rodinson, Maxime | title=Muhammad | publisher=New Publishers | year=[[1961]] | id=ISBN 1-56584-752-0}}
* {{cite book | author=Rodinson, Maxime | title=Muhammad: Prophet of Islam | publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks | year=[[2002]] | id=ISBN 1-86064-827-4}}
* {{cite book | author=Rubin, Uri | title=The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims (A Textual Analysis) | url=https://archive.org/details/eyeofbeholderlif0000rubi | publisher=Darwin Press | year=[[1995]] | id=ISBN 0-87850-110-X}}
* {{cite book | author=Schimmel, Annemarie | title=And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety | url=https://archive.org/details/andmuhammadishis00schi | publisher=The University of North Carolina Press | year=[[1985]] | id=ISBN 0-8078-4128-5}}
* {{cite book | author=Stillman, Norman | year=[[1975]] | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: a History and Source Book | url=https://archive.org/details/jewsofarablandsh0000norm | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | id=ISBN 0-8276-0198-0}}
* {{cite book | author=Warraq, Ibn | title=The Quest for the Historical Muhammad | url=https://archive.org/details/questforhistoric00ibnw | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=[[2000]] | id=ISBN 1-57392-787-2}}

&lt;/div&gt;

== References ==
&lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

== Duusra websites ==


&lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105853/Muhammad Muhammad], article on ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online''
* [http://www.pbs.org/muhammad Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet - PBS Site]
* [http://www.upf.tv/upf06/Projects/MuhammadDocumentary/tabid/175/Default.aspx Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet - UPF (Producer's Site)]
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553918/Muhammad_(prophet).html/ Encarta Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623201920/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553918/Muhammad_(prophet).html/ |date=2006-06-23 }}
* [http://31.1911encyclopedia.org/M/MA/MAHOMET.htm 1911 Encyclopedia article on Mahomet]
* [http://www.answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Muir/Life1/index.htm William Muir: The Life of Mahomet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513101854/http://www.answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Muir/Life1/index.htm |date=2008-05-13 }}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1091 The Hero as Prophet] A passionate championship of Prophet Muhammad as a Hegelian agent of reform. by Carlyle, Thomas (1795-1881) On Heroes and the Heroic in History. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1966.

* [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/index.htm Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar)] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011214185113/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/books/sm_tsn/index.htm |date=2001-12-14 }}
* [http://comp.uark.edu/~muslim/publications/Ar-Raheeq%20Al-Makhtum.pdf PDF version of Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205094211/http://comp.uark.edu/~muslim/publications/Ar-Raheeq%20Al-Makhtum.pdf |date=2007-02-05 }}
* [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MH_LM/default.htm The Life of Muhammad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809201742/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MH_LM/default.htm |date=2007-08-09 }} by Muhammad Husayn Haykal
* [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/ About the Prophet Muhammad (University of Southern California)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612062303/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/ |date=2006-06-12 }}
&lt;/div&gt;

{{BD|0570|0632|Muhammed}}

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Dharmik neta]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Karela</title>
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      <text bytes="4556" sha1="19cn1jdx2lauq0fpf2ys54y6gwpl9hw" xml:space="preserve">'''''Karela''''' ek faile waala [[paudha]] hae jis ki garam des me hoe hae aur jiske fal ke khawa jaawe hae. Ii khaae me karrua hae. [[English bhasa|English]] me iske naam hae '''bitter melon''' nai to '''bitter gourd''' ,  '''goya''' Japanese me, '''ampalaya''' Tagalog me , aur '''karella'''  [[Panjabi bhasa|Punjabi]], [[Hindi|Hindi-Urdu]], [[Nepali bhasa|Nepali]]  and [[Bengali bhasa|Bengali]],  '''khổ qua'''/ '''mướp đắng''' [[Vietnamese bhasa|Vietnamese]] me. South American aur Caribbean me iske '''Carilla''', '''Balsamino''' aur '''Saraseed''' bola jaawe hae.

Iske jaada kar ke [[India]] aur Indian subcontinent ke duusra des, aur [[Southeast Asia]], [[China]], [[Africa]], aur [[Caribbean]] me boya jaawe hae.

&lt;gallery&gt;
&lt;Image:Atsuko Goya Park 11 Nov 06.jpg|A park in Okinawa dedicated entirely to Goya --&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;


== Gallery ==

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;small&gt;(Various images from Wikipedia)&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Momordica charantia Blanco2.357.png|[[Flora]] of the [[Philippines]] ([[1880]]-[[1883|83]])
Image:Momordica charantia 04.JPG|Flower
Image:Momordica charantia - Female flower.JPG|Female flower
Image:Momordica charantia - Male flower.JPG|Male flower
Image:Momordica charantia - flower 01.jpg|Flower
Image:Momordica charantia - flower 02.jpg|Flower
Image:MomordicaCharantia flowers.jpg|Flowers
Image:Charantia_flower.jpg|Flower
Image:Momordica charantia - Immature fruit.JPG|Immature fruit
Image:Momordica charantia - fruit 01.JPG|Fruit
Image:Momordica charantia - Fruit 02.JPG|Fruit
Image:Momordica charantia 05.JPG
Image:Momordica charantia 01.JPG
Image:Momordica charantia1.jpg
Image:ニガウリの変態P9060068.jpg|Ripe fruit
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;
* Abascal K, Yarnell E (2005) &quot;Using bitter melon to treat diabetes&quot; Altern Complemen Ther 11(4):179-184

* {{cite book | author=H.K.Bakhru | title=Foods that Heal. The Natural Way to Good Health| url=https://archive.org/details/foodsthathealnat0000bakh | publisher=Orient Paperbacks | year=1997| isbn=81-222-0033-8}}

* Baldwa VS, Bhandari CM, Pangaria A, Goyal RK (1977) “Clinical trial in patients with diabetes mellitus of an insulin-like compound obtained from plant source” Upsala J Med Sci 82:39-41.

== External links ==
{{commons|Momordica charantia}}
* [http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&amp;ArticleID=549&amp;MagazineID=34 &quot;An Acquired Taste.&quot;] Article about bittermelon in ''[[Hana Hou!]]'' Vol. 10, No. 1 (February/March 2007).
* [http://www.rain-tree.com/bitmelon.htm Rain-tree]
* [http://www.healthynerd.com/2006/08/02/bitter-melon-prickly-pear-cactus-reduce-glucose-levels-of-type-2-diabetics/ Research on Bitter Melon and other vegetables as treatment for Diabetes / Glucose level reduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100829020505/http://www.healthynerd.com/2006/08/02/bitter-melon-prickly-pear-cactus-reduce-glucose-levels-of-type-2-diabetics/ |date=2010-08-29 }}
* [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=22397 ITIS report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930022416/http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=22397 |date=2006-09-30 }}
* [http://www.philippineherbalmedicine.org/ampalaya.htm Ampalaya (Momordica Charantia)]
* [http://www.charantia.com/about-ampalaya/ Ampalaya (Momordica charantia) Herb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818204140/http://www.charantia.com/about-ampalaya/ |date=2010-08-18 }}
* [http://www.bittermelon.org The National Bitter Melon Council]
* [http://www1.charanteausa.com/bittermelonstudies/ Bitter Melon Studies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110022551/http://www.charanteausa.com/bittermelonstudies/ |date=2007-11-10 }}
* [http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/efloras/namedetail.do;jsessionid=AE3DC0233E2A6B2EB06D41EB863E24B5?flora=fz&amp;qry=key&amp;taxon=3824&amp;keyid=852 Detailed botanical description] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823233952/http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/efloras/namedetail.do |date=2006-08-23 }}
* [http://www.herbyclinic.com/article.php?id=47 Medical Uses] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621152943/http://www.herbyclinic.com/article.php?id=47 |date=2009-06-21 }}
* [http://www.facebook.com/pages/Ampalaya/146756461756 Ampalaya on Facebook]
* [http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/8513/31402/348736.html?d=dmtContent Bitter Melon Monograph] by [[Harvard Medical School]] and [[Natural Standard Research Collaboration]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bitter Melon}}
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    <title>Fida Hussein</title>
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|name          = Fida Hussein
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|alt           = Fida Hussein
|caption       = Fida Hussein
|birth_name    = 
|birth_date    = 1947
|birth_place   = Nausori, Fiji
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|known_for     = Member of House of Representatives: 1987
|education     = 
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|years_active  = 1987
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|salary        = 
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'''Fida Hussein''' (janam: [[1947]]), [[Fiji]] ke ek Hindustani hae jon ke ek Police, sales consultant aur [[Fiji ke House of Representatives]] ke member rahaa.
Uske janam  [[Nausori]] me bhais rahaa aur school parrhe ke baad uu 1964 me Police me bharti bhaes. 1981 me uu Police se resign kar ke ek ''Fiji Times'' ke khatir sales rep banaaa. Uu  [[Fiji Muslim League]] ke ek active member rahaa aur [[Suva]] City Council elections me [[Muslim]] log me [[Fiji Labour Party]] ke khatir campaign karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages p.380}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[1987 ke election (Fiji)|1987 ke election]] me [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]] uske  South Eastern Indian National Constituency ke khatir chunis. .&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/islands/pdf/ch03.pdf |title=Things fall apart |accessdate=2007-06-11 |format= |work= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623122741/http://epress.anu.edu.au/islands/pdf/ch03.pdf |archivedate=2007-06-23 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Hussein jiit gais lekin Parliament ke member khaali ek mahina talak rahaa, jab ki  [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coup of 1987]] ke kaaran uske political career khatam hoe gais. [[14 May]] [[1987]] me uu Bavadra sarkar ke 28 memeber me se ek rahaa jiske Rabuka hostage le liis rahaa.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|1947||Hussein, Fida}}

[[Category:Nausori ke log]]
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    <title>Navin Patel</title>
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      <text bytes="1186" sha1="fy0fgb3wwnrgf1wvua1ep7p4m3l67rq" xml:space="preserve">'''Navin Patel''', [[Fiji]] ke ek Hindustani businessman aur politician hae. Uu Ba Indian Communal Constituency kr Fiji ke [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] me [[National Federation Party (Fiji)|National Federation Party]] (NFP) khatir 1977 se lae ke 1987 talak member rahaa. [[Fiji general election, 1987|1987 election]] me uu North Central Indian National Constituency se kharrraa bhais aur sahaj se jiit gais. &lt;ref name=Howard&gt; {{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages p.378}}&lt;/ref&gt; lekin Parliament me khaali ek mahina talak rahaa jab ki [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coup of 1987]] uskepolitical career ke khalaas kar diis. Uske bhaiya, [[Vinod Patel]], baad me Ba Indian Communal Constituency se chuna gais rahaa.

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{BD|UNKNOWN|UNKNOWN|Patel, Navin}}
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      <text bytes="1530" sha1="em6ws4mevwf9vxhmsis6abo2uvi4wz9" xml:space="preserve">'''Narsi Raniga''' (janam: 1943), [[Fiji]] ke ek  senior [[civil servant]] aur [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] of Fiji ke member rahaa.

Uske janam [[Ba District, Fiji|Ba]] me bhais rahaa aur uu aapan [[Bachelor of Arts]], [[University of Queensland]] se paais rahaa. Kuchh din talak parrhae ke baad, uu  postgraduate courses at the [[University of Auckland]] aur [[Cambridge University]] se karis. Fiji laute ke baad uu civil service join kar ke dher Government posts pe rahaa, jisme [[diplomatic corps]] aur Government departments ke head bhi rahaa.

1987 me uu civil service se resign kar ke  South Central National Constituency ke khatir [[Alliance Party (Fiji)|Alliance Party]] ke bagal se kharra bhais aur ii seat ke sahaj se jiit liis.  Lekin uske Prty elelction haar gais aur uu. He won the seat with a comfortable margin, but his party lost the election and he sat on the opposition bench for a month when the [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coup of 1987]] prematurely ended his political career.&lt;ref name=Howard&gt; {{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island stste |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages =pp.377-378}}&lt;/ref&gt;


== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|1943||Raniga, Narsi}}
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[[Category:Alliance Party ke member]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Augustine of Hippo</title>
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      <text bytes="15661" sha1="08im2aftkgt47dz5o223oa2bng6sr4u" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix= [[Saint]]
| name= Augustine of Hippo
| titles= [[Bishop of Hippo Regius]]&lt;br&gt;[[Church Father]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Doctor of the Church]]&lt;br&gt;[[Blessed (Orthodox)|Blessed]]
| birth_name = Aurelius Augustinus
| birth_date= 13 November 354
| birth_place= [[Thagaste]], Numidia Cirtensis, Roman Empire&lt;br/&gt; (abhi ke [[Souk Ahras]], Algeria)
| death_date= 28 August 430 (aged 75)
| death_place= [[Hippo Regius]], Numidia Cirtensis,&lt;br/&gt; [[Western Roman Empire]] (abhi ke Annaba, Algeria)
| resting_place= [[Pavia]], Italy
| feast_day= {{plainlist|
* 28 August ([[Western Christianity]])
* 15 June ([[Eastern Christianity]])
* 4 November ([[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]])}}
| image= Saint Augustine by Philippe de Champaigne.jpg
| caption= ''Saint Augustin'' {{Circa|1645}}
| venerated_in= All [[Christian denomination]]s which [[veneration of saints|venerate saints]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date = [[Pre-Congregation]]
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =[[San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro]], Pavia, Italy
| attributes = [[Crozier]], [[mitre]], young child,&lt;br/&gt; book, small church, flaming or pierced heart&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book| last = Hall| first = James| title = Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art| page = 35| year = 1996| edition = 2nd| publisher = John Murray | isbn = 0-7195-4147-6}}; {{Cite book| last = Daniel| first = Howard |  title = Encyclopedia of Themes and Subjects in Painting| url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaoft0000dani| page = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaoft0000dani/page/35 35]| year = 1971| publisher = Thames and Hudson | isbn = 0-500-18114-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| patronage = {{hlist|[[Brewing|Brewers]]|[[Printer (publisher)|Printers]]|[[Theologians]]|[[Philosophers]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[Conjunctivitis|Sore eyes]]|[[Bridgeport, Connecticut]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[Cagayan de Oro]]|[[San Agustin, Isabela]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[Mendez, Cavite]]|[[Tanza|Tanza, Cavite]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[Baliwag|Baliwag, Bulacan]]|[[Lubao|Lubao, Pampanga]]|[[Iba, Zambales]]}}
| module =
{{Infobox philosopher
| embed = yes
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| school_tradition =
{{flatlist|
* [[Augustinianism]]
}}
| notable_students = [[Orosius|Paul Orosius]]{{sfn|Nguyen|Prior|2014|p=66}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Prosper of Aquitaine]]
| main_interests =
{{plainlist|
* [[Christian anthropology]]
* [[Biblical criticism]]
* [[Epistemology]]
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Metaphysics]]
* [[Pedagogy]]
* [[Philosophy of religion]]
* [[Theodicy]]
* [[Theology]]
}}
| notable_works ={{plainlist|
* ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]''
* ''[[On Christian Doctrine]]''
* ''[[On the Trinity]]''
* ''[[City of God (book)|The City of God]]''}}
| notable_ideas = {{collapsible list|title={{nbsp}}
|''[[Filioque]]''{{sfn|Siecienski|2010}}
|[[Original sin]]&lt;ref&gt;Bonaiuti, Ernesto, and Giorgio La Piana. &quot;The Genesis of St. Augustine's Idea of Original Sin.&quot; ''The Harvard Theological Review'', vol. 10, no. 2, 1917, pp. 159–175. {{JSTOR|1507550}}. Accessed 20 June 2022.&lt;/ref&gt;
|[[Free will in theology#Roman Catholic|Free will]]
|[[Augustinian soteriology]]
|[[Just war theory]]
|[[Absence of good]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Augustine|title=Enchridion|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf103.iv.ii.xiii.html|chapter=What Is Called Evil in the Universe Is But the Absence of Good|access-date=17 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|[[Concupiscence]]{{sfn|Greenblatt|2017}}
|[[Sacramental character]]{{sfn|Ryan|1908}}
|[[Augustinian hypothesis]]&lt;ref&gt;St. Augustine, ''The Harmony of the Gospels'', Book 1 chapter 2 paragraph 4. from {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20041222004112/http://www.hypotyposeis.org/synoptic-problem/2004/10/external-evidence-augustine.html hypothesis.com]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|[[Augustinian theodicy]]
|[[Augustinian values]]{{sfn|Esmeralda|n.d.|p=}}|[[Divine command theory]]{{sfn|Austin|2006}}
|[[Amillennialism]]
|''[[You are Christ]]''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.catholic.org/prayers/prayer.php?s=5|title=Jesus Christ Prayers – Prayers|first=Catholic|last=Online|website=Catholic Online}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|[[Deity]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=deity |title=Deity |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=6 June 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|''[[Solvitur ambulando]]''{{sfn|Huffington|2013}}|[[Heroic virtue]]{{sfn|Wilhelm|1910}}
|''[[Incurvatus in se]]''{{sfn|Jenson|2006}}
|[[Allegorical interpretations of Genesis|Genesis as an allegory]]&lt;ref&gt;''Literal Interpretation of Genesis'' 1:19–20, Chapt. 19&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''The Literal Interpretation of Genesis'' 2:9&lt;/ref&gt;
|[[Divine illumination]]
|[[Theocentricism]]{{sfn|Demacopoulos|Papanikolaou|2008|p=271}}
|[[Limbo of Infants|Limbo]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/15011.htm |title=Church Fathers: On Merit and the Forgiveness of Sins, and the Baptism of Infants, Book I (Augustine) |publisher=www.newadvent.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
}}
{{Ordination
| denomination = Catholic Church
| embed        = yes
| date of priestly ordination = 391
| place of priestly ordination = [[Hippo Regius]]
| date of consecration = 395
| consecrated by = Megalius
| sources = {{sfn|Portalié|1907a}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Augustine of Hippo, Bishop and Theologian|url=http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/50.html|website=justus.anglican.org|publisher=Society of Archbishop Justus|access-date=22 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824001306/http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/50.html|archive-date=24 August 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}}}
'''Aurelius Augustinus''', '''Augustine of Hippo''', nai to '''Saint Augustine''' ([[13 November]] [[354]] – [[28 August]] [[430]]) ek [[philosopher]], theologian aur ek bishop rahaa. Uu North African ke city, [[Hippo Regius]] me aapan aakhri din bitais. Augustine, Western [[Isai]] ke develop kare ke ek khaas jan rahaa aur uske ii church ke ek suruu kare waala maana jaawe hae. Uu [[original sin]] aur [[just war]] ke concept suruu karis rahaa.

[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] aur [[Anglican Communion]] me uu saint aur [[Doctor of the Church]], aur patron of the [[Augustinians|Augustinian religious order]] maana jaawe hae. Dher [[Protestantism|Protestants]] log, jaada kar ke [[Calvinism|Calvinists]], uske ek theological father [[Reformation]] teaching [[salvation]] aur [[divine grace|grace]] khatir maane hae. [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] me bhi uu ek saint hae aur uske feast day har saal [[15 June]] ke celebrate karaa jaawe hae. Orthodox log me uske '''Blessed Augustine''', nai to '''St. Augustine the Blessed''' ke naam se jaana jaawe hae. .&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | title =Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church: A Corrective Compilation | journal =Orthodox Tradition | volume =XIV | issue =4 | pages =33-35 | url =http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx | accessdate =2007-06-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Books ==
* ''On Christian Doctrine,'' [[397]]-[[426]]
* ''Confessions (St. Augustine),'' 397-[[398]]
* ''The City of God,'' suruu bhais [[413]], khalaas 426
* ''On the Trinity,'' [[400]]-[[416]]
* ''Enchiridion of Augustine''
* ''Retractions (book)'': Aapan jindagi ke aakhri din me (ca. [[426]]-[[428]]) Augustine, aapan pahile waala kaam ke fir se dekhis  aur ii batais ki  ''Retractions (book)'' ke duusra rakam likhta.
* ''The Literal Meaning of Genesis''
* On Free Choice of the Will

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==

&lt;references /&gt;
* ''The Story of Thought'', DK Publishing, [[Bryan Magee]], London, 1998, ISBN 0-7894-4455-0
: aka ''The Story of Philosophy'', Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2001, ISBN 0-7894-7994-X
::(subtitled on cover: ''The Essential Guide to the History of Western Philosophy'')
:: &lt;sup&gt;g&lt;/sup&gt; Saint Augustine, pages 30, 144; ''City of God'' 51, 52, 53 and ''The Confessions'' 50, 51, 52
:: - additional in the Dictionary of the History of Ideas for [http://etext.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv3-64 Saint Augustine and Neo-Platonism]


== Bibliography ==
* [[Peter Brown (historian)|Brown, Peter]]. ''Augustine of Hippo''.  Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.  ISBN 0-520-00186-9
* Gareth B. Matthews.  ''Augustine''.  Blackwell, 2005.  ISBN 0-631-23348-2
* [[James J. O'Donnell|O'Donnell, James J.]] ''Augustine: A New Biography''. New York:  HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0-06-053537-7
* [[Leo Ruickbie|Ruickbie, Leo]]. ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows''. London: Robert Hale, 2004. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7, pp. 57-8.
* [[Adolphe Tanquerey|Tanquerey, Adolphe]]. ''The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on [[Ascetical theology|Ascetical]] and Mystical Theology''.  Reprinted Ed. (original 1930).  Rockford, IL: Tan Books, 2000. ISBN 0-89555-659-6, p. 37.
* [[John von Heyking|von Heyking, John]]. ''Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World''. Columbia:  University of Missouri Press, 2001.  ISBN 0-8262-1349-9
* [http://www.cassiciaco.it/ITA/001ago/Agostiniani/lubin_conventi/lubin_600.htm ''Orbis Augustinianus sive conventuum O. Erem. S. A. chorographica et topographica descriptio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050321185503/http://www.cassiciaco.it/ita/001ago/Agostiniani/lubin_conventi/lubin_600.htm |date=2005-03-21 }} Augustino Lubin, Paris, 1659, 1671, 1672.
* '''Regle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congregation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarne et du Saint-Sacrament''' (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28-29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp. 22-24. English edition, ''The Rule of Saint Augustine and the Constitutions of the Order of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament'' (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33-35.
* {{cite book | author=Zumkeller O.S.A.,Adolar | title=Augustine's ideal of Religious life | publisher= Fordham University Press, New York| year=1986 |}}
* {{cite book | author=Zumkeller O.S.A.,Adolar | title=Augustine's Rule | publisher= Augustinian Press, Villanova, 
Pennsylvania U.S.A.| year=1987 |}}
* René Pottier. ''Saint Augustin le Berbère''. Fernand Lanore , 2006.  ISBN 2-85157-282-2
* {{cite book | author=Fitzgerald, Allan D.,  O.S.A., General Editor | title=Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia | publisher=Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., | year=1999 |}}  ISBN 0-8028-3843-X
* {{cite book | author=Plumer, Eric Antone, | title=Augustine's Commentary on Galatians | publisher=Oxford [England] ; New York : Oxford University Press, | year=2003 |}}  ISBN 0-19-924439-1 ISBN 978-0-19-924439-3 [http://books.google.com/books?id=giU_cNz-850C&amp;pg=PA161&amp;ots=ET4Y6Jc7ik&amp;dq=9780199244393&amp;sig=myCRg1UL3Uu7roF-aGPXbCPlwts#PPP1,M1 Preview from Google]


== Duusra websites ==

** At UPenn: [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/augustine/ Texts, translations, introductions, commentaries...] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022075339/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/augustine/ |date=2006-10-22 }}
** [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/augustine.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography and on-line articles.
** [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02084a.htm Life of St. Augustine of Hippo], from the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''
** [http://www.centropian.com/religion/academic/theologians/AofHkit/index.html Augstine of Hippo ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013202401/http://www.centropian.com/religion/academic/theologians/AofHkit/index.html |date=2007-10-13 }}, at Centropian
* Texts by Augustine:
** {{gutenberg author|id=Augustine_of_Hippo|name=Augustine of Hippo}}
** In Latin, at ''The Latin Library'': [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/august.html books and letters by Augustine]
** At &quot;Christian Classics Ethereal Library&quot; [http://www.ccel.org/a/augustine/ Translations of several works by Augustine, incl. introductions]
** [http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=400-499&amp;author=Augustine&amp;text=Confessions%20and%20Enchiridion%20Introduction The Enchiridion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109100937/http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=400-499&amp;author=Augustine&amp;text=Confessions%20and%20Enchiridion%20Introduction |date=2006-11-09 }} by Augustine
** [http://www.augustinus.it] Full Latin and Italian text resource
** At &quot;IntraText Digital Library&quot;: [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT31.HTM Works by Augustine in several languages, with concordance and frequency list]
** [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/20_40_0354-0430-_Augustinus,_Sanctus.html St. Augustine's Multilingual Opera Omnia]
* Texts on Augustine:
** [http://www.mrrena.com/misc/august.shtml St. Augustine: Between Two Worlds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116071657/http://www.mrrena.com/misc/august.shtml |date=2006-11-16 }}
** [http://personal2.stthomas.edu/gwschlabach/docs/jhy-aug.htm Augustine and 'other Catholics'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101212144/http://personal2.stthomas.edu/gwschlabach/docs/jhy-aug.htm |date=2014-11-01 }}
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
** [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/augustinegracesin.html &quot;Augustine's Concept of Freedom: The Dynamic of Sin and Grace&quot; from ''Grace Incarnate'' (1989)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829231835/http://www.revneal.org/Writings/augustinegracesin.html |date=2006-08-29 }}
** [http://www.econ.ucla.edu/workingpapers/wp813.pdf Augustine's Heavenly City and the Western Mind]{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}Pgs 22-24
* On Music
** [http://www.smithcreekmusic.com/Hymnology/What.is.a.Hymn/Augustine.html Augustine on Hymns] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116170253/http://www.smithcreekmusic.com/Hymnology/What.is.a.Hymn/Augustine.html |date=2006-11-16 }}
* On Original Sin ask Dan Santos
** [http://www.leaderu.com/theology/augpelagius.html Augustine and Pelagius]
** [http://www.cse.uiuc.edu/~siefert/research/original_sin.html Augustine and Thomas Aquinas on Original Sin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060919111003/http://www.cse.uiuc.edu/~siefert/research/original_sin.html |date=2006-09-19 }}
** [http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft9811/articles/oakes.html Original sin: a disputation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016124648/http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft9811/articles/oakes.html |date=2006-10-16 }}
** [http://cco.cambridge.org/extract?id=ccol0521650186_CCOL0521650186A005 The Cambridge Companion to Augustine; 3 Augustine on evil and original sin ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118100016/http://cco.cambridge.org/extract?id=ccol0521650186_CCOL0521650186A005 |date=2007-11-18 }}
* Links to the Augustinian Order
** [http://www.augnet.org/default.asp?ipageid=223 Augustine's writings] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824223856/http://www.augnet.org/default.asp?ipageid=223 |date=2006-08-24 }}
* Audio books
** [http://www.doxologypress.org/theaudio/index.html City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309192235/http://www.doxologypress.org/theaudio/index.html |date=2021-03-09 }}
* Augustine and Orthodoxy
** [http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church]
** [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article8153.asp St. Augustine in the Greek Orthodox Tradition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922190602/http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article8153.asp |date=2008-09-22 }}
** [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?FSID=101736 St Augustine the Bishop of Hippo] Orthodox [[icon]] and synaxarion

[[vibhag:Italy ke log]]
[[Vibhag:Dharmik neta]]
[[Vibhag:Isai dharam]]</text>
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    <title>Shiromaniam Madhavan</title>
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'''Shiromaniam Madhavan''' ([[1944]] - [[29 June]] [[1994]]), jon ki [[National Federation Party (Fiji)|National Federation Party]] (NFP) ke suruu kare waala ek jan ke larrkaa rahaa aur Labasa Town Council aur  [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] me aapan sewa diis rahaa, Fiji ke jaada Hindustani waala tiino Party ke member koi na koi dafe rahaa.

Uske janam Labasa, Fiji 1944 me bhaes rahaa aur uu [[Vanua Levu]] ke ek bahut din ke politician, [[James Madhavan]],ke larrka rahaa.  1960s me uu Air Pacific Employees' Association ke suru karis rahaa, aur uu iske Secretary aur President bhi rahaa. Uu 1963 se politics me rahaa aur 1973 me Labasa Town Council me chuna gais rahaa aur 1978 me mayor banaa. 1982 me uu Council me fir se chuna gais lekin ii dafe uu independent rahaa.

1974 me, Leader of the Opposition (S.M. Koya) uske [[Senate (Fiji)|Senate]] ke khatir nominate karis. [[Fiji general election, September 1977|September 1977 election]],me uu NFp ke [[National Federation Party - Dove faction (Fiji)|Dove Faction]], jiske leader Koya rahaa, ke support karis rahaa. [[Fiji general election, 1987|1987 general election]], me uu [[Alliance Party (Fiji)|Alliance]] ke bagal se Labasa/Bua Indian Communal Constituency me kharraa bhaes rahaa aur uu ek baraa vote se [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]] opponent se haar gais.&lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages =p.384}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Baad me Madhavan,[[Fiji Labour Party]] ke member ban gais aur [[Labasa Indian Constituency (Fiji) 1992 - 1999|Labasa Indian Constituency]] ke khatir [[Fiji general election, 1992|1992 general election]] me kharraa bhaes rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://lawakibeqa.tripod.com/achievements.htm |title=Achievements of FLP |accessdate=2007-06-20 |format= |work= |archive-date=2012-07-12 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120712082448/http://lawakibeqa.tripod.com/achievements.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Fiji general election, 1994|1994 general election]] me uu aapan ek purana dost [[Shree Ramlu]] (NFP) se ii seat ke khatir ke election haris. Ii election ke campaign ke timme uu bemaar hoe gais rahaa aur aspataal me band rahaa aur uske barraa larrkaa, Prameshwaran aur larrki, Vijay Madhavan uske khatir campaign karis. 

Uske maut 29 June 1994 ke ek lambaa bemari se bhaes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://lawakibeqa.tripod.com/history.htm |title=FLP History |accessdate=2007-06-20 |format= |work= }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu aapan picche aapan paanch larkan, Vijay Latchmi Shardaanjali Madhavan, Prameshwaran Shiromaniam Madhavan, Vanita Vilashni Madhavan, Pratibha Priyadarshani Madhavan aur Vinay James Madhavan ke chhorr gais hae.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN92-98}}

{{BD|1944|1994|Madhavan, Shiromaniam}}

[[Category:Labasa ke log]]
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[[Category:Fiji Labour Party ke member]]
[[Category:Fiji ke Hose of Repredentsatived ke member]]</text>
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    <title>Navin Maharaj</title>
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|name          = Navin Maharaj
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'''Navin Maharaj''' (janam: 1939), [[Fiji]] ke ek businessman, [[Suva]] ke pahile waala mayor aur  [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] ke member rahaa.

Mhararaj ke janam Nadi me bhaes rahaa aur uu Fiji ke  [[Legislative Council (Fiji)|Legislative Council of Fiji]] ke pahila tiin member me se ek, , [[James Ramchandar Maharaj]] ke larrka hae. 16 saal talak uu ek construction company me kaam kare ke baad uu aapan company suruu karis.&lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages p.379}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Uu dui term talak Suva ke Lord Mayor rahaa, pahile [[Alliance Party (Fiji)|Alliance Party]] ke saathe , fir [[National Federation Party (Fiji)|National Federation Party]] (NFP) ke saathe aur aakhri me ek independent ban ke.&lt;ref name=Howard/&gt;

Uu baad me (NFP) ke member ban gais aur [[Fiji general election, 1987|1987 ke election]] me House of Representatives me Suva National Constituency se National Federation Party - [[Fiji Labour Party]] coalition ke bagal se chuna gias rahaa. Uu [[Timoci Bavadra|Bavadra]] ke sarkar me Minister for Trade, Industry aur Tourism rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://lawakibeqa.tripod.com/achievements.htm |title=Achievements of FLP |access-date=2009-11-20 |archive-date=2012-07-12 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120712082448/http://lawakibeqa.tripod.com/achievements.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[1992 ke election (Fiji)|1992 ke general election]] ke time uu FLP ke general secretary rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://nativenet.uthscsa.edu/archive/nl/9205/0098.html |title=Fijian polls under disputed constitution |access-date=2009-11-20 |archive-date=2007-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821153003/http://nativenet.uthscsa.edu/archive/nl/9205/0098.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

2001 ke coup ke baad, [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] Maharaj ke FLP ke dicide kare ke accuse karis aur uu party se nikal gais.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.fijihosting.com/pcgov/hot_press/no1004.htm |title=Chaudhry explains Baba's expulsion |access-date=2009-11-20 |archive-date=2008-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120093453/http://www.fijihosting.com/pcgov/hot_press/no1004.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==

&lt;references/&gt;

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|1939||Maharaj, Navin}}

[[Category:Nadi ke log]]
[[Category:Alliance Party ke member]]
[[Category:National Federation Party ke member]]
[[Category:Fiji Labour Party ke member]]
[[Category:Fiji ke House of Representatives ke member]]</text>
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    <title>Samresan Pillay</title>
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'''Samresan (Sam) Pillay ''' (janam: 1941), Fiji ke ek soldier, teacher aur [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]]ke member rahaa. 

Uske janam Penang, [[Ra]], Fiji me bhais rahaa aur uu [[National Federation Party  (Fiji)|National Federation Party]] ke pahile ke parliamentarian aur President, Ram Sami Goundar ke larrkaa hae. Kuchh din talak Department of Agriculture me kaam kare ke baad uu1961 me British Army join kar liss. 1969 me Fiji laut ke uu [[University of the South Pacific]] se Diploma in Education karis.

[[1987 ke election (Fiji)|1987 ke election]] me uske [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]], Tavua/Vaileka Indian Communal Constituency ke khatir chunis jiske uu sahaj se jiit liis. &lt;ref name=Howard&gt; {{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages p.383}}&lt;/ref&gt;, lekin Parliament ke member khaali ek mahina talak rahaa jab ki [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coup of 1987]] ke kaaran uske  political career khalaas hoe gais. 

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|1941||Pillay, Samresan}}
[[Category:Rakiraki ke log]]
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  <page>
    <title>Balwant Singh Rakha</title>
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      <text bytes="2978" sha1="pbtqmv1vs1d9v2vu3byhtoz6mq1ec9p" xml:space="preserve">'''Balwant Singh Rakkha''', Fiji ke ek doctor aur  [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] of [[Fiji]] representing the [[National Federation Party (Fiji)|National Federation Party]] (NFP) ke member rahaa,lekin uske NFP ke leader, S. M. Koya, ke support khatir jaana jaawe hae. but he is best known for his strong support for the former leader of the NFP, [[Sidiq Koya]] and the split caused within the NFP when he was rewarded by Koya for his loyalty by being given a seat in a constituency where he was a virtual unknown.

Rakkha was born in [[Tavua district, Fiji|Tavua]] in 1941 and went to [[India]] to study medicine. He returned to Fiji after fourteen years and established a practice in [[Ba District, Fiji|Ba]]. He joined the NFP in 1975 and was the President of the Ba branch from 1977. 

When the [[Lautoka district, Fiji]] Indian [[Communal Constituencies (Fiji)|Communal seat]] became vacant in April 1984 following the resignation of the former leader of the NFP, [[Jai Ram Reddy]], Rakkha was selected to contest the by-election for the NFP. [[Davendra Singh]], a virtually unknown small businessman, managed to persuade the [[NFP Youth Wing]], which had earlier been shunned by Koya, to support him to oppose Rakkha. Singh demanded that a local person be selected by NFP for the vacant seat but when he was ignored by the Party, he nominated himself for the election. The result was a narrow win for Singh by 2209 votes to Rakkha's 2196 votes in an election in which only 4421 of the 12,260 registered voters cast their votes. The election result triggered a series of events which led to the decline of the NFP and the rise of the [[Fiji Labour Party]] (FLP).

For the [[Fiji general election, 1987|1987 general election]], the [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]] chose him as a candidate for the Ba Indian Communal Constituency which he won easily&lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages p.383}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but was a member of Parliament for a month when the [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coup of 1987]] put a  temporary halt to his political career. 

[[1994 ke election (Fiji)|1994 ke election]] me uu [[Ba East/Tavua Rural Indian Constituency (Fiji) 1992 - 1999|Ba East/Tavua Rural Indian Constituency]] se NFP ke taraf se kharraa bhais lekin thorra vote [[Fiji Labour Party]] ke candidate se haar gais.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title= Fiji Times '94 General Election Scoreboard|url= |work= |publisher=[[Fiji Times]] |date= [[28 February]] [[1994]]|accessdate=2007-06-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|1941||Rakkha, Balwant Singh}}

[[Category:B]]
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[[Category:Tavua ke log]]
[[Category:National Federation Party ke member]]
[[vibhag:Sikh log]]</text>
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    <title>Al-Ghazali</title>
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      <text bytes="7516" sha1="1wg3omtm24qrcft4g6t3wbugxzvh1j6" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox religious biography
| region             = [[Seljuk Empire]] ([[Nishapur]])&lt;ref name=Meri&gt;{{cite book |last=Griffel |first=Frank |author-link=Frank Griffel |title=Medieval Islamic civilization: an encyclopedia |year=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0415966900 |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=Josef W.}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|292}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Abbasid Caliphate]] ([[Baghdad]])&lt;br /&gt; [[Fatimid Caliphate]] ([[Jerusalem]]) / ([[Damascus]])&lt;ref name=Meri /&gt;{{rp|292}}
| era                = [[Islamic Golden Age]]
| honorific_prefix   = [[Imam]]
| name               = Al-Ghazali
| native_name        = غزالی
| native_name_lang   = fa
| caption            = Name of al-Ghazali
| title              = [[Hujjat al-Islam]] ('Proof of Islam')&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite
book |last=Janin |first=Hunt |url=https://archive.org/details/pursuitoflearnin0000jani_v6b1 |title=The pursuit of learning in the Islamic world : 610-2003 |date=2005 |publisher=Jefferson, NC : McFarland |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-7864-1954-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| birth_date         = {{circa|1058}}
| birth_place        = [[Tus, Iran|Tus]], [[Seljuk Empire]]
| death_date         = {{death date and age|df=y|1111|12|19|1058||}}
| death_place        = Tus, Seljuk Empire
| religion           = [[Islam]]
| denomination       = [[Sunni]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Meri |first1=Josef W. |last2=Bacharach |first2=Jere L. |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K |date=2006 |publisher=[[Taylor &amp; Francis]] |isbn=978-0415966917 |page=293}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Böwering |first1=Gerhard |last2=Crone |first2=Patricia |title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse |date=2013 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0691134840 |page=[https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse/page/191 191] |quote=Ghazali (ca. 1058–1111) Abu Hamid Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Ghazali al-Tusi (the &quot;Proof of Islam&quot;) is the most renowned Sunni theologian of the Seljuq period (1038–1194).}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| school             = [[Shafi'i]]
| creed              = Ash'ari
| main_interests     = [[Sufism]], [[theology]] (''[[kalam]]''), [[philosophy]], [[logic]], [[Sharia]], [[Fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], [[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence]]
| notable_works      = ''[[The Revival of Religious Sciences]]'', ''[[The Aims of the Philosophers]]'', ''[[The Incoherence of the Philosophers]]'', ''[[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat|The Alchemy of Happiness]]'', ''[[The Moderation in Belief]]'', ''[[The Condensed in Imam Shafi’i’s Jurisprudence]]'', ''[[Al-Mustasfa min 'ilm al-usul|On Legal theory of Muslim Jurisprudence]]''
| influences         = {{flatlist|
* [[Harith al-Muhasibi]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25182038 |title=The Forerunner of Al-Ghazali |jstor=25182038 |last1=Smith |first1=Margaret |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |year=1936 |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=65–78 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00076358 |s2cid=163151146|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[al-Juwayni]]&lt;ref name=&quot;www.ghazali.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.ghazali.org/site/teachers.htm |title=Imam Ghazali's Teachers: al-Ghazali's Website |website=www.ghazali.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Avicenna]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | url=https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_19567.html?lang=en | title=The Influence of Ibn Sina's Philosophical Believes on Al-Ghazali's Notion of Incorporeity | journal=Philosophical Meditations | date=22 November 2014 | volume=4 | issue=13 | access-date=3 November 2025 | archivedate=30 November 2024 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130222805/https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_19567.html?lang=en }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Al-Raghib al-Isfahani]]
}}
| influenced         = {{flatlist|
* [[Ibn Rushd]]
* [[Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi]]{{sfn|Griffel|2009|p=62}}
* [[Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani]]{{sfn|Griffel|2009|p=81}}
* [[Abu al-Qasim al-Rafi'i]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=[[Norman Calder]]|title=Islamic Jurisprudence in the Classical Era|url=https://archive.org/details/islamicjurisprud0000cald|date=22 March 2010|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781139485715|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamicjurisprud0000cald/page/88 88]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[al-Nawawi]]{{sfn|Griffel|2009|p=76}}
* [[Ibn Tumart]]{{sfn|Griffel|2009|p=77}}
* [[René Descartes]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Marenbon |first=John |author-link=John Marenbon |title=Medieval Philosophy: an historical and philosophical introduction |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JX2CAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA174 174] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2007 |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415281133 |isbn=978-0-415-28113-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]]{{sfn|Griffel|2009|p=75}}
* [[al-Suyuti]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Andrew Rippin&quot;&gt;Andrew Rippin, The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an, p 410. {{ISBN|1405178442}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Maimonides]]&lt;ref name=&quot;plato.stanford.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides-islamic/ |title=The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=June 30, 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Tan Malaka]]
* [[Thomas Aquinas]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Heinrichs-2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first1=Karin |last1=Heinrichs |first2=Fritz |last2=Oser |title=Terence Lovat, Handbook of Moral Motivation: Theories, Models, Applications |date=12 June 2013 |page=257 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9462092754}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.netmuslims.com/index.php/islamic-articles/muslim-contributions/89-muslim-philosophy |title=Muslim Philosophy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029193408/http://www.netmuslims.com/index.php/islamic-articles/muslim-contributions/89-muslim-philosophy |archive-date=2013-10-29 |website=Islamic Contributions to Science &amp; Math, netmuslims.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[David Hume]]&lt;ref name=&quot;James Robert Brown&quot;&gt;James Robert Brown, Philosophy of Science: The Key Thinkers, p. 159. {{ISBN|1441142002}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Sayf al-Din al-Amidi]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Sayf Din al&quot;&gt;[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-baghdadi/ Sayf Din al-Amidi] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, September 18, 2019&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Asad Mayhani]]{{sfn|Griffel|2009|p=71}}
* [[Ali al-Qari]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Ayn al&quot;&gt;Ayn al-`Ilm wa Zayn al-Hilm, Muqadimmah, Page 1&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Muhammad Ibn Yahya al-Janzi]]{{sfn|Griffel|2009|p=74}}
}}
}}
&lt;big&gt;Big text&lt;/big&gt;'''Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī''' ([[1058]]-[[1111]]) (Farsi:'''ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی'''), jiske [[English bhasa]] me '''Algazel''' ke naam se jaada jaana jaawe hae, ke janam [[Persia]] me bhais rahaa. Uu ek [[Islamic]] [[theology|theologian]], [[Fiqh|jurist]], [[philosophy|philosopher]], [[astronomy|cosmologist]], [[psychology|psychologist]] aur [[Sufism|mystic]] rahaa.,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/gh/Ghazali.html| title = Ghazali | publisher =  The Columbia Encyclopedia | accessdate = 11 September 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | url = http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc? | title = ḠAZĀLĪ entry in Encyclopaedia Iranica | publisher = Böwering, Gerhard | accessdate = 11 September 2009 | archive-date = 2012-01-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120122042159/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranica.com%2Fnewsite%2Farticles%2Funicode%2Fv10f4%2Fv10f421a.html | url-status = dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{BD|1058|1111}}

[[vibhag:A]]
[[Category:Persia ke log]]
[[Vibhag:Dharmik neta]]
[[Vibhag:Islam]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Nitya Nand Reddy</title>
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      <text bytes="1820" sha1="04oavi8wva9kjpgp9mqbg9pd4pzs71s" xml:space="preserve">'''Nitya Nand Reddy''' (janam: [[1950]]), [[Fiji]] ke ek accountant aur trade unionist rahaa jiske [[1987]] me [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|Fiji ke House of Representatives]] ke khatir chuna gais rahaa. 

Uske janam [[Nadi district, Fiji|Nadi]], Fiji me bhais rahaa. Uu 1972 me [[University of the South Pacific]] se  [[Bachelor of Arts]] le parrhai khalaas kare ke baad [[Fiji Sugar Corporation]] (FSC) me ek accountant ke kaam suruu karis. Uu Sugar Milling Staff Officers Association ke pardhan chaar term talak rahaa aur [[Fiji Labour Party]] ke ek founding Vice-President rahaa. 1986 me uu Fiji Labour Party ke bagal se [[Lautoka (city), Fiji|Lautoka]] City Council ke khatir kharra bhais ragaa, jiske khatir uske FSC senikal dewa gais rahaa.

1987 ke election me uske [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]] 
For the [[Fiji general election, 1987|1987 general election]], the [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]] chose him as a candidate for the South Western Indian National Constituency which he won easily, but was a member of Parliament for a month when the [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coup of 1987]] prematurely ended his political career.&lt;ref name=Howard&gt; {{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages= p.380}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|1950||Reddy, Nitya Nand}}
[[Category:Indo-Fijian people]]
[[Category:Nadi ke log]]
[[Category:Fiji Labour Party ke member]]
[[Category:Fijian ke trade unionists]]
[[vibhag:Fiji ke chini udhyog]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of the South Pacific]]
[[Category:Fijian Hindus]]</text>
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    <title>Rishi Shankar</title>
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      <text bytes="1960" sha1="3n4bpomcvddc5ev6ahuv8uortuoufgz" xml:space="preserve">'''Rishi Shankar''' (janam:1934 - 5 September 2015), [[Fiji]] ke ek Hindustani lawyer hae jon ki Fiji ke [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] ke member rahaa.

Uske janam Vitogo, [[Lautoka district, Fiji|Lautoka]], Fiji me bhaes rahaa aur uu 1953 se 1965 talak police rahaa. Iske baad uu [[Victoria University of Wellington]], [[New Zealand]] me wakiili parrhis. parrhe ke baad uu Fiji laut ke fir se Police ke join kar liis, lekin 1974 me uu Director of Public Prosecutions me kaam kare lagaa. 1976 me uu sarkari naukri ke chhorr ke aapan practice [[Ba (town), Fiji|Ba]] me suruu karis. 

Uu 1982 se 1985 talak Nadi Town Councillor bhi rahaa.

[[1987 ke election]] me uske [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]], Nadi Indian Communal Constituency khatir chunis jiske uu easy se jit gais , lekin uu parliament me khaali ek mahina talak rahaa jab ki [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coup of 1987]] uske political career ke haali khalaas kar diis.&lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages=p.384}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu, dui me se ek , Parliament ke member rahaa jiske coup ke time prisoner nai banawa gais rahaa. Baad me uu  New Zealand hissa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=RObertson&gt;{{cite book |last=Robertson |first=Robert |authorlink= |coauthors= Akosita Tamanisau|title=Fiji - Shattered Coups |year=1988 |publisher= Pluto Press Australia Limited|location=NSW, Australia |isbn= 0-949138-25-8 | pages=p.69}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Uske maut [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]] me [[5 September]] [[2015]] me bhais rahaa.
== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|1934|2015|Shankar, Rishi}}

[[Category:Fiji Labour Party ke member]]
[[Category:Fiji ke House of Representatives ke member]]
[[Category:Lautoka ke log]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ming Dynasty</title>
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      <text bytes="10728" sha1="nw4miyc7ku46e7zx9da5q7qf726fw6r" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Ming_Empire_cca_1580_(en).svg|right|200px|thumb|Ming dynasty 1580 me]]
'''Míng Dynasty''', jiske sarkari naam '''Great Ming''' rahaa,  [[1368]] se [[1644]] talak [[China]] pe raj karis. Ii dynasty [[Yuan dynasty]] ke baad rahaa. Ming dynasty akri dynasty rahaa jisme Han Chinese log raj kare rahin. Jab ki ii dynasty ke capital, [[Beijing]], ek rebellion me haar dewa gais, fir bhi Ming palwaar ke dher chotaa chotaa raj bachaa rahaa, 1662 talak khaas kar ke south China me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-asian-studies_1985-08_44_4/page/824 |first=Jerry P. |last=Dennerline |journal = The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=4 |year=1985 |pages=824–825 |doi=10.2307/2056469 |jstor=2056469 |s2cid=162510092 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Hongwu Emperor]]
Ming dynasty ke suruu kare waala Emperor [[Hongwu]] (1368 - 1398) rahaa,  jon ii rakam ke raj banae ke kosis karis jisme uske puura contro rahe aur jisme se uske barra army banae sake. ii time ke army 1 million se jaada rahaa aur uske navy [[dunia]] ke sab se barraa rahaa aur [[Nanjing]] me based rahaa. You court ke enuch log ke taagat kamti kare ke bhi kosis karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;* {{cite journal |last=Chen |first=Gilbert |title=Castration and Connection: Kinship Organization among Ming Eunuchs |journal=Ming Studies |date=2 July 2016 |volume=2016 |issue=74 |pages=27–47 |doi=10.1080/0147037X.2016.1179552 |s2cid=152169027 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

1402 me uske jawaan sucessor ek upadrao karis aur emporer ban gais . Uske naam Yongle emporer rahaa. Uu Yan ke duusra capital banais aur iske naam ke badal ke Beijing rakkhis, [[Forbidden City]] ke banais, [[Grand Canal]] ke repair karis aur sarkaris kaam khaatir exams kre suruu karis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Elman |first=Benjamin A. |title=Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |date=1991 |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=7–28 |doi=10.2307/2057472 |jstor=2057472 |s2cid=154406547 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil_Service_Examinations.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil_Service_Examinations.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-10 |url-status=live |oclc=2057472}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske time China ke navy ssat dafe [[Indian Ocean]], [[Arabia]] aur [[Africa]] ke east coadt me voyage karis rahaa.

Ii time China me dher factions hoe hay rahin aur 1449 me jab Emporer Yingzong ke capture kar lewa gais tab central rule khalaa hoe gais. Iske baad navy khalaas hoe gais aur [[Great Wall]] ke repair kare ke khaatir forced labour ke kaam me laawa gais rahaa. ii time China me census lewa gais rahaa aur ii anumaan lagaawa jaae hae ki late Ming period me hian ke abaadi 160 - 200 million rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Elman |first=Benjamin A. |author-mask=3 |title=A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China |url=https://archive.org/details/culturalhistoryo0000elma_z4o9 |date=2000 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-92147-4 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Ming dynasty ke paisa]]
16th century me [[Europe]] se trade barrhaa aur dher rakam ke nawaa paudha ke China me introduce karaa gais jaise ki mirchaa, aalu, aur makai. Isse China ke abaadi aur jor se barrhaa. Ii time [[South America]] se [[Silver]] bhi introduce karaa gais jon ki hian ke currency hoe gais. Ii dynasty 1644 me callapse bhais jab Li Zicheng ke rebel army Beijing me ghusis. Li [[Shun dynasty]] ke suruu karis, lekin ii kuchh saal baad [[Qing dynasty]] se aapan taagat ke khoe diis.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |surname = Hucker |given = Charles O. |title = Governmental Organization of The Ming Dynasty |journal = Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume = 21 |year = 1958 |pages = 1–66
|postscript = . |doi=10.2307/2718619|jstor = 2718619 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Ming dynasty ke maharaja (1368–1644)===
{| class=&quot;wikitable plainrowheaders&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%;&quot;
! scope=&quot;col&quot;|Chhaapa
! scope=&quot;col&quot;|Maharaja&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(birth–death)}}
! scope=&quot;col&quot;|Naam
! scope=&quot;col&quot;|Raj
! scope=&quot;col&quot;|Yug ke naam
! scope=&quot;col&quot;|Mare ke baad ke naam
! scope=&quot;col&quot;|Mandir ke naam
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:明太祖画像.jpg|110px|alt=Hongwu Emperor]]
| '''[[Hongwu Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(21 October 1328&lt;br /&gt;– 24 June 1398)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Yuanzhang&lt;br /&gt;
| 23 January 1368&lt;br /&gt;– 24 June 1398
| [[Hongwu]]&lt;br /&gt;23 January 1368&lt;br /&gt;– 5 February 1399
| Emperor Gao&lt;br /&gt;
| Taizu&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:Jianwen Emperor.jpg|110px|alt=Jianwen Emperor]]
| '''[[Jianwen Emperor]]'''&lt;br/&gt;{{Small|(5 December 1377&lt;br /&gt;– 13 July 1402)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Yunwen&lt;br /&gt;
| 30 June 1398&lt;br /&gt;– 13 July 1402
| [[Jianwen (era)|Jianwen]]&lt;br /&gt;6 February 1399&lt;br /&gt;– 13 July 1402
| Emperor Hui&lt;br /&gt;
| Huizong{{efn|Mandir ke naam, Huizong ke Jianwen Emperor ke dewa gais rahaa, uske raaj ke baut din baad.  1644 me ii de waala rahaa Zhu Yousong, jon Fu ke rajkumar rahaa 
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:太宗文皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Yongle Emperor]]
| '''[[Yongle Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(2 May 1360&lt;br /&gt;– 12 August 1424)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Di&lt;br /&gt;
| 17 July 1402&lt;br /&gt;– 12 August 1424
| [[Yongle]]&lt;br /&gt;23 January 1403&lt;br /&gt;– 19 January 1425
| Emperor Wen&lt;br /&gt;
| Chengzu
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:仁宗昭皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Hongxi Emperor]]
| '''[[Hongxi Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{zhi|c=洪熙帝}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(16 August 1378&lt;br /&gt;– 29 May 1425)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Gaochi&lt;br /&gt;
| 12 August 1424&lt;br /&gt;– 29 May 1425
| [[Hongxi]]&lt;br /&gt;20 January 1425&lt;br /&gt;– 7 February 1426
| Emperor Zhao&lt;br /&gt;
| Renzong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:明宣宗画像.jpg|110px|alt=Xuande Emperor]]
| '''[[Xuande Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(16 March 1399&lt;br /&gt;– 31 January 1435)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Zhanji&lt;br /&gt;
| 29 May 1425&lt;br /&gt;– 31 January 1435
| [[Xuande]]&lt;br /&gt;8 February 1426&lt;br /&gt;– 17 January 1436
| Emperor Zhang&lt;br /&gt;
| Xuanzong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot;|[[File:英宗睿皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Emperor Yingzong of Ming]]
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''[[Emperor Yingzong of Ming|Emperor Yingzong]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(29 November 1427&lt;br /&gt;– 23 February 1464)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Zhu Qizhen&lt;br /&gt;
| 31 January 1435&lt;br /&gt;– 22 September 1449
| [[Zhengtong (era)|Zhengtong]]&lt;br /&gt;18 January 1436&lt;br /&gt;– 13 January 1450
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Emperor Rui&lt;br /&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Yingzong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
| 11 February 1457&lt;br /&gt;– 23 February 1464
| [[Tianshun (Ming dynasty)|Tianshun]]
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:Jingtai.jpg|110px|alt=Jingtai Emperor]]
| '''[[Jingtai Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(21 September 1428&lt;br /&gt;– 14 March 1457)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Qiyu&lt;br /&gt;
| 22 September 1449&lt;br /&gt;– 11 February 1457
| [[Jingtai (era)|Jingtai]]&lt;br /&gt;14 January 1450&lt;br /&gt;– 11 February 1457
| Emperor Jing&lt;br /&gt;
| Daizong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:明宪宗像.jpg|110px|alt=Portrait of the Jingtai Emperor]]
| '''[[Chenghua Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(9 December 1447&lt;br /&gt;– 9 September 1487)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Jianru&lt;br /&gt;
| 23 February 1464&lt;br /&gt;– 9 September 1487
| [[Chenghua (era)|Chenghua]]&lt;br /&gt;27 January 1465&lt;br /&gt;– 13 January 1488
| Emperor Chun&lt;br /&gt;
| Xianzong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:明孝宗像.jpg|110px|alt=Hongzhi Emperor]]
| '''[[Hongzhi Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(30 July 1470&lt;br /&gt;– 8 June 1505)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Youcheng&lt;br /&gt;
| 9 September 1487&lt;br /&gt;– 8 June 1505
| [[Hongzhi (era)|Hongzhi]]&lt;br /&gt;14 January 1488&lt;br /&gt;– 23 January 1506
| Emperor Jing&lt;br /&gt;
| Xiaozong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:Portrait de l'empereur Ming Wuzong.jpg|110px|alt=Zhengde Emperor]]
| '''[[Zhengde Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(26 October 1491&lt;br /&gt;– 20 April 1521)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Houzhao&lt;br /&gt;
| 8 June 1505&lt;br /&gt;– 20 April 1521
| [[Zhengde]]&lt;br /&gt;27 January 1522&lt;br /&gt;– 27 January 1522
| Emperor Yi&lt;br /&gt;
| Wuzong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:明世宗像.jpg|110px|alt=Jiajing Emperor]]
| '''[[Jiajing Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(16 September 1507&lt;br /&gt;– 23 January 1567)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Houcong&lt;br /&gt;
| 27 May 1521&lt;br /&gt;– 23 January 1567
| [[Jiajing]]&lt;br /&gt;28 January 1522&lt;br /&gt;– 8 February 1567
| Emperor Su&lt;br /&gt;
| Shizong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:明穆宗画像.jpg|110px|alt=Longqing Emperor]]
| '''[[Longqing Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(4 March 1537&lt;br /&gt;– 5 July 1572)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Zaiji&lt;br /&gt;
| 23 January 1567&lt;br /&gt;– 5 July 1572
| [[Longqing]]&lt;br /&gt;9 February 1567&lt;br /&gt;– 1 February 1573
| Emperor Zhuang&lt;br /&gt;
| Muzong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:Ming Shenzong.jpg|110px|alt=Wanli Emperor]]
| '''[[Wanli Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(4 September 1563&lt;br /&gt;– 18 August 1620)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Yijun&lt;br /&gt;
| 5 July 1572&lt;br /&gt;– 18 August 1620
| [[Wanli Era|Wanli]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2 February 1573&lt;br /&gt;– 27 August 1620
| Emperor Xian&lt;br /&gt;
| Shenzong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:明光宗皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Taichang Emperor]]
| '''[[Taichang Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(28 August 1582&lt;br /&gt;– 26 September 1620)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Changluo&lt;br /&gt;
| 28 August&lt;br /&gt;– 26 September 1620
| [[Taichang (era)|Taichang]]&lt;br /&gt;{{zhi|c=泰昌}}&lt;br /&gt;28 August 1620&lt;br /&gt;– 21 January 1621
| Emperor Zhen&lt;br /&gt;
| Guangzong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;| [[File:熹宗悊皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Tianqi Emperor]]
| '''[[Tianqi Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(23 December 1605&lt;br /&gt;– 30 September 1627)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Youjiao&lt;br /&gt;
| 26 September 1620&lt;br /&gt;– 30 September 1627
| [[Tianqi (era)|Tianqi]]&lt;br /&gt;22 January 1621&lt;br /&gt;– 4 February 1628
| Emperor Zhe&lt;br /&gt;
| Xizong&lt;br /&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot;|
| '''[[Chongzhen Emperor]]'''&lt;br /&gt;{{Small|(6 February 1611&lt;br /&gt;– 25 April 1644)}}&lt;br /&gt;
| Zhu Youjian&lt;br /&gt;
| 2 October 1627&lt;br /&gt;– 25 April 1644
| [[Chongzhen]]&lt;br /&gt;5 February 1628&lt;br /&gt;– 25 April 1644
| Emperor Min&lt;br /&gt;
| Sizong&lt;br /&gt;
|}

==Ming dynasty ke painting==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Chen_Hongshou,_leaf_album_painting.jpg|Patti ke chaapa jisme fuul, titli aur patthar ke sculpture dekhae hae
File:Dai_Jin_-_The_Hermit_Xu_You_Resting_by_a_Stream_-_1974.45_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tiff|Ek painting Dai Jin se jon Zhe school of painting ke suruu karis rahaa
File:T'ang_Yin_003.jpg|Tan Yin (1523) ke painting ek machhua ke autmn me dekhae hae
File:Pien_Wen-chi_001.jpg|Bian Wenjin (1413) ke chirriya ke painting
File:明_佚名_鳥販圖_軸-Bird_peddler_MET_DT271148.jpg|Chirriya beche waala ke painting (15th-16th century)
File:Peach_Festival_of_the_Queen_Mother_of_the_West,_17th_century.jpg|Peach Festival ke painting (17th century)
File:SesshuToyo.jpg|Sesshu ke Autmn lanscape painting Japan ke unfluence ke dekhae hae
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[vibhag:M]]
[[Category:China ke itihaas]]</text>
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    <title>Ottoman Samrajya</title>
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      <text bytes="11180" sha1="gr14kaocvkan0dkwfz48v9xwxixsv42" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country
|common_name  = Ottoman Empire
|native_name  = Ottoman Empire&lt;br /&gt;Osmanlı İmparatorluğu&lt;br /&gt;&lt;big&gt;دولت عالیه عثمانیه&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye''
|conventional_long_name = Sublime Ottoman State
|continent    = Afroeurasia
|status       = Empire
|year_start   = 1299
|year_end     = 1923
|date_end     = July 24
|event_start  = [[Foundation of Ottoman Empire|Founded]]
|event_end    = [[Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|Succeeded]] &lt;ref&gt;The [[Treaty of Sèvres]] (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. The abolishment of the Ottoman Sultanate in [[November 1]], [[1922]], did not end the Ottoman ''State'', but only the Ottoman ''dynasty''. The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] (July 24, 1923). It recognized the new &quot;Ankara government&quot;, and not the old Constantinople-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Constantinople-based government was practically headless after the sultan left the capital. The [[TBMM]] declared the successor state to be the &quot;[[Republic of Turkey]]&quot; ([[October 29]], [[1923]]), less than a month after its international recognition as a state.&lt;/ref&gt;
|event1       = [[Ottoman Interregnum|Interregnum]]
|date_event1  = 1402–1413
|event2       = [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|1. Constitutional]]
|date_event2  = 1876-1878
|event3       = [[Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|2. Constitutional]]
|date_event3  = 1908-1918
|p1 = Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm
|flag_p1 = GreatSeljuqEmpireFlag.svg
|s1           = Turkey  	 
|flag_s1      =  Flag of Turkey.svg
|image_flag   =  Ottoman Flag.svg
|image_flag_caption = Ottoman flag
|image_coat   = Osmanli-nisani.svg
|image_map    = OttomanEmpire.png
|image_map_caption = Borders in 1683, [[List of Ottoman Empire dominated territories|see: list of territories]]
|national_motto = '''دولت ابد مدت'''&lt;br /&gt;''Devlet-i Ebed-müddet''&lt;br /&gt;(&quot;The Eternal State&quot;)
|national_anthem = [[Ottoman imperial anthem]]
|capital = [[Söğüt]] (1299–1326)&lt;br /&gt;[[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]] (1326–1365)&lt;br /&gt;[[Edirne]] (1365–1453)&lt;br /&gt;[[Constantinople]] (1453–1922)
|official language(s) = [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]
|government_type = Monarchy
|title_leader = [[Ottoman Dynasty|Sultans]]
|leader1      = Osman I
|year_leader1 = 1281–1326 (first)
|leader2      = Mehmed VI
|year_leader2 = 1918–22 (last)
|title_deputy = [[List of Ottoman Grand Viziers|Grand Viziers]]
|deputy1      = Alaeddin Pasha
|year_deputy1 = 1320–31 (first)
|deputy2      = Ahmed Tevfik Pasha
|year_deputy2 = 1920–22 (last)
|stat_year1   = 1680
|stat_area1   = 5500000
|stat_year2   = 1856
|stat_pop2    = 35350000
|stat_year3   = 1906
|stat_pop3    = 20884000
|stat_year4   = 1914
|stat_pop4    = 18520000
|stat_year5   = 1919
|stat_pop5    = 14629000
|image_location = OttomanEmpireIn1683.png
|areatotal = 20,000,000 km²&lt;br /&gt;(7,123,562 sq mi)
|countrycapital = [[Söğüt]] (1299–1326)&lt;br /&gt;[[Bursa]] (1326–1365)&lt;br /&gt;[[Edirne]] (1365–1453)&lt;br /&gt;[[Constantinople]] (1453–1922)
|abaaditotal = &lt; 35,350,000
|currency = [[Akçe]], [[Kuruş]], [[Turkish lira|Lira]]
|footnotes  = &lt;Big&gt;'''[[Timeline of the Ottoman Empire]]'''&lt;/Big&gt;
}}
The '''Ottoman Empire''' , jiske '''Turkish Empire''' ke naam se bhi jaana jaawat rahaa,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=P. |first=E. A. |date=1916 |title=Review of The Caliph's Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249 |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=470–472 |doi=10.2307/1779249 |issn=0016-7398 |jstor=1779249 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710152110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Baykara |first= Prof. Tuncer |date=2017 |title=A Study into the Concepts of Turkey and Turkistan which were used for the Ottoman State in XIXth Century |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/330026 |journal=Journal of Atatürk and the History of Turkish Republic|volume=1 |pages= 179–190  |access-date=26 March 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126030712/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/330026 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ek dynasty rahaa jon 1517 me [[Mamluk Sultanate]] ke harae ke suruu bhais rahaa, aur jon 1924 me Grand NAtional Assembly of Turkey abolish karis rahaa. Ii Empire 14th century se lae ke 20th century ke sruwaat talak [[Southeast Europe]], [[West Asia]] aur [[North Africa]] ke control karis rahaa. 16th aur 18th century ke suruwaat talak ii [[Central Europe]] ke bhi control karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw |title=The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718 |date=12 August 2011 |publisher=Purdue University Press |isbn=978-1-61249-179-0 |editor-last=Ingrao |editor-first=Charles |doi=10.2307/j.ctt6wq7kw.12 |jstor=j.ctt6wq7kw |editor-last2=Samardžić |editor-first2=Nikola |editor-last3=Pešalj |editor-first3=Jovan |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=20 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220040810/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Szabó |first=János B. |chapter=The Ottoman Conquest in Hungary: Decisive Events (Belgrade 1521, Mohács 1526, Vienna 1529, Buda 1541) and Results |date=2019 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000013.xml |title=The Battle for Central Europe |pages=263–275 |access-date=19 December 2023 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004396234_013 |isbn=978-90-04-39623-4|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Moačanin |first=Nenad |chapter=The Ottoman Conquest and Establishment in Croatia and Slavonia |date=2019 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml |title=The Battle for Central Europe |pages=277–286 |access-date=19 December 2023 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004396234_014 |isbn=978-90-04-39623-4 |doi-access=free |archive-date=15 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115185458/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Ii empire Anatolian beyliks se suruu bhais rahaa, jiske lagbhag 1299 me ek Turkoman tribal neta, [[Osman I]] suruu karis rahaa. Uske descendents log Anatolia ke dher ilaaka ke aapan niche kar liin rahaa aur 14th century ke biich me [[Balkans]] me bhi fael gain rahaa. Ii Ottoman log 1453 me [[Constantinople]] ke conquer kar ke [[Byzantine Empire]] ke khalaas kr diin rahaa. Iske uu log aapan capital banain aur naam ke badal ke [[Istanbul]] rakhin. Hian se uu log [[Mediterranean]] Basin ke jaada ilaaka ke control karin aur [[Europe]] aue [[Middle East]] ke biich me chhe century talak link rahaa. [[Selim I]] aur [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] ke raj ke time ii empire ek global power rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=45}}
* {{harvnb|Somel|2010|p=xcvii}}&lt;/ref&gt;

18th century ke ant me Otttoman Empire ke dher military haar ke sahe ke parraa, jisse [[Balkans]] me kuchh nawaa des banaa. 1876 me hian pe constitutional monarchy ke banae ke kosis karaa gais rahaa, lekin ii nai chalaa.

19th century ke ant talak parrha-likha log, jiske [[Young Turks]] bola jaawat rahaa, des ke westernise kare ke kosis karin. Isse 1908 me fir se constitutional monarchy banaawa gais. Lekin Balkan me larrai me haar ke kaaran, 1913 me ek coup bhais aur dictatorship fir se aae gais.

19th aur 20th century ke suruwaat me, jaise ii empire territory ke khois, Balkans, Caucasus aur Crimea me, tab huan ke Muslim abhi ke Turkey waala jagha aae ke rahe lagin.

==Naam==
&quot;Ottoman&quot; ke [[Turkish bhasa]] waala sabd ke 14th century e Osman ke chela log ke bola jaawat rahaa. Baad me ii sabd ke Empire ke raj kare waala elite ke dewa gais rahaa. &quot;Turk&quot; sabd ke Anatolia me rahe waala tribal abaadi aur peasants ke dewa jaawat rahaa aur iske des ke sahar me rahe waalae aur parrha-likha log niichaa samjhat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/agoston-and-masters-enc-of-ott-empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|26}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |edition=2 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |place=New York |date=2009 |page=3 |quote=By the seventeenth century, literate circles in Istanbul would not call themselves Turks, and often, in phrases such as 'senseless Turks', used the word as a term of abuse.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pahile parrha-likha aur town me rahe waala log apne ke &quot;Rumi&quot; bolat rahin, jiske matlab &quot;Roman&quot; hae, jiske matlab rahaa jon log pahile ke Byzantine Empire me rahat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |date=2007 |title=A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum |journal=Muqarnas |volume=24}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Western Europe me Ottoman Empire, Turkish Empire aur Turkey ke ekke matlab maana jaawat rahaa, aur baad me Turkey ke jaada kaam me laawa jaat rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Soucek-2015&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700 |date=2015 |publisher=The Isis Press |isbn=978-975-428-554-3 |location=Istanbul |page=8 |quote=The scholarly community specializing in Ottoman studies has of late virtually banned the use of &quot;Turkey&quot;, &quot;Turks&quot;, and &quot;Turkish&quot; from acceptable vocabulary, declaring &quot;Ottoman&quot; and its expanded use mandatory and permitting its &quot;Turkish&quot; rival only in linguistic and philological contexts.}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://www.turizm.net/turkey/history/ottoman.html The Ottoman Empire: A Chronogical Outline]
* [http://ottomanfoothill.googlepages.com  The Ottoman Empire: The Eternal State] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025234456/http://ottomanfoothill.googlepages.com/ |date=2009-10-25 }}
* [http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/engindex.html Ottoman Website]
* [http://www.euratlas.com/history_europe/europe_map_1600.html The Ottoman Empire] Map of Europe in year 1600 with a detailed view of the Empire.
* [http://books.google.com/books?vid=LCCN05017306&amp;id=LFbTIBgjbqQC&amp;pg=PA257 History of Turkish Empire] — Gives detailed timetable.
* [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/OTTOMAN1.HTM World Civilizations: The Ottomans] — a comprehensive site that covers much about the Ottoman state and government
* [http://www.ottomansouvenir.com/Capitals/Capitals_of_Ottoman_Empire.htm Capitals of Ottoman Empire] — covers the different Ottoman capitals
* [http://aton.ttu.edu  Turkish Oral Narrative]
* [http://www.theottomans.org  Information about Ottomans]
* [http://www.unm.edu/~phooper/thesis_condensed.pdf Forced abaadi transfers in early Ottoman imperial policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029102418/http://www.unm.edu/~phooper/thesis_condensed.pdf |date=2008-10-29 }} - covers the period 1300-1600

[[vibhag:Turkey]]
[[vibhag:Empires]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Great Depression</title>
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      <text bytes="11919" sha1="cji236420lzcw1iw0963az5a0zd0dg0" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Unemployed marching to see Mitchell, 1931.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Many became [[unemployment|unemployed]] in the Great Depression.]]
'''Great Depression''' uu time rahaa jab dunia bhar ke des ke economy bahut kharaam hoe gais rahaa. Ii 1929 ke Wall Street Crash se suruu bhais rahaa. [[24 October]] [[1929]] se lae ke [[29 October]] [[1929]] talak wall street me share ke daam bahut jaada giraa. Dher jan ke kaam se nikal dewa gais rahaa. Ii log bahut garib hoe gain aur kuchh log ke rahe khatir ghar bhi nai rahaa.

== Overview ==
{{Multiple image
| image1   = US Unemployment from 1910-1960.svg
| image2   = 1929 wall street crash graph.svg
| caption1 = U. S. ke unemployment rate  1910 se 1960 tak, jisme  Great Depression (1929–39) ke saal ke highlight karaa gais hae
| caption2 = Dow Jones Industrial Average, 1928–1930
| align    = right
}}

=== Crisis ke suruu ke economic picture  ===
[[Wall Street crash of 1929]] ke baad, jab [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] 381 se 198 jiraa rahaa, dui mahina me , lekin log optimistik rahin kuchh din talak. 1930 ke suruwaat me,  stock market uppar gais, aur April 1930 me Dow  294 talak pahunch gais (pre-depression levels), lekin iske baad ii niche gire lagaa, aur 1932 me  41 talak gir gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=1998/99 Prognosis Based Upon 1929 Market Autopsy|url=https://www.gold-eagle.com/editorials_98/vronsky060698.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517075810/https://www.gold-eagle.com/editorials_98/vronsky060698.html|archive-date=17 May 2008|access-date=22 May 2008|publisher=Gold Eagle}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Suruu me, sarkar aur businesses 1930 ke pahila aadha hissa me jaada kharchaa karin , pahile waala saal ke mukaable me. Lekin kharide waale, jisme se dher log [[1930s]] me stock market me dher paisa lose kare rahin, aapan kharchaa ke  10% se kaat de rahin. Iske saathe,  mid-1930s se, ek kharaab jhuura ke kaaran U. S. ke kheti waala jgha ke barbaad kar diis rahaa. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Drought: A Paleo Perspective&amp;nbsp;– 20th Century Drought|url=https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/drought/drght_history.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330022940/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/drought/drght_history.html|archive-date=30 March 2009|access-date=5 April 2009|publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Interest rates , mid-1930 talak ekdam kamti hoe gais rahaa, lekin [[deflation]] aur log ke paisa kharchaa kare aur udhaar le pe hichkichaana ke kaaran  consumer spending aur investment kamti rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hamilton|first=James|year=1987|title=Monetary Factors in the Great Depression|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-monetary-economics_1987-03_19_2/page/145|journal=Journal of Monetary Economics|volume=19|issue=2|pages=145–69|doi=10.1016/0304-3932(87)90045-6|issn=0304-3932}}&lt;/ref&gt; May 1930 talak, motar ke [[wikt:bikri|bikri]] 1928 ke level se kamti hoe gais rahaa. Jaada chij ke daam gire lagaa, lekin [[wikt:talab|talab]]  1930 me nai gira rahaa. 1931 me ek  [[deflationary spiral]] suruu bhais rahaa. Kisan log ke prathithi aur kharaa rahaak; fasal ke girte daam aur  Great Plains me jhuura uu log   economic outlook ke naas kar diis rahaa. Great Depression ke choti pe Great Plains le lagbhag 10% khet ke bejaa gais rahaa,   federal sarkar ke sahaeta ke bawajuut. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Great Depression|url=https://drought.unl.edu/DroughtBasics/DustBowl/TheGreatDepression.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329184059/http://drought.unl.edu/DroughtBasics/DustBowl/TheGreatDepression.aspx|archive-date=29 March 2018|access-date=29 March 2018|website=drought.unl.edu|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== United States se bahaar ===
Suruu me,  [[U.S. economy]] ke [[wikt:utpaadan|utpaadan]] kamti hona, khaali ek kaaran rahaa, jisse aur des me bhi utpaadan giaa rahaa, trade, capital movement, aur global business confidence kamti bhais rahaa. Iske baad, har ek des ke bhitri kamjori nai to taagat, haalat ke aur kharaab nai to achchhaa karis rahaa. Jaise, U.K. ke economy, jon ek  economic downturn me rahaa  late [[1920s]] bhar, me depression ke kamti asar rahaa,  U.S. ke mukable me, Iske jagha, German economyke industrial output  U.S. ke rakam gira rahaa.&lt;ref name=cpk&gt;{{Cite book|last=Kindleberger|first=Charles P.|title=The world in depression, 1929–1939|date=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05591-9|edition=Rev. and enl.|series=History of the world economy in the twentieth century|location=Berkeley}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuchh economic historians rates of recovery and relative severity of the economic decline ke antar ke attribute kare hae ki uu des effectively aapan currency ke devaluate kare paais rahaa ki nai. Iske support mile hae ki kaise ii   crisis progress bhais rahaa in, e.g., Britain, Argentina, aur Brazil me, jon sab aapan currency ke jaldi devalue kar de rahin aur  normal patterns of growth pe aur jaldi laut gay rahin, uu des ke mukable me jon  [[gold standard]] ke kaam me laate rahin, jaise [[France]] aur [[Belgium]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Kindleberger|first=Charles Poor|title=The world in depression, 1929–1939|date=1973|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05592-6|edition=Rev. and enl. ed., 11. [print.]|series=History of the world economy in the twentieth century|location=Berkeley, Calif.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ek-ek des ke kosis aapan des ke  shore kare ke [[protectionist]] policies se—jaise 1930 me U.S. [[Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act]] aur retaliatory tariffs duusra des me, ke kaaran dunia ke trade gir gais rahaa, jisse depression aur kharaab hoe gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Historic Events for Students: The Great Depression|date=July 2002|publisher=Gale|isbn=978-0-7876-5701-7|editor-last1=Richard|editor-first1=Clay Hanes|edition=Volume I}}&lt;/ref&gt;  1933 talak, economic decline ke kaaran dunia ke trade, chaar saal pahile ke  one-third rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Tignor|first=Robert L.|title=Worlds together, worlds apart: a history of the world from the beginnings of humankind to the present|url=https://archive.org/details/worldstogetherwo0000tign_s6m3|date=28 October 2013|isbn=978-0-393-92207-3|edition=Fourth|location=New York|oclc=854609153|publisher=W. W. Norton}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width: 50%;text-align: right;&quot;
|+ conomic indicators 1929–1932 ke badlao&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerome Blum]], [[Rondo Cameron]], [[Thomas G. Barnes]], ''The European world: a history,'' (2nd ed 1970), 885 pp.&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;width:36%;&quot;|
! scope=&quot;col&quot;  style=&quot;width:16%; text-align:center;&quot;| United States
! scope=&quot;col&quot;  style=&quot;width:16%; text-align:center;&quot;| United Kingdom
! scope=&quot;col&quot;  style=&quot;width:16%; text-align:center;&quot;| France
! scope=&quot;col&quot;  style=&quot;width:16%; text-align:center;&quot;| Germany
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;| Industrial production
| −46%
| −23%
| −24%
| −41%
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;| Wholesale prices
| −32%
| −33%
| −34%
| −29%
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;| Foreign trade
| −70%
| −60%
| −54%
| −61%
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;| Unemployment
| +607%
| +129%
| +214%
| +232%
|}

== Course ==
[[File:Crowd outside nyse.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|Ek jhund  [[Wall Street]] aur Broad Street ke intersection pe ekkathaa hoe hae Wall Street crash of 1929 ke baad]]

=== Origins ===
Jab ki Great Depression ke kaaran ke dispute karaa jaae hae aur iske duuno  global aur national phenomena pe trace karaa jaae sake hae, iske immediate kaaran ke   U.S. economy ke context me examine karaa jaawe hae, jahaan se ii crises dunia ke baaki des me faela rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Patel |first=Kiran Klaus |title=The New Deal: A Global History |date=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=1–45 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1h4mhhp |jstor=j.ctt1h4mhhp |isbn=978-0-691-14912-7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[World War I]] ke baad, [[Roaring Twenties]]  United States aur Western Europe me dher prosperity laais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Soule-1947&quot;&gt;George H. Soule, ''Prosperity Decade: From War to Depression: 1917–1929,'' (1947).&lt;/ref&gt; Suruu me, 1929 ke saal suruu bhais jisme achchhaa  economic prospects rahaa:  25 March 1929 me ek chhotaa crash ke bawajuut, market September talak barrte rahaa.   Stock prices September me gire lagaa aur mahina ke ant me  volatile rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;pbsstock2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Timeline: A selected Wall Street chronology|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/crash/timeline/timeline2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923040829/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/crash/timeline/timeline2.html|archive-date=23 September 2008|access-date=30 September 2008|publisher=PBS}}&lt;/ref&gt; Stocks ke ek barra bikri October ke biich me suruu bhais rahaa. Aakhri me, 24 October ke din, [[Wall Street crash of 1929|Black Thursday]] bhais, American stock  11% gira rahaa,  opening bell pe. Market ke stabilize kare ke kosis asafal rahaa, aur 28 October, Black Monday ke din, market aur 12% giraa rahaa. Agle din,  Black Tuesday ke roj, market ek aur 11% gira.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|last1=Post|first1=Special to Financial|date=24 October 2011|title=The Great Crash of 1929, some key dates|language=en-CA|website=Financial Post|url=https://financialpost.com/personal-finance/the-great-crash-of-1929-some-key-dates|access-date=22 July 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=&lt;!--ET Bureau--&gt;|date=22 October 2017|title=Market crash of 1929: Some facts of the economic downturn|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/miscellaneous/market-crash-of-1929-some-facts-of-the-economic-downturn/articleshow/61166918.cms|access-date=16 February 2019|work=The Economic Times|publisher=Times Inernet}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Hajaaro  investors barbaad hoe gay rahin, aur billions of dollars khalaas hoe gais rahaa; dher stocks ke koi daam me bhi nai beja jaae sakat rahaa, koi bhi daam me.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Budh ke din,  market 12% uppar gais, lekin ii time talak dher barbaadi hoe gais rahaa. Jab ki  market 14 November se 17 April 1930 talak recovery me rahaa, jaada kar ke ii ek lambaa slump rahaa. F September 1929 se 8 July 1932 talak, market 85% gira rahaa .&lt;ref&gt;Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Data website ke anusaar, jon monthly timeseries 1929 September – 1932 June pe based hae, Dow Jones Industrial Average 87.1% giraa, jab  Cowles Commission aur S&amp;P's ke stock index 85.0% gira rahaa: https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=qj2m , https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=qj2l.&lt;/ref&gt;

Crash ke bawajuut,  crisis ke sab se kharaab effect dunia bhar me  1929 ke baad faela rahaa.  December 1930 me crisis fir se panic level pahunch gais rahaa, jisme ek [[bank run]]  [[Bank of United States]] pe, pahile ke a  privately run bank jiske U.S. government (not to be confused with the [[Federal Reserve]]) se koi sambandh nai rahaa. Kaaheki ii bank aapan creditors ke bhare nai paais rahaa, ii fail hoe gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gordon|first=John Steele|date=November–December 2018|title=The Bank of United States|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2160290916|journal=ABA Banking Journal|volume=110|issue=6|pages=58|id={{ProQuest|2160290916}}}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Calomiris|first=Charles W.|date=November 2007|title=Bank Failures in Theory and History: The Great Depression and Other &quot;Contagious&quot; Events|url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w13597|journal=National Bureau of Economic Research|series=Working Paper Series|doi=10.3386/w13597|s2cid=154123748|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;
608 American banks jon November aur December 1930 me band bhay rahin,  Bank of United States ke  $550&amp;nbsp;million deposits lost deposit ke one-third rahaa, aur iske band hoe ke kaaran closure, bank failures ek critical mass me paunch gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Ferguson|first=Niall|title=The Ascent of Money|date=October 2009|pages=163|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-986-173-584-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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    <title>Industrial Revolution</title>
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      <text bytes="10350" sha1="qbcum4934ge7hopmyfvp7w8awenlrzr" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg d. J. 002.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Coalbrookdale,  England ke ek town hae, jahaan pe  industry ke nawaa idea ke pahila dafe [[wikt:ajmaawa|ajmaawa]] gais rahaa. Hian pe ii 1801 ke raat me dekhae hae. Aagi dher loha banae se hae.]]

'''Industrial Revolution''', [[itihaas]] me uu time ke bola jaawe hae jab dher factory banawa gais rahaa. Dher log gaon se town me aae ke rahe lagin rahaa. [[England]] me ii [[1750]] aur [[1850]] ke biich me bhais rahaa.

== Suruwaat ==
Industrial Revolution, [[Great Britain]] me [[18th century]] me suruu bhais rahaa. Dher technological innovations British rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title= Reconceptualizing the Industrial Revolution |last1= Horn|first1=Jeff |last2= Rosenband|first2= Leonard|last3= Smith|first3= Merritt|year= 2010|publisher =MIT Press|location=Cambridge MA, USA, London |isbn=  978-0262515627}}&lt;/ref&gt; Khaas kar ke, County of [[Shropshire]] important, kaaheki isme duuno minerals (e.g. [[loha]] aur [[koila]]) aur transport  [[River Severn]] me.&lt;ref&gt;Szostak, Rick 1991. ''The role of transportation in the industrial revolution: a comparison of England and France. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Usher, Abbott Payson 1920. ''An introduction to the industrial history of England''. University of Michigan Press.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Uglow, Jenny 2002. ''The Lunar Men: the friends who made the future 1730&amp;ndash;1810''. London: Faber and Faber.
&lt;/ref&gt; Iske kaaran  industries near  [[Ironbridge Gorge]] aur [[Coalbrookdale]] ke lage banaa rahaa.

[[18th century]] ke biich me [[Great Britain]], [[dunia]] ke  ke trading des me se sab se aage rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title= Capitalism: A complete understanding of the nature and value of human economic life|url= https://archive.org/details/capitalismtreati0000reis|last=Reisman|first= George|year= 1998|isbn= 0-915463-73-3
|publisher =Jameson Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/capitalismtreati0000reis/page/127 127]}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Ii ek dunia bhar ke trading empire ke control karat rahaa, jisme  [[North America]] ur [[Africa]] me colonies, aur political influencethe [[Indian subcontinent]] me,  [[East India Company]] se.&lt;ref name=David_Landes_1999&gt;
{{cite book|title= The Wealth and Poverty of Nations|url= https://archive.org/details/wealthpovertyofn00land_0|last=Landes|first= David|year= 1999|publisher =W.W. Norton &amp; Company|isbn=  978-0393318883}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Trade aur business ke barrnaa, Industrial Revolution ke khaas kaaran rahaa. 

Industrial Revolution, itihaas ke ek khaas morr rahaa. Dainik jiwan ke lagbhag sab chij pe iske asar rahaa.  Average [[wikt:aamdani|aamdani]] barrha rahaa, aur [[wikt:abaadi|abaadi]] bhi jorr se barrha rahaa. Kuchh economists ii bole hae ki  Industrial Revolution ke khaas asar [[standard of living]] aam aadmi ke rahaa, jon itihaas me pahila dafe barrte rahaa, lekin aur log ii bole hae ki ii kuchh khaaas nai barrha rahaa,  19th aur 20th centuries talak.

Industrail Revolution, [[Europe]] aur [[Americas]] me faela,khaas kar ke [[United States]],  19th century ke suruu me. Samuel Slater, jon ek English cotton factory me apprentice rahaa, apne ke disguise kar ke  America aais rahaa. Uu [[spinning Jenny|spinning machine]] ke fir se banais rahaa, aapan dimaag se aur apne se ek factory banais rahaa. 

Nawaa ideas aur inventions ke [[mining]] me bhi kaam me laawa gais rahaa, [[wikt:dhaatu|dhaatu]] pe kaam karna, aur chij ke [[transport]] kare ke khaatir. Lagbhag yahii time [[wikt:kheti|kheti]] me nawaa idea ke kaaram khet me kaam kare waala dher [[wikt:majuur|majuur]] ke kaam nai rahaa. Bina kaam ke pahile khet me kaam kare waala majuur town gain, jahaan pe uulog factory me kaam khoje lagin.

[[File:Grazebrook Beam Engine.jpg|thumb|right|Suruu ke steam engines, jiske 1817 me kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa, paani ke bahaar pump kare ke khaatir aur hawaa ke bhitttar pump kare ke khaatir. Isse mining ke aur [[wikt:gahira|gahira]] karaa jaae sakaa rahaa.]]
Industrial revolution ke sab se khaas invention, [[steam engine]] rahaa.  Steam engine, jiske [[James Watt]] lagbhag 1776 me aur achchhaa karis rahaa, ke kaam me laae ke   factories ke power karaa jaawat rahaa aur gahira mine se [[wikt:paani|paani]] ke pump karaa jaawat rahaa. Iske [[railway]] [[wikt:injin|ingin]] me bhi kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa. Koila ke jaraana, power ke khaas source rahaa. 

== Sankat==
Rahan-sahan aur achchhaa bhais rahaa, log jaada kar ke aur dhani aur [[wikt:changaa|changaa]] hoe gay rahin, uulog ke aur dher larrkan rahaa jon barraa hoe gay rahin aur bhukmari ke kaaran mare nai rahin. Iske kaaran  [[England]] ke [[wikt:abaadi|abaadi]]  barrha aur isse aur nawaa problem bhais rahaa. Jab ji pahile khaali kuchh log dhani rahin kaaheki uulog ke lage jamiin rahaa, ab aur log industry ke kaaran dhani hoe gay rahin. Dher jan abhi talak garib rahin aur kharaab [[wikt:prastithi|prastithi]] me rahat rahin. Larrkan aur aurat logan ke dher ghanta kaam kare ke parrat rahaa,  kamti talab pe.  Dher dafe, dher palwaar ek ghar me rahat rahin. Different time kaam kar ke, palwaar ke log turn lay ke sutat rahin, jab uulog kaam nai karat rahin. &lt;ref name=&quot;world&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=World Studies|last=Koontz|first=Terri, Mark Sidwell, S.M.Bunker|date=June 2005|publisher=Bob Jones University Press|isbn=1-59166-431-4|location=Greenville, South Carolina}}&lt;/ref&gt; Families were usually unable to get together. 12, 14, or even 18-hour workdays were common.

[[File:Edmund Cartwright.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Edmund Cartwright]], power [[loom]] ke inventer rahaa.  Ii invention  [[weaving]] process ke aur jor kar diis rahaa.]]

== [[wikt:Tarakki|Tarakki]] ==
During the industrial revolution, new technology brought many changes. For example:

* [[wikt:Naara|Naara]] (Canal) ke banaawa gais rahaa jisse jarrhu chij ke ek jagha se duusra jagha pe sahaj se karaa jaae sake. 
* [[Steam engine]] power ke khaas source banaa rahaa, jiske ghorraa aur insaan ke kaam ke replace karis rahaa. 
* Sastaa loha aur steel ke mass-produced karaa gais rahaa. Steel ke lakrri ke jagha ghar aur duusra chij banae me kaam me laawa jaae lagaa rahaa. 
* Machine tools samaan hoe gais rahaa. Dher chij ke ek dafe banaawa jae sakaa, ghhar pe haanth se banae ke jagha. 
* Seed drill aur duusra kisani ke machinery British [[agricultural revolution]] ke suruu karis. Kamti log ke khet me kaam kare ke parrat rahaa, tab uulog town jaae ke nawaa kaam, factory me, kare lagin.  Dher nawaa kaam karraa aur kabh-kabhi  dangerous rahaa.
* Railways ke England bhar banaawa gais rahaa, aur fir dunia bhar me. Ii  [[freight]] aur [[passenger]] ke aur jaldi aur sasta me move karat rahaa.  
* Bhaap waala jahaaj, paal waala jahaaj ke jagha kaam me laae jaga rahaa, jon aur barraa rahaa aur jor chalat rahaa aur ii hawaa aur mausam pe [[wikt:nirbhar|nirbhar]] nai rahaa.  
*  [[spinning Jenny]] aur power loom se dher kaprra aur fabrics banaawa jaae sakaa rahaa.

===Textile ke manufacture===

====Great Britain ke textile industry====
[[File:Hand-loom weaving (Bonhams).jpg|thumb|Handloom se weave karna,  [[William Hogarth]] ke ''[[Industry and Idleness]]'' (1747) se]]
1750 me, Great Britain  2.5&amp;nbsp;million pounds  raw cotton ke import karis rahaa, jisme se jaada spin aur weave  cottage industry [[Lancashire]] me karaa jaawat rahaa. Kaam ke haanth se majuur ke ghar aur dukaan me karaa jaawat rahaa. Jab ki talab India ke 1770 ke mukaable me chhe dafe rahaa, Great Britain me productivity khaali tiin dafe jaada rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Beckert_2014&quot; /&gt; 1787 me, raw cotton consumption  22&amp;nbsp;million pounds rahaa, jisme se jaaada ke safaa, carded aur spin machine se karaa jaawat rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;David S. Landes 1969&quot;/&gt; British textile industry 52&amp;nbsp;million pound cotton ke 1800 me kaam me laais rahaa, aur 588&amp;nbsp;million pounds 1850 me rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Industrialization and Society|url=https://archive.org/details/industrialisatio0000hopk|last=Hopkins|first=Eric|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/industrialisatio0000hopk/page/2 2]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jon value Britain me cotton industry se jorra gais rahaa, 1760 me 2.6% rahaa, 17% , 1801 me, aur 22%, 1831 me. Value jon woollen industry jorris rahaa, 1801 me  14%  rahaa. 1797 me  900 cotton factory rahaa. 1760 me, lagbhag one-third cotton ke kaprraa jiske manufacture karaa gais rahaa ke export karaa gais rahaa aur  1800 talak ii two-third rahaa. 1781 me, cotton spun 5&amp;nbsp;million pounds ke rahaa, jon barr keo 56&amp;nbsp;million pounds 1800 talak rahaa. 1800 me,  0.1% dunia ke cotton ke kaprraa ke britain me machine se banaawa gais rahaa.  1788 me, Britain me  50,000 spindles rahaa jo 30 saal baad barr ke 7&amp;nbsp;million hoe gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Beckert_2014&quot;/&gt;

====Wool====
Europe ke log sab se pahile wool ke spin kare ke mechanise kare rahin, lekin wwol ke mechanise karnaa cotton ke mechanise kare se aur karraa hae. Industrial Revolution ke time wool spinning aur achchhaa hoe gais rahaa, lekin cotton se kamti. &lt;ref name=&quot;David S. Landes 1969&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;David_Landes_1999&quot;&gt;
{{cite book |last=Landes |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/wealthpovertyofn00land_0 |title=The Wealth and Poverty of Nations |publisher=W.W. Norton &amp; Company |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-393-31888-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Resham====
[[File:Silkmill1.jpg|thumb|[[John Lombe]] ke silk mill site abhi [[Derby]] me, jiske fir se banaawa gais hae [[Derby Silk Mill]]]]
Sab se pahila highly mechanised factory was [[John Lombe]] ke [[Derby Silk Mill|water-powered silk mill]], [[Derby]] me rahaa, jon 1721 me chalat rahaa. Lombe silk thread manufacturing ke sikhis rahaa, Italy me ek kaam lae ke aur ek   industrial spy ban ke; lekin, kaaheki Italian silk industry aapan secret ke guard karat rahaa, uutime ke state of the industry ke baare me bahut nai jaana jaawe hae.   Jab Lombe ke factory  technically successful rahaa, Italy ke raw silk ke supply ke kaat dewa gais rahaa, competition ke eliminate kare ke khaatir. Manufacturing ke promote kare ke khaatir, Crown models of Lombe's machinery khatir paisa diis rahaa, jiske  [[Tower of London]] me dekhaawa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite ODNB|id=75296|first=Richard L.|last=Hills|title=Cotchett, Thomas|author-link=Richard L. Hills}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite ODNB|id=47971|first=K. R.|last=Fairclough|title=Sorocold, George}}&lt;/ref&gt;


==References==
{{reflist}}

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10 ppb [[Methane]]
}}

'''Mangalgrah''' (pratiik: [[File:Mars symbol (fixed width).svg|16px|♂]], Mars) [[Solar System]] me [[Suraj]] se dur chhota planet hae.  English me iska naam, Mars,  [[Roman]] ke yudh karne waala bhagwaan ke naam se aisa hae  kyoki iska rang [[laal]] hae joki [[khuun]] ka rang hae.

Mangalreah, Suraj se chauthaa grah hae. Ii grah ke matti laal-gulaabi hae, kaaheki isme dher iron oxide hae aur yahii kaaran se iske &quot;Laal grah&quot; ke naam dewa gais hae..&lt;ref name=&quot;Rees2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Universe: The Definitive Visual Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/universe0000unse_f2g0 |date=October 2012 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-7566-9841-6 |editor-last=Rees |editor-first=Martin J. |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/universe0000unse_f2g0/page/160 160]–161}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mangalgrah, [[dunia]] se dekhaae aasmaan me ek sab se jaada bright chij hae. Ii ek terrestrial grah hae aur saur mandal ke duusra sab se chhotaa grah hae, jiske diameter {{Cvt|6779|km|4=0}} hae. Mangalgrah ke ek din 24.6 ghantaa ke rahe hae aur iske ek saal 1.88 dunia ke saal ke baraabar hae (687 dunia ke baraabar din). Mangalgrah ke lage dui chandarma hae, [[Phobos]] aur [[Deimos]]

Mangalgrah ke north hissa samthar hae, jab ki south ke hissa cratar se bharaa hae. Hian pe dher barraa barraa exticnt jwakamukhi hae, jisme se sab se uuncha Olympus Mons hae, jiske uunchaai {{Convert|21.9|km|mi|abbr=on|disp=or}} hae aur saur mandal ke sab se barraa canyon, Valles Marineris, jiske lambaae {{Convert|4000|km|mi|abbr=on|disp=or}} hae. Iske dharti ke bhittar dher [[bhukamp]] hoe hae. Mangalgrah ke polar ice caps me dher carbon dioxide hae. Saal bhar me average temperature {{Cvt|-78.5|C|F}} aur {{Cvt|5.7|C|F}} ke biich me rahe hae. Iske axis ke tilt 23.5 degrees hae.

Mangalgrah 4.5&amp;nbsp;billion saal pahile banaa rahaa. 4.5 se 3.5&amp;nbsp;billion saal pahile ii grah ke surface meteor impact se marked rahaa, valley banatrahha, erosion howat rahaa aur saait hian pe samundar bhi rahaa. 3.5 se 3.3–2.9&amp;nbsp;billion  saal pahile hian pe dher jwalamukhi fuutat rahaa aur baarr ke kaaran dher channels banaa rahaa. Uu time se abhi talak hawaa jaada chale hae. Lig ii biswas kare hae ki saait pahila hian pe jiu rahaa hoi.

20th century me Mangalgrah me dher spacecraft aur rover bheja gais hae. 1965 me pahila dafe Marina 4 Mangalgrah ke bagal se urr ke gais rahaa, 1971 me Mars 2 pahila dafe orbit karis aur 1976 me Viking 1 pahila dafe hian pe utra rahaa. 2023 me 11 orbiroes aur rovers ii grah ke parigrama kare hae. Aage waala saal me aur dher mission hian ke khaatir plan karaa gais hae.

==Mangalgrah ka jaankari==
[[File:Mars rocks.jpg|thumb|left|Surface with rocks everywhere photographed by [[Mars Pathfinder]]]]
Mars ke lage hue chhota chhota [[chandrama]] hae, jiske naam [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]] aur [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]] he. Is planet me jaada kar ke [[patthar]] he. Iski matti [[laal]] he kahe ki hian pagal ho gaye hae 
pe dher  [[iron oxide]] (murcha) hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://erc.arc.nasa.gov/MarsVolc/basalt.htm|title=NASA Mars Page|work=Volcanology of Mars (Retrieved via the [[Internet Archive]])|accessdate=2009-05-13|archive-date=2008-01-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106181124/http://erc.arc.nasa.gov/MarsVolc/basalt.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii planet me thorra se [[carbon dioxide]] ke [[atmosphere]] hae. Mangalgrah ke [[temperature]] dunia se aur jaada thanda hae, kahe ki ii Suraj se aur duur har. Mangalgrah ke  north aur south [[pole]] me ice aur frozen carbon dioxide hae. Mars me [[paani]] nai hae, poles ke alawa, lekin scientist log ii soche hae ki hian pe pahile paani rahaa.

== Physical characteristics ==
[[File:Terrestrial planet size comp 2024.png|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Mars depicted to scale alongside the [[planetary-mass object]]s of the [[Inner Solar System]]. From left: [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Earth]], the [[Moon]], Mars and [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]].)]]

Magalgrah ke diameter, [[dunia]] ke lagbhag aadha hae, lekin iske surface area dunia ke jhuura jagha ke surface arease khaali thorra kamtii hae. Ii grah dunia se kamtii dense hae aur iske volume dunia ke khaali 15% hae aur mass khaali 11% hae. Iske kaaran iske gravity dunia ke khaali 38% hae. Mangalgrah ke abhi ek desert planet bola jaae hae, kaaheki iske surface dunia ke desert ke rakam hae. &lt;ref name=&quot;ismars&quot;&gt;[http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/multimedia/videos/index.cfm?v=29&amp;a=2 NASA – ''Mars in a Minute: Is Mars Really Red?''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720135450/http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/multimedia/videos/index.cfm?v=29&amp;a=2 |date=20 July 2014 }} ([http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/videos/movies/miam20111110/miam20111110.pdf Transcript] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106174558/http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/videos/movies/miam20111110/miam20111110.pdf |date=6 November 2015 }}) {{PD-notice}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
[[File:Mars Internal Structure (2024).svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Internal structure of Mars]]
[[File:GMM-3 Mars Gravity.webm|thumb|Mapped gravity field of Mars]]

== Mangalgrah ka Itihaas ==
Mangalgrah ke baare me pichhle kai varso  se jaana jata hae. Greek log is planet ko Ares khte the , lekin jab Roman log raj karne lage tab ve  log iske naam ko badal kr Mars ka nam de diya.

Ii planet ke chapa banae me pahila kaam Giovanni Schiaparelli karis rahaa. Ii jon kuchh aapan duurbin se dekhis rahaa uske confuse kar diis kahe ki uu canal ke jiske paani ke khatir khoda gias rahaa, ke dekhis.  Iske kaaran log ii soche lagin ki Mangalgrah me janwar aur alien rahe hae. Aajkal ii planet me rocket bheje ke kaaran ham log ii jantaa hae ki  ii planet me koi janwar nai hae.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Dusre websites ==

* [http://space.wikia.com/wiki/Mars Mars] at Space Wiki
* [http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/archive/freesearch/MARS/viewall/1 Mars at ESA/Hubble]
* [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars Mars Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014235225/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars |date=2009-10-14 }} by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ NASA's Solar System Exploration]
* [http://space.about.com/cs/solarsystem/p/marsinfo.htm Mars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810063140/http://space.about.com/cs/solarsystem/p/marsinfo.htm |date=2009-08-10 }} - About Space
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html NASA's Mars fact sheet]
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/space_time/mars/ Mars Research News]
* [http://www.projectshum.org/Planets/mars.html Planets - Mars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829083322/http://www.projectshum.org/Planets/mars.html |date=2011-08-29 }} A kid's guide to Mars.

{{Solar System}}

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      <text bytes="11085" sha1="704kikppzkaxnfiezxr8kz3tc94hl73" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox religion
| name               = Isai Dharam
| image              = Church of the Holy Sepulchre by Gerd Eichmann (cropped).jpg
| imagewidth         = 275px
| alt                = 
| caption            = Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Old City of Jerusalem ke Christian quarter me
| main_classification = [[Abrahami Dharam|Abrahamic]]
| scripture         = [[Bible]] ([[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]])
| theology           = [[God in Christianity|Monotheistic]]
| language           = [[Biblical Hebrew]], [[Biblical Aramaic]], aur [[Koine Greek|Biblical Greek]]
| territory          = [[Christendom]]
| founder            = [[Jesus]]
| founded_date       = [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century AD]]
| founded_place      = [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]], Roman Empire
| separated_from     = [[Judaism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |author-link=Bart D. Ehrman |year=2005 |orig-year=2003 |title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew |chapter=At Polar Ends of the Spectrum: Early Christian Ebionites and Marcionites |journal=Church History |volume=74 |issue=2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&amp;pg=PA95 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1017/s0009640700110273 |isbn=978-0-19-518249-1 |s2cid=152458823 |access-date=20 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Hurtado |first=Larry W. |author-link=Larry Hurtado |year=2005 |chapter=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Approaches to Jesus-Devotion in Earliest Christianity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi5xIxgnNgcC&amp;pg=PA13 |title=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus |location=Grand Rapids and Cambridge |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]] |pages=13–55 |isbn=978-0-8028-2861-3 |access-date=20 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Freeman |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Freeman (historian) |year=2010 |title=A New History of Early Christianity |chapter=Breaking Away: The First Christianities |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_in-6VLgRoC&amp;pg=PA31 |location=New Haven and London |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=31–46 |doi=10.12987/9780300166583 |isbn=978-0-300-12581-8 |jstor=j.ctt1nq44w |s2cid=170124789 |access-date=20 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Wilken |first=Robert Louis |year=2013 |title=The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity |chapter=Beginning in Jerusalem |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&amp;pg=PA6 |location=New Haven and London |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=6–16 |isbn=978-0-300-11884-1 |jstor=j.ctt32bd7m |s2cid=160590164 |access-date=20 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author-last=Lietaert Peerbolte |author-first=Bert Jan |year=2013 |chapter=How Antichrist Defeated Death: The Development of Christian Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Early Church |editor1-last=Krans |editor1-first=Jan |editor2-last=Lietaert Peerbolte |editor2-first=L. J. |editor3-last=Smit |editor3-first=Peter-Ben |editor4-last=Zwiep |editor4-first=Arie W. |title=Paul, John, and Apocalyptic Eschatology: Studies in Honour of Martinus C. de Boer |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |series=[[Novum Testamentum|Novum Testamentum: Supplements]] |volume=149 |pages=238–255 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MoKxIeOTkqYC&amp;pg=PA238 |doi=10.1163/9789004250369_016 |isbn=978-90-04-25026-0 |issn=0167-9732 |s2cid=191738355 |access-date=13 February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| separations        = 
| number_of_followers =  [[Christianity by country|2.38&amp;nbsp;billion]] {{increase}} ([[List of Christian synonyms|referred to]] as [[Christians]])

}}
'''Isai Dharam''' (&quot;Christianity&quot;), ek [[Abrahami Dharam|Abrahamic]] [[monotheistic]] dharam hae, jiske maane waale ii biswas kare hae ki [[Isu Masih]] (Jesus), Ishwar ke larrkaa hae&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Jan Pelikan |first=Jaroslav |title=Christianity &amp;#124; Definition, Origin, History, Beliefs, Symbols, Types, &amp; Facts &amp;#124; Britannica |date=13 August 2022 |entry=Christianity |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |quote=...there is a core of ideas that all New Testament scholars and believers would agree are central to ancient Christian beliefs. One British scholar, James G. Dunn, for example, says they would all agree that “the Risen Jesus is the Ascended Lord.” That is to say, there would have been no faith tradition and no scriptures had not the early believers thought that Jesus was “Risen,” raised from the dead, and, “Ascended,” somehow above the ordinary plane of mortal and temporal experience.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Young |first=Frances M. |author-link=Frances Young |year=2006 |chapter=Prelude: Jesus Christ, foundation of Christianity |editor1-last=Mitchell |editor1-first=M. |editor2-last=Young |editor2-first=F. |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity |volume=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=1–34|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.002 |isbn=978-1-139-05483-6|quote=The death of Jesus Christ by crucifixion, together with his resurrection from the dead, lies at the heart of Christianity.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |year=2005 |title=Christianity - The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095610483|access-date=2024-08-06 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=The religion based on the person and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, or its beliefs and practices.}}&lt;/ref&gt;, aur uske crucifixion ke baad uu fir se jinda hoe gais, aur jiske aae ke prphecy [[Old Testament]] me hae. Ii [[dunia]] ke sab se barraa [[dharam]] hae aur sab se jaada faela dharam hae jiske 2.4 billion jane follow kare hae, jon dunia ke abaadi ke 31.2% hae. Ii dharam me biswas kare waala log, jiske Isai bola jaae hae, 157 [[des]] me majority me hae.

Isai dharam 1st century me Rome ke province Judea me suruu bhais rahaa. Isu MAsih ke chela log ii dharam ke eastern [[Mediterranean Samundar|Mediterranean]] me failian lekin uu logan ke Rome ke sarkar prosecute karat rahaa. 314 AD me Rome ke emporer Constantine II Isai dharam ke uske sujects ke follow kare diis. 380 AD me Isai dharam. Roman Empire ke sarkari dharam banaa. 1054 AD me split hoe ke [[Catholic Church]] aur [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] hoe gais.16th century me [[Protestant]] log Catholic Church se alag hoe gain. 15th aur 17th century ke biich me Isai dharam, colonialism ke kaaran dunia bhar me faela.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Perry|first=Marvin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC&amp;pg=PA33|title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789|year=2012|publisher=Cengage|isbn=978-1-111-83720-4|page=33}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|loc=Preface}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Hayes|first1=Carlton J. H.|title=Christianity and Western Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/christianitywest0000haye|year=1954|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-7581-3510-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/christianitywest0000haye/page/2 2]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isai dharan ke tiin khaas branches hae Catholic Church (1.3 billion log), Protestantism (625 million log)&lt;ref name=&quot;Melton2005&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Melton |first=J. Gordon |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |year=2005 |publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-6983-5 |page=398}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}&lt;ref name=&quot;gordonconwell.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050 |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary |access-date=23 May 2024|quote=Protestants: 625,606,000; Independents: 421,689,000; Unaffiliated Christians: 123,508,000}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KimOsmerSchweitzer2018&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hyun-Sook |last2=Osmer |first2=Richard R. |last3=Schweitzer |first3=Friedrich |title=The Future of Protestant Religious Education in an Age of Globalization |year=2018 |publisher=Waxmann Verlag |isbn=978-3-8309-8876-2 |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=muV0DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Walsham |first1=Alexandra |last2=Cummings |first2=Brian |last3=Law |first3=Ceri |last4=Riley |first4=Karis |title=Remembering the Reformation |date=4 June 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-61992-2 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XrpDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT18}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur Eastern Orthodoxy (230&amp;nbsp;million)

==Itihaas==
===Apostolic Jamaana===
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 73792 mount zion jerusalem.jpg|thumb|The [[Cenacle]] on [[Mount Zion]] in [[Jerusalem]], claimed to be the location of the [[Last Supper]] and [[Pentecost]]]]
Isai dharam 1st century AD me Rome ke province Judea me suruu bhais rahaa aur iske suruu me ek Jewish Christian sect maana jaawat rahaa aur isme Greek ke influence rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |entry=Evodius of Antioch → Antioch, Church of |encyclopedia=Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online |doi=10.1163/2589-7993_eeco_dum_00001220 |title=Evodius of Antioch → Antioch, Church of |date=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; of [[Second Temple Judaism]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Catherine |last=Cory |title=Christian Theological Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SsZcCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA20 |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34958-7 |at=p. 20 and forward}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Benko |title=Pagan Rome and the Early Christians |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LHHxkapsiEgC&amp;pg=PA22 |year=1984 |publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34286-7 |at=p. 22 and forward}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pahila Jewish Isai community ke [[Jeruslam]] me three pillars , James, Perter saur John, ke niche suruu karaa gais rahaa. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=McGrath |first=Alister E. |author-link=Alister McGrath |year=2006 |title=Christianity: An Introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=1-4051-0899-1 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jab non Jewish log Isai dharam ke join kare lagin tab Jewish log isse khusi nai rahin lekin Paul the Apostle ii insist karis ki koi baptise bhae jab Isai nabe sake hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Seifrid |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark A. Seifrid |title=Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme |chapter='Justification by Faith' and The Disposition of Paul's Argument |series=[[Novum Testamentum]] |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=1992 |isbn=9004095217 |issn=0167-9732 |pages=210–211, 246–247 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdUkuOtOw68C&amp;pg=PA210}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;
{{reflist|2}}

== Duusra websites ==
{{Commonscat}}
* [http://basicenglishbible.com/ The Christian Bible in Basic English]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [http://www.beliefnet.com/index/index_10002.html Christianity portal] at Beliefnet
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090504204017/http://kindstuff.googlepages.com/(bibleonbaptism) Necessity of Baptism]

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    <title>Han Samrajya</title>
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      <text bytes="11711" sha1="ppqk4nbafa6u9w328keenc294cq3p74" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox country
| native_name       = 漢
| conventional_long_name = Han
| common_name       = Han
| era               = [[History of China|Imperial]]
| status            = Empire
| government_type   = [[Monarchy]]
| year_start        = 202 BC
| year_end          = 220 AD
| event_start       = [[Battle of Gaixia]]; Liu Bang proclaimed [[Emperor of China|emperor]]
| event_end         = Abdication to [[Cao Wei]]
| life_span         = {{plainlist|
* 202 BC – 9 AD; 25–220 AD
* 
}}
| p1                = Qin dynasty
| p2                = Eighteen Kingdoms
| p3                = Ailao Kingdom
| p4                = Dian kingdom
| s1                = Cao Wei
| s2                = Shu Han
| s3                = Eastern Wu
| event_pre         = [[Xiang Yu]] appointed [[Liu Bang]] as King of Han
| date_pre          = 206 BC
| event1            = [[Xin dynasty]]
| date_event1       = 9–23 AD
| stat_year1        = 50 BC ({{est.}} Western Han peak){{sfnp|Taagepera|1979|p=128}}
| stat_area1        = 6000000
| stat_year2        = 2 AD
| stat_pop2         = 57,671,400
| stat_year3        = 100 AD ({{est.}} Eastern Han peak)
| stat_area3        = 6500000
| image_map         = Han Dynasty 2 BC (cropped).svg
| image_map_caption = The Western Han dynasty in 2&amp;nbsp;AD{{sfnp|Barnes|2007|p=63}}
{{plainlist|
* {{color box|#0000ff}} Principalities and centrally-administered [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]]
* {{color box|#0080ff}} [[Protectorate of the Western Regions]] ([[Tarim Basin]])
}}
| capital           = {{ubli|[[Chang'an]] (206 BC – 9 AD, 190–195 AD)|[[Luoyang]] (23–190 AD, 196 AD)|[[Xuchang]] (196–220 AD)}}
| common_languages  = [[Old Chinese]]
| religion          = {{hlist|[[Chinese folk religion]]|[[Taoism]]|[[Buddhism in China|Buddhism]]}}
| currency          = {{ubl|[[Ban Liang coin]]s|[[Wu Zhu coin]]s}}
| leader1           = [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Emperor Gaozu]]
| leader2           = [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]]
| leader3           = [[Emperor Xuan of Han|Emperor Xuan]]
| leader4           = [[Emperor Guangwu]]
| leader5           = [[Emperor Xian]]
| year_leader1      = 202–195 BC (first)
| year_leader2      = 141–87 BC
| year_leader3      = 74–48 BC
| year_leader4      = 25–57 AD
| year_leader5      = 189–220 AD (last)
| title_leader      = [[List of emperors of the Han dynasty|Emperor]]
&lt;!-- Please do not alter any information below this line --&gt;
| deputy1           = [[Xiao He]]
| deputy2           = [[Cao Shen]]
| deputy3           = [[Dong Zhuo]]
| deputy4           = [[Cao Cao]]
| deputy5           = [[Cao Pi]]
| year_deputy1      = 206–193 BC
| year_deputy2      = 193–190 BC
| year_deputy3      = 189–192 AD
| year_deputy4      = 208–220 AD
| year_deputy5      = 220 AD
| title_deputy      = [[Grand chancellor (China)|Chancellor]]
&lt;!-- Please do not alter any information above this line --&gt;
| 
}}
'''Han Samrajya''' [[202 BC]] me taagat me aais. Ii logan [[Confucianism]] aur Legalism ke maanat rahin. Iske Han Sythesis bola jaawat rahaa. Ii dynasty ke niche, [[China]] arts aur science me tarakki karis. Ii [[samrajya]] barraa hote gais. [[China]] duusra des se trade kare lagaa. Merchant log [[Silk Road]] le ke [[China]] pahunchin. Ii dynasty ke time China me [[Buddhism]] aais. 

==Itihaas==


===Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD)&lt;!--'Western Han' and 'Former Han' redirect here--&gt;===

China ke pahila [[Dynasties in Chinese history|imperial dynasty]] [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206&amp;nbsp;BC) rahaa. Qin China ke [[Warring States]] ke conquer kar ke ek des banae rahin, lekin ii sarkar dagmaae lagaa, pahila emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] ke maut ke baad. Chaar saal ke biich me, ii samrajya ke  authority khalaas hoe gais ek rebellion ke baad.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|pp=60–61}} Dui pahile ke virodhi neta, [[Xiang Yu]]  [[Kingdom of Chu|Chu]] ke aur [[Liu Bang]]  [[Hanzhong|Han]] ke, ek larrai me takkar kare rahin ii determine kare ke khaatir ki  China ke uppar kon raaj kari, jon vibhajit hoe ke 18 rajya me hoe gay rahin, jisme se sab chaahe Xiang Yu nai to Liu Bang ke samarthan karat rahaa.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=116–122}} Jab ki Xiang Yu ek effective commander rahaa, Liu Bang uske [[Battle of Gaixia]] (202&amp;nbsp;BC) me, aaj ke [[Anhui]] me bhais rahaa. Liu Bang  [[Emperor of China|the title of Emperor]] liis rahaa uske chela loh ke maang pe aur uske mare ke baad uske   [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Emperor Gaozu]] ke naam se jaana jaawe hae ({{reign|202|195&amp;nbsp;BC}}).{{sfnp|Davis|2001|pp=44–46}} [[Chang'an]] (abhi ke Xi'an) ke  [[History of the Han dynasty|reunified empire under Han]] ke nawaa capital chuna gais rahaa.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|p=122}}
[[File:Han dynasty Kingdoms 195 BC.png|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Thirteen direct-controlled [[commandery (China)|commanderies]] including the capital region (yellow) and ten semi-autonomous kingdoms, 195&amp;nbsp;BC]]

'''Western Han''' ke suruuwaat me&lt;!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--&gt; ({{zh|t=西漢|s=西汉|p=Xīhàn|first=t}}), jiske '''Former Han'''&lt;!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--&gt; ({{zhi|t=前漢|s=前汉|p=Qiánhàn|first=t}}) ke naam se bhi jaana jaawe hae, terah centrally controlled [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]]—jisme capital region bhi rahaa— western third of the empire me rahaa, jab eastern two-thirds das [[Kings of the Han dynasty|semi-autonomous kingdoms]] me divided rahin.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=122–125}} Aapan commanders ke manae ke khaatir   Chu, Emperor Gaozu ke saathe, jisme se kuchh raja bhi rahin.

196 AD talak, Han court ii aur sab raja ke  royal [[Liu]] palwaar ke log se fill kar de rahin,  [[Changsha Kingdom|Changsha]] ke chhorr ke. Jon log palwaar ke nai rahin, ke samraath ke khaatir wafaadaari ke uppar sawaal karaa gais rahaa,{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=122–125}} aur kuchh vidroh  Han ke raja log se—jisme se sab se barra [[Rebellion of the Seven States]]  154 me rahaa—imperial court suruu karis kuchh reforms jisse ii kingdoms ke taagat ke  145 AD me kamtii karaa gais rahaa, aur uu log ke territories ke nawaa  commanderies ke baata gais rahaa, jon central control ke niche rahaa.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=139–144}} Raja logan aapan staff ke apne nai appoint kare sakat rahin , ii duty ke imperial court le liss rahaa.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=106}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=76}} Raaja logan khaali naam ke aapan  [[fief]] ke aguwaa rahin aur tax   tax revenue ke ek hissa ke aapan personal income khaatir rakh lewat rahin.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=106}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=76}} Kingdoms ke kabhi puuraa abolish nai karaa gais rahaa aur Western aur Eastern Han ke time talak bhi rahin.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=105}}

China ke north me, nomadic [[Xiongnu]] chief [[Modu Chanyu]] ({{reign|209|174&amp;nbsp;BC}}) dher tribes jon eastern portion of the [[Eurasian Steppe]] me rahat rahin, ke conquer kar liis rahaa. Uske raaj ke ant talak uu [[Inner Asia]] regions [[Manchuria]], [[Mongolia]], and the [[Tarim Basin]] ke control karat rahaa, jisme uu twenty states east of [[Samarkand]] ke aapan niche kar liis rahaa.{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=175–189, 196–198}}{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=80–81}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=387–388}} Emperor Gaozu dher Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders ke baare me worried rahaa, aur uu ek trade [[embargo]] ii group ke against karis rahaa.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=75–77}}

Iske badle me,  Xiongnu invade  karis uu jagha jon abhi [[Shanxi]] hae, jahaan pe uu [[Battle of Baideng|defeated the Han forces at Baideng]] 200&amp;nbsp;BC me.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=75–77}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=190–192}} Negotiations ke baad,  ''[[heqin]]'' agreement  198&amp;nbsp;BC me, duuno   Xiongnu aur Han ke neta ke baraabar partners ek royal marriage alliance batais rahaa, lekin Han ke force karaa gais rahaa ki uu dher tribute waala chij, jaisesilk clothes, khaana, aur wine ke Xiongnu bheje.{{sfnp|Yü|1967|pp=9–10}}{{sfnp|Morton|Lewis|2005|p=52}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=192–195}}

Tribute aur negotiation  [[Laoshang Chanyu]] ({{reign|174|160&amp;nbsp;BC}}) aur [[Emperor Wen of Han|Emperor Wen]] ({{reign|180|157&amp;nbsp;BC}}) to reopen border markets, ke baawajuut  [[Chanyu]] ke dher subordinates  treaty ke paalan nai kare rahin aur time-time pe  Han territories south of the [[Great Wall]] ke raid kare rahin aur maal paawe ke khaatir.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=388–389}}{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=77, 82–83}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=195–196}} Ek court conference  me, jiske  [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] ({{reign|141|87&amp;nbsp;BC}})  135&amp;nbsp;BC me balais rahaa,  [[Consensus decision-making|majority consensus]] ministers ke rahaa koi ''heqin'' agreement ke rakkhaa jaawe. Emperor Wu iske accept karis, lekin Xiongnu raids hote rahaa.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=83–84}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=389–390}}

Lekin, ek court conference agle saal  majority ke convince karis ki  [[Battle of Mayi|limited engagement at Mayi]] jisme Chanyu ke maara jaai,   Xiongnu realm ke chaos me kar di aur   Han ke benefit kari.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=389–391}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=211–214}} Jab ii plot fail hoe gais 133&amp;nbsp;BC me,{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=91–92}} Emperor Wu launch karis dher [[Han–Xiongnu War|massive military invasions]]  Xiongnu ke ilaaka me. Ii larrai aapan choti pe 119&amp;nbsp;BC me, [[Battle of Mobei]] me pahuncha, jab Han commanders [[Huo Qubing]]  aur [[Wei Qing]]  ke mare ke kaaran  Xiongnu court ke  north of  [[Gobi Desert]] me bhaag gais rahaa, aur Han forces  north me [[Lake Baikal]] talak pahunch gay rahin.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|p=390}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=237–240}}
[[File:Huo Qubing horse (cropped).jpg|thumb|Ii murti ek ghorraa ek [[Xiongnu]] warrior ke trample kare hae, Western Han general [[Huo Qubing]] me ({{died-in|117&amp;nbsp;BC}}), jon [[Han–Xiongnu War]] me larris rahaa. Ii pahila jaana gais monumental stone statue China ke hae.{{sfnp|Qingbo|2023}}]]
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| image1    = CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - painted figure of a cavalryman.jpg
| width1    = 150
| caption1  = A Western Han painted ceramic mounted cavalryman from a general's tomb at [[Xianyang]], Shaanxi
| image2    = Bronze horse with lead saddle, Han Dynasty.jpg
| width2    = 150
| caption2  = A Western or Eastern Han bronze horse statuette with a lead saddle
}}
After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to fight the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader [[Huhanye]] ({{reign|58|31&amp;nbsp;BC}}) finally submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal in 51&amp;nbsp;BC. Huhanye's rival claimant to the throne, [[Zhizhi Chanyu]] ({{reign|56|36&amp;nbsp;BC}}), was killed by Han forces under [[Chen Tang (general)|Chen Tang]] and [[Gan Yanshou]] at the [[Battle of Zhizhi]], in modern [[Taraz]], Kazakhstan.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=196–197, 211–213}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=395–398}}

== Duusra websites ==

* [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/early_imperial_china/han.html Han Dynasty by Minnesota State University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710041505/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/early_imperial_china/han.html |date=2009-07-10 }}
* [http://uberaccidentlawyer.xyz/uber-accident-lawyer/ uber accident lawyer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703072353/https://uberaccidentlawyer.xyz/uber-accident-lawyer/ |date=2022-07-03 }} Minnesota State University
* [https://azdekorasyon.com Dekorasyon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801095340/https://azdekorasyon.com/ |date=2022-08-01 }}
* [http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-han.cfm Han Dynasty art with video commentary, Minneapolis Institute of Arts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194901/http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-han.cfm |date=2007-09-27 }}

[[Category:H]]
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  <page>
    <title>Cultural Revolution</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="10820" sha1="eljojazbyql50lh1ilamd76fzfz6ob0" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Political slogan by Red Guards on the campus of Fudan University 1976.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[:en:Wiktionary:Slogan|Slogan]]s from the Cultural Revolution on the campus of Fudan University, [[Shanghai]].]]

'''Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution''' (Simplified Chinese: 无产阶级文化大革命, Traditional Chinese: 無產階級文化大革命, Pinyin: Wúchǎn Jiējí Wénhuà Dà Gémìng)), jiske '''Cultural Revolution''' ke naam se bhi jaan ajaawe hae, ek time rahaa jab ki [[China]] me bhaari cultural change bhais rahaa, jiske [[Mao Zedong]] suruu karis rahaa. Ii 1966 aur 1969 ke biich me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref name=chaos&gt;[http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/prc3.html People's Republic of China: III]. Retrieved on 2009-9-12.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Background==
===People's Republic ke Suruwaat===

[[1 October]] [[1949]] me, [[Mao Zedong]]  [[People's Republic of China]] ke declare karis rahaa, jon symbolically  decades-long [[Chinese Civil War]] ke ant rahaa. Bachaa [[Republic of China|Republican]] sipaahi [[Geography of Taiwan|Taiwan]] bhaag gain aur  People's Republic ke dher rakam se virodh karat rahin. Chinese Republicans ke dher sipahi  mainland China me rahe gay rahin, aur Mao Zedong ek [[Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries]] ke launch karis rahaa, jisse bachaa sipahi ke khatam karaa jaae sake, aur iske alaawa , Chinese society ke uulog bhi jiske   Mao ke nawaa sarkar dangerous samjhat rahaa. 

===Great Leap Forward===

11 January 1962 me, Chinese Communist Party ke ek barraa karaa gais Central Committee work conference  [[Beijing]] me bhais rahaa. Isme 7,000 se jaada participants rahin, aur iske [[Seven Thousand Cadres Conference]] ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yang2021ST&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Yang |first1=Jisheng |author1-link=Yang Jisheng (journalist) |chapter=THE SEVEN THOUSAND CADRES CONFERENCE |title=The World Turned Upside Down: A History of the Chinese Cultural Revolution |date=19 January 2021 |publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |isbn=978-0-374-71691-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2LjiDwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 October 2025 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Liu Shaoqi, Mao Zedong, aur duusra log [[Criticism and self-criticism (Marxism–Leninism)|self-criticisms]] karr rahin conference me. Mao conference me bolis ki, &quot;Koi mistakes jon Centre karis hae, hamaar jimmewaari hae, aur hamaar  indirect share iske blame me hae kaaheki ham   Central Committee ke Chairman hae. Ham nai mantaa ki duura log aapan jimmewaari se duur bhaage, lekin iske iske jimmewaari le ke chaahi ham hae.&quot; Uu aage bolis: &quot;Agar hamlog ke des ek socialist economy ke nai banae, hamlog kon prastithi me rahega? Ham log [[Yugoslavia]] ke rakam hoe jaaegaa, jon ek bourgeois des ban gais hae.&quot; Lekin, &quot;puura socialist stage ke time China me classes aur class struggle rahaa, aur ii class struggle ek protracted, complex, sometimes even violent affair hae.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Mao |first1=Zedong |title=Talk At Working Conference |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-8/mswv8_62.htm |website=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |access-date=18 October 2025 |date=30 January 1962}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Meeting ke baad, Liu aur sab ke batais ki &quot;Great Leap Forward ke galti serious rahaa, aur ii pahila time hae ki hamlog experience ke summarise karaa hae. Abhi se, har saal hamlog ke pichhe dekh ke iske fir se summarise kare ke parri. &quot;Great Leap Forward ke time,  cannibalism ke baare me, uu bhi bolis, &quot;Iske memorialize karaa jaai ek decree me, jisme emperor aapan crime ke log ke against ke admit kare hae.&quot; Seven Thousand Cadres Conference ke baad, Mao Zedong  economic matters me pichhe ke seat liis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yang2021ST&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=Mac/&gt; Lekin Xilou Conference me, Liu Shaoqi biswas karte rahaa ki Seven Thousand Cadres Conference Great Leap Forward ke represent nai karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yang2021TPECC&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Yang |first1=Jisheng |author1-link=Yang Jisheng (journalist) |chapter=THE TENTH PLENUM OF THE EIGHTH CENTRAL COMMITTEE |title=The World Turned Upside Down: A History of the Chinese Cultural Revolution |date=19 January 2021 |publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |isbn=978-0-374-71691-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2LjiDwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 October 2025 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1962 ke pahila half me, China dekhis rahaa [[Three Freedoms and One Guarantee|emergence of a system where individual households were responsible for agricultural output]]. Lekin, Mao Zedong biswas karat rahaa ki ii practice  ke contradict kare hae jiske uu tolerate nai kare sakat rahaa. &lt;ref name=&quot;Yang2021TPECC&quot; /&gt; July 1962 me, Mao Zedong Liu Shaoqi se dissatisfaction express karis, aur bolis: &quot;Tiin Laal Banners ke refute kar dewa gais hae, jamiin ke divide karaa jaawe hae, aur tum kuchh nai karaa? Ham mar jaaegaa tab konchi hoi?&quot; Liu Shaoqi bhi argue karis ki &quot;Itihaas record kari ki tum aur ham  ketna dher jan ke bhukmari me kon role play karaaa rahaa aur cannibalism ke bhi yaad karaa jaai!&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Yang2021TPECC&quot; /&gt;

===International tensions aur anti-revisionism ke impact===

[[1950s]] ke suruu me , PRC aur [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) [[dunia]] ke ke dui sab se barraa  communist des rahaa. Suruu me uulog ek duusre ke support karat rahin, lekin [[Nikita Khrushchev]] ke USSR me power me aae ke baad disagreement jaada bhais rahaa. 1956 me, Khrushchev [[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|denounced his predecessor Josef Stalin and his policies]], aur [[Khrushchev Thaw|economic reforms]] ke implement kare lagaa rahaa. Mao aur dher aur CCP members ke members ii badlao ke virod kare rahin, ii biwas karte ki isse dunia bhar ke  communist movement damage hoi.&lt;ref name=Mac&gt;{{cite book |last1=MacFarquhar |first1=Roderick |last2=Schoenhals |first2=Michael |title=Mao's Last Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/maoslastrevoluti00macf |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-674-02332-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mao biswas karat rahaa ki Khrushchev ek [[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionist]] rahaa, jon [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] concepts ke badlat rahaa, jon Mao claim karis rahaa ki  capitalists ke USSR ke  control de i. Duuno ke biich me relations kharaab hoe gais rahaa. USSR  China ke case for joining the [[United Nations]] ke support nai karis rahaa aur aapa waada ki USSR, China ke  nuclear weapon supply kari ke na kar diis.&lt;ref name=Mac/&gt;{{rp|4–7}}

Mao revisionism ke April 1960 me denounce karis rahaa. USSR ke bina ungri dekhae,Mao uske Balkan ally ke criticize karis rahaa,  [[League of Communists of Yugoslavia]]. Iske badle me, USSR  China ke Balkan ally, the [[Party of Labour of Albania]] ke criticize karis rahaa. 1963 me, CCP USSR ke denounce kare ke suruu karis rahaa, aur nau polemics ke publish karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=Mac/&gt;{{rp|7}}

Aur Soviet ke actions ke kaaran increased concerns rahaa  potential [[fifth columnists]] ke baare me. Sino-Soviet split ke baad ke tension ke kaaran, Soviet leaders authorize karin rahaa ki radio broadcasts China me karaa jaawe jon ii batae ki Soviet Union  &quot;genuine communists&quot; ke madat kari jon   Mao aur uske &quot;erroneous course&quot; ke overthow kare maange hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meyskens2020&quot; /&gt; Chinese leadership increasing military conflict  United States aur [[North Vietnam]] ke biich me, se worried rahin, ii worry karte ki China ke support ke kaaran United States  Chinese assets ke le ke kosis kari.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meyskens2020&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Meyskens |first=Covell F. |title=Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China |year=2020 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-108-78478-8 |doi=10.1017/9781108784788 |s2cid=218936313}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mao ii batais ki capitalist tendencies  China me barrhe lagaa rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:222&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Xiaomei |title=Red Legacies in China: Cultural Afterlives of the Communist Revolution |date=2016 |publisher=[[Harvard University Asia Center]] |isbn=978-0-674-73718-1 |editor-last=Li |editor-first=Jie |series=Harvard contemporary China series |volume=18 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts; London |chapter=Performing the &quot;Red Classics&quot;: From The East is Red to The Road to Revival |doi=10.1163/9781684171170_007 |jstor=j.ctt1sq5t95 |editor-last2=Zhang |editor-first2=Enhua}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu dekhat rahaa Cultural Revolution, sab time ke revolution ke ruup me jiske aim rahaa  &quot;representatives of the bourgeoisie and counterrevolutionary revisionists&quot;  ke oppose karna, jon  &quot;sneaked into the party, the government, the army, and cultural circles.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:222&quot; /&gt;

Revolution ke matlab aur nature ek frequent theme rahaa,   speeches of central leadership during the Cultural Revolution ke time.&lt;ref name=&quot;:232&quot; /&gt; Uulig batain ki Cultural Revolution ek unprecedented event rahaa jiske janata kari aur uppar se diredted nai rahii aur iske sab se achchhaa test     revolutionary practice hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;:232&quot; /&gt; [[Tao Zhu]] stated:&lt;ref name=&quot;:232&quot; /&gt;
{{Blockquote|text=Tun nai bole saktaa ki tum ek sachchaa revolutionary hae aur uu log fake hae. Ii mass organizing hae. Uulog ke organizations revolutionary bhi hoe sake hae. Tum saait ek revolutionary competition karegaa. Achchhaa waala barrhi, kharaab waala tuut jaai...  True or fake revolutionaries will be distinguished in revolutionary practice.}}

=== Socialist Education Movement aur ''Hai Rui ke Office se hatae dewa gais rahaa'' ===

1963 me, Mao  [[Socialist Education Movement]] ke launch karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Baum-1969&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Baum |first=Richard |year=1969 |title=Revolution and Reaction in the Chinese Countryside: The Socialist Education Movement in Cultural Revolutionary Perspective |journal=[[The China Quarterly]] |volume=38 |issue=38 |pages=92–119 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000049158 |issn=0305-7410 |jstor=652308 |s2cid=154449798}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mao scene ke set karis &quot;[[Purge|cleansing]]&quot; taagatwar Beijing officials jiske questionable loyalty rahaa. Uske approach newspaper articles, internal meetings, and by his network of political allies se execute karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Baum-1969&quot; /&gt;

1959 ke ant me, itihasik aur Beijing ke deputy mayor  [[Wu Han (historian)|Wu Han]] publish karis ke itihasik drama jiske title rahaa  [[Hai Rui Dismissed from Office]]''. Ii play me, ek honest [[civil servant]], [[Hai Rui]], ke corrupt emperor dismiss kkare hae.  Mao suruu me play ke barrai karis rahaa''lekin February 1965 me, uu secretly commissioned [[Jiang Qing]] aur [[Yao Wenyuan]] ke ek article ke publish kare ke, iske criticize kare ke . Yao play ke describe karis rahaa as ek allegory attacking Mao; jisme Mao ke emperor bola jaawe hae, aur Peng Dehuai,jon pahile Mao ke question karis rahaa,  [[Lushan Conference]] me,  honest civil servant ke ruup me.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mac&quot; /&gt;{{rp|15–18}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
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    <title>Rajniti</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="7053" sha1="2j31bjfwwihfdsiozf5vljibm9ryq7s" xml:space="preserve">[[File:24.09.2024 - Abertura do Debate Geral da 79ª Sessão da Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas (54018866744).jpg|upright=1.1|thumb|Seventy-ninth session of the United Nations General Assembly ke opening]]
'''Rajniti''' uu chuj hai jisme log gut me hoe ke  faisla kare hai. Social science ke uu branch jisme rajniti aur [[sarkar]] ke adhyan kara jaae hai, ke political science bola jaae hai.

Rajniti kabhi-kabhi sidha matlab me bhi kaam me laawa jaae hai, jaise “political solution”, jiske matlab sanjhauta kar ke  samadhan paana hai, ii fir easy rakam se  “sarkar ke kalaa nai to vigyan” ke roop me samjha jaae hai. Lekin ii sabd ke kharaabe matlab bhi leke kaam me laawa jaawe hae.

Ii bichaar ke alag-alag rakam se define karaa gais hai, aur alag approach ke log ke soch bhi alag hai ki iske bahut chaurraa tareeka se kaam me laae  ke chaahi nai to thorraa limited tareeka se, practical (empirical) roop me ii niyam aur values (normative) ke roop me&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Is there a difference beteeen political philosophy and political science? |url=https://bigthink.com/videos/is-there-a-difference-beteeen-political-philosophy-and-political-science/ |access-date=2026-03-16 |website=Big Think |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;, aur ii baat pe bhi ki conflict jaaada important hai ya cooperation politics me zaada jaruri hai.

==Naam==
Rajniti sabd, dui sabd raaj aur niti se banaa hae. Raaj ke matlab saashan karnaa aur niti ke matlab right time aur jagha pe right kaam karnaa. Yaani ki niti se raaj karnaa.

== Definitions ==
* [[Harold Lasswell]]: &quot;kiske konchi mile hae, kab aur kaise&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lasswell|1963}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[David Easton]]: &quot;ek samaj ke values ke  achchhaa se baatna&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Easton 1981&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Easton|1981}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Vladimir Lenin]]: &quot;artsastr ke ek jagha se chalaana&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Lenin|1965}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Otto von Bismarck]]: &quot;sab time, badalatee sthiti mei, sabase kamti nukasaan kare waala, sabase upayog chij ke  ko chune ke kshamata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Reichstag speech by Bismarck, January 29, 1886, in: ''Bismarck, The Collected Works''. Friedrichsruher edition, vol. 13: Speeches. Edited by Wilhelm Schüßler, Berlin 1930, p. 177.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Bernard Crick]]: &quot;sarkar ke chalae ke  ek khaas tareeka jisme log matabhed ke sulajhaawe ke khaatir  milake kaam kare hain&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Crick|1972}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Adrian Leftwich]]: &quot;isame samaaj ke bhittar aur uske beech me sahayog, baatacheet aur sangharsh kee sab gatividhiyaan shaamil hain&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Leftwich|2004|p=103}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Itihaas==
===Puraana itihaas===
Suruu ke insaan ke rahan-sahan me koi centralized political structure nai rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Fukuyama |first1=Francis |title=The origins of political order : from prehuman times to the French Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofpolitic0001fran |date=2012 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-53322-9 |page=56 |oclc=1082411117}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske kabhi-kabhi &quot;bina [[des]] ke samaj&quot;  bola jaawe hae.

=== Puraana des ===
Puraana itihaas me, des ke koi siimaa nai rahaa. Puraana Sumer aur Egypt  pahila civilization rahaa jon siimaa ke define karis rahaa. [[12th century]] talak, dher log bina des ke samaj me rahat rahin. Ii sab chhotaa-chhotaa gut se tribe aur chiefdom talak rahaa.

==== Des ke bananaa ====
Puraana des kaise banaa rahaa ke baare me dher theory aur hypothesis hae aur gyaani log ii sanjhaae ke kosis kare hae ki kaahe kuchh samaj me des banaa aur duusra me nai. Duusra gyaani log ii bole hae ki  generalizations helpful nai hae aur har ek case ke alag-alag se dekhe ke chaahi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Spencer |first1=Charles S. |last2=Redmond |first2=Elsa M. |date=15 September 2004 |title=Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=173–199 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143823 |issn=0084-6570}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Voluntary theories''' ii batae hae ki dher gut ke log saathe hoe ke ek des ke bana e hae kaaheki ek koi chij hae jon uu sab log maange hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Carneiro 733–738&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Carneiro|1970|pp=733–738}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Ii sab theory jaada kar ke  kheti, aur abaadi aur organizational pressure jon aae hae ek des ke bane ke baad.  Ek khaas theory jon pahila state ke bane ke baare me hae  ''hydraulic hypothesis'' hae, jon ii bole hae ki des banaa hae kaaheki baraa-barraa irrigation project ke jaruri rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofstatean0000unse |title=Origins of the state : the anthropology of political evolution |date=1978 |publisher=Philadelphia : Institute for the Study of Human Issues |via=Internet Archive |page=30}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Des ke bane ke '''[[Conflict theories]]''' aur ek samaj ke duusra samaj pe raaj kare ke baare me hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Carneiro 733–738&quot; /&gt; Voluntary theories se alag, ii sab arguments me ii biswas karaa jaawe hae ki log jaan ke des nai banae hae , lekin des bane hae jab ek group ke log suure ke dabae ke uske uppar raaj kare hae. Koi-koi theory ii bahas kare hae ki des ke bane me larrai ke jaruri rahaa.  &lt;ref name=&quot;Carneiro 733–738&quot; /&gt;

==== Puraana itihaas ====
Pahila des puraana Sumer aur Agypt ke rahin, jon lagbhag 3000 BC me suruu bhais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;ancientlocations&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Daniel|2003|p=xiii}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Pahila dynastic [[Nile Naddi]]  ke lage based rahaa  north-east [[Africa]] me, jon kingdom ke siimaa  Nile ke kinaare rahaa aur duusra jagha jahaan pe oasis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Daniel|2003|pp=9–11}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Early dynastic [[Sumer]] was located in southern [[Mesopotamia]], with its borders extending from the [[Persian Gulf]] to parts of the [[Euphrates River|Euphrates]] and [[Tigris River|Tigris]] rivers.&lt;ref name=&quot;ancientlocations&quot; /&gt;

[[Egypt]]ians, [[Roman]]s, aur [[Greece|Greeks]] pahila log rahin jon des ke philosophy ke baare me soche rahin.  Isse pahile des, dharam pe based rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Nelson|Nelson|2006|p=17}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Des ke aur achchhaa karaa gais rahaa puraana Greece aur [[Rome]] me. Greece ke city-states, 4th century se pahile citizenship free log ke dewat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=Sanjay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc9EAAAQBAJ&amp;dq=The+Greek+city-states+before+the+4th+century+granted+citizenship+rights+to+their+free+population%3B+in+Athens+these+rights+were+combined+with+a+directly+democratic+form+of+government+that+was+to+have+a+long+afterlife+in+political+thought+and+history.&amp;pg=PA53 |title=A Handbook of Political Geography |date=2021 |publisher=K.K. Publications |language=en |access-date=22 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324145301/https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc9EAAAQBAJ&amp;dq=The+Greek+city-states+before+the+4th+century+granted+citizenship+rights+to+their+free+population%3B+in+Athens+these+rights+were+combined+with+a+directly+democratic+form+of+government+that+was+to+have+a+long+afterlife+in+political+thought+and+history.&amp;pg=PA53 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Aur Dekho==
* [[Rajnitik dal]]

==References==
{{reflist}}


[[Category:R]]
[[Category:Rajniti| ]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1961" sha1="kjjzal52fqohjzwgolwbbcphu6korwj" xml:space="preserve">'''Port of Spain''', Republic of [[Trinidad and Tobago]] ke [[capital]] [[city]] aur tiisra sab se barraa city hae. 2000 me iske population 49,031 rahaa. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cso.gov.tt/statistics/cssp/census2000/Total_Population_by_Sex_%20Sex_Ratio_and_Area_2000.pdf#search=%22population%20port%20of%20spain%20couva%20sangre%20grande%20san%20fernando%20site%3Acso.gov.tt%22 Table 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305015627/http://www.cso.gov.tt/statistics/cssp/census2000/Total_Population_by_Sex_%20Sex_Ratio_and_Area_2000.pdf#search=%22population%20port%20of%20spain%20couva%20sangre%20grande%20san%20fernando%20site%3Acso.gov.tt%22 |date=2009-03-05 }}, 2000 Census, from [http://www.cso.gov.tt/ Central Statistical Office] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722090100/http://www.cso.gov.tt/ |date=2012-07-22 }}, Government of Trinidad and Tobago&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:GovernmentPlaza.JPG|Government Campus Plaza
File:WhiteHall2009.JPG|White Hall-Office of the Prime Minister
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
&lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the &lt;ref(erences/)&gt; tags--&gt;
* {{cite book |author=[[Michael Anthony (author)|Anthony, Michael]] |title=Historical Dictionary of Trinidad and Tobago |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000anth |publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc.  Lanham, Md., and London |year=2001 |isbn=0-8108-3173-2}}
&lt;/div&gt;

== Bahaari jorr ==
* [http://www.cityofportofspain.org.tt/ Port of Spain City Corporation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207115419/http://www.cityofportofspain.org.tt/ |date=2006-12-07 }}
* [http://www.tramz.com/tt/tt.html The Trams and Trolleybuses of Port of Spain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100205084307/http://www.tramz.com/tt/tt.html |date=2010-02-05 }}

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'''Govind Swamy''' (janam: 1951), [[Fiji]] ke ek Hindustani politician rahaa jon ki bahut din talak teacher ke kaam kare ke baad [[House of Represenatives (Fiji)|Fiji ke House of Representatives]] me chuna gis rahaa.  

Uske janam [[Labasa]] me bhais rahaa aur uu 18 saal talak industrial arts ke teacher rahaa.  1987 ke electio me uu  Vanua Levu North and West National Constituency ke khatir [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]] ke taraf se kharraa bhais. Uu ii seat ke asaani se jiit liis lekin  Parliament me khaali ek mahina talak rahaa jab ki [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coup of 1987]] uske political career ke khalaas kar diis.&lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages =[https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich/page/378 378]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

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{{BD|||Swamy, Govind}}

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'''Mahendra Chandra Vinod''' (25 September 1921 - 2003), [[Fiji]] ke ek Hindustani civil servant, sampaadak aur   [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] ke member rahaa.

Uske janam Nacokaika, [[Naitasiri]], Fiji me bhais rahaa. Uu  University of Hawaii se  Bachelor of Science ke degree kare ke baad  [[New Delhi]] se Diploma in Journalism karis aur iske baad Fiji civil service join karis.  1979 me uu civil service se retire hoe ke  [[Hindi]] bhasa waala newspaper, ''[[Shanti Dut]]'' ke editor banaa. August 1981 me uske Imperial Service Order (ISO) mila.&lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages =[https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich/page/382 382]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[1987 ke election (Fiji)|1987 ke election]] ke khatir [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]] uske Nausori/Levuka Indian Communal Constituency ke khatir chnis &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://au.geocities.com/girmitya/FijiElections/1972/NausoriLevukaIndCom.htm|title=Nausori / Levuka Indian Communal Constituency, 1972 - 1987|accessdate=2007-07-12|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20091025065309/http://au.geocities.com/girmitya/FijiElections/1972/NausoriLevukaIndCom.htm%231987#1987|archivedate=2009-10-25|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; jiske uu sahaj se jiit liis lekin ek mahina baad [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coup of 1987]] ke baad uske political career khalaas hoe gais. 

== References ==
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'''Davendra Singh''' (janam: 1950), Fiji ke ek Hindustani chhota businessman aur politician rahaa, jon ii kaaran se famous bhais ki uu Lautoka Indian Communal Constituency ke khatir, March 1985 ke by-election me  official [[National Federation Party (Fiji)|National Federation Party]] (NFP) ke candidate ke harae diis.

[[Lautoka Indian Communal Constituency]] uu tie khaali bhais jab April 1984 me NFP ke neta,  [[Jai Ram Reddy]], resign kar diis. Jab NFP ke nawaa neta, S. M. Koya, aapan ek supporter [[Ba District, Fiji|Ba]] ke, [[Balwant Singh Rakkha|Dr Balwant Singh Rakkha]] ke ii seat ke by0election ke khatir nominate karis, tab Davendra Singh, jiske bahut kamti logan jaanat rahin, mauka dhek ke [[NFP Youth Wing]], ke support le ke Rakkha ke virod me kharraa hoe gais. Singh ke khaas campaign platfoem ii rahaa ki Lautoka me huan ke ek local admii ke kharraa hoe ke chaahi. Uske purana [[National Federation Party - Flower faction (Fiji)|Flower faction]]  support karis aur Singh ii bhi batais ke Reddy uske support kare hae, lekin Reddy khule se campaign me hissa nai liis. Campaign ke time, Koya ii batais ki agar Rakkha nai jiiti tab uu leader ke position se resign hoe jaae.  Election ke natija Singh ke khatir kuch vote se jiit rahaa. Singh ke 2209 vote mila aur Rakkha ke 2196, jiske matlab ii rahaa ki 12,260 register bhae voters me se khaali 4,421 vote karin rahaa.  Koya vote counting ke supreme court me challenge karis lekin Court result ke confirm kar diis. Koya ii time nai resign karis. Election ke baad, Singh Lautoka ke Gujarati Samaj ke uske upport ke khatir dhanyawaad diis.

Election ke baad Koya ke virod me, NFp ke bhittar awaaj aur barrhaa aur 1987 ke election se pahile uske resign kare ke parraa.

KUchh din talak  [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] me Singh as independent member ban ke rahaa. September 1985 me uu NFP Youth Wing ke nawaa Fiji Labour arty se jorre ke kosis karis lekin iske refuse kar dewa gais. July 1986 me uu FLP ke member banaa aur [[Fiji general election, 1987|1987 election]] me FLP ke bagal se North Western INdian National seat&lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich/page/378 378]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 1987 ke cop ke baad uu bhi uu parliamentarins me se rahaa jiske hostage le lewa gais rahaa.

Uu abhi [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]] me rahe hae.

Singh ke pitaji, Ram Charan Singh ke khaas haanth 1937 me Kisan Sangh ke suruu kare me rahaa, lekin uu baad me Sangh ke chhorr ke 1944 me A. D. Patel ke jitae me madat karis rahaa.

== Ii bhi dekho ==
Sanjay Dutt, Dharmendra Deol, Suwyesh Dwyvedi

==References==
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{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|1950||Singh, Davendra}}

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      <text bytes="5921" sha1="ghcmpxgde8eim3zxfts44wdolsvxh3i" xml:space="preserve">{{Multiple image|perrow = 1|total_width = 240
 | direction         = vertical
 &lt;!--image 1--&gt;
 | image1            = The Sun in white light.jpg
 | alt1              =
 | caption1          = [[Suraj]], ek G-type main-sequence taara, jon [[Dunia]] ke sab se nagiich ke taara hae.

 &lt;!--image 2--&gt;
 | image2            = Starsinthesky.jpg
 | alt2              =
 | caption2          = Large Magellanic Cloud me ek star-forming region. 
}}
Ek '''tara''', outer space me ek barraa waala gas ke ball hae. Ii jaada kar ke [[Hydrogen]], thorraa [[Helium]] aur kuch aur element se banaa hae. Iske biich me gravity ke taagat etna jaada hae ki iske garmi se Hydrogen atoms duusra Hydrogen atom se mil ke Helium banae de hae. Iske [[nuclear fusion]] bolaa jaawe hae. Isme se jon energy nikle hae, uu dhire dhire nikal ke hajaro saal ke baad ghaam ke rup me dharti pe aae ke pahuche hae.

==Taara ke dekhe waala itihaas==

[[File:Dibuix de Leo.png|thumb|Ek 1690 depiction jon constellation Leo (Sher) ke  dekhae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Johannis | last=Hevelius | date=1690
 | title=Firmamentum Sobiescianum, sive Uranographia
 | location=Gdansk}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Itihaas me , taara [[dunia]] bhar ke log ke khaatir bahmulya hae. Taara, dharmik, [[divination]] rituals, [[myth]]ology ke khaatir kaam me laawa gais hae. Taara ke kaam me laae ke  navigate  karaa jaae sake hae. Tarra se mausam mark karaa jaawe hae aur isse calendar bhi bane hae. 

Puraana astronomers  &quot;fixed taara&quot;, jiske position  [[celestial sphere]] me badle nai hae, aur &quot;wandering taara&quot; ([[grah]]), jon fixed taara ke relative aapan  position ke badle hae din, nai to hafta me, ke biich me antar jaanat rahin. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=n.d. |title=Ancient Greek Astronomy and Cosmology |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/finding-our-place-in-the-cosmos-with-carl-sagan/articles-and-essays/modeling-the-cosmos/ancient-greek-astronomy-and-cosmology |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=Digital Collections |publisher=The [[Library of Congress]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dher puraama astronomers biswas karat rahin ke taara heavemly sphere me fixed rahe hae believed that the stars were permanently affixed to a [[heavenly sphere]] aur ii hate nai hae. Astronomer log ii taara ke  asterisms aur [[constellation]] me group kare rahin aur iske kaam me laae ke grah aur Syraj ke position ke track karat rahin. &lt;ref name=&quot;forbes&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | last1=Forbes | first1=George | title=History of Astronomy
 | publisher=Watts &amp; Co. | location=London | date=1909
 | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8172
 | isbn=((978-1-153-62774-0))}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suraj ke movement  background stars (and the horizon) ke aage ke kaam me laae ke calendars banaawa jaawat rahaa, jiske kaam me laae ke kheti karaa jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Tøndering |first=Claus |date=2008 |title=Other Ancient Calendars |url=http://webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar-ancient.html |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=Calendars Through The Ages |publisher=Webexhibits}}&lt;/ref&gt;  [[Gregorian calendar]], jiske abhi [[dunia]] bhar me kaam me laawa jaawe hae, ek  solar calendar hae, jon dunia ke  rotational axis relative to its local taara, Suraj ke kaam me laawe hae.

Sab se puraana [[taara ke chart]] jon kaafi accurate rahaa,  puraana [[Egyptian astronomy]] ke nayija rahaa, 1534&amp;nbsp;BC me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last=von Spaeth | first=Ove | title=Dating the Oldest Egyptian Star Map | journal=[[Centaurus (journal)|Centaurus]] | date=2000 | volume=42 | issue=3 | pages=159–179 | url=http://www.moses-egypt.net/star-map/senmut1-mapdate_en.asp | access-date=2007-10-21 | doi=10.1034/j.1600-0498.2000.420301.x | bibcode=2000Cent...42..159V | archivedate=2019-01-26 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126001022/http://www.moses-egypt.net/star-map/senmut1-mapdate_en.asp }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Sab se puraana taara ke catalogue ke [[Mesopotamia]] ke Babylonian astronomers late 2nd millennium BC, Kassite Period ({{Circa|1531 BC|1155 BC}}) me banae rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;north 1995 30 31&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | last=North | first=John | date=1995
 | title=The Norton History of Astronomy and Cosmology
 | url=https://archive.org/details/nortonhistoryofa0000nort | url-access=registration | location=New York and London | pages=[https://archive.org/details/nortonhistoryofa0000nort/page/30 30–31]
 | publisher=W.W. Norton &amp; Company | isbn=978-0-393-03656-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Свет от деревни - panoramio.jpg|alt=Alternative text|thumb|Stars in the night sky]]
Greek astronomy ke pahila taara  catalogue ke [[Aristillus]] lagbhag 300&amp;nbsp;BC, me  [[Timocharis]] ke madat se banais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | last=Murdin | first=P. |date=2000
 | chapter=Aristillus (c. 200 BC)
 | doi=10.1888/0333750888/3440
 | title=Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics
 | bibcode=2000eaa..bookE3440.
 | isbn=978-0-333-75088-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;    [[Hipparchus]] (2nd century BC) ke taara me 1,020 taara rahaa, aur iske kaam me laae ke [[Ptolemy]] ke taara catalogue banaawa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Gerd | last=Grasshoff | date=1990
 | title=The history of Ptolemy's star catalogue
 | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofptolemy0000gras | publisher=Springer | pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofptolemy0000gras/page/1 1]–5 | isbn=978-0-387-97181-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hipparchus ke sab se pahila &quot;nawaa taara&quot; ke paawe ke khatir credit karaa jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Pinotsis |first=Antonios D. |date=2008 |title=Astronomy in Ancient Rhodes |url=http://conferences.phys.uoa.gr/jets2008/historical.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907070144/http://conferences.phys.uoa.gr/jets2008/historical.html |archive-date=September 7, 2021 |access-date=February 28, 2022 |website=Protostellar Jets In Context |publisher=[[University of Athens]], Greece}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dher constellation aur taara ke naam Greek astronomy se aais hae.

==References==
{{reflist}}


[[Category:Tara| ]]
[[Category:Taara vigyan]]</text>
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    <title>Vaisvikaran</title>
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      <text bytes="2401" sha1="7weq56ypvjf4g22m9cgo0xaa1dnm7dn" xml:space="preserve">Globalization dher company ke dunia ke dher des me laawe hae. 

==[[File:Globalització.png|thumb|]] References ==
{{reflist}}

== Aur parrho ==
* Peter Berger, ''[http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Four+faces+of+global+culture-a020319595 Four Faces of Global Culture]{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}'' (The National Interest, Fall 1997).
* {{cite book | last = Friedman | first = Thomas L. | authorlink = Thomas L. Friedman | coauthors = | title = [[The World Is Flat]] | publisher = Farrar, Straus and Giroux | date = 2005 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-374-29288-4 }}
* {{cite book | last = Kitching | first = Gavin | authorlink =  | title = Seeking Social Justice through Globalization. Escaping a Nationalist Perspective | publisher = Penn State Press | date = 2001 | url = http://www.gavinkitching.com/africa_3.htm | id = ISBN 0-271-02162-4 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128130328/http://www.gavinkitching.com/africa_3.htm |date=2007-11-28 }}
* {{cite book | last = Mander | first = Jerry | authorlink = | coauthors = Edward Goldsmith | title = The case against the global economy : and for a turn toward the local | publisher = Sierra Club Books | date = 1996 | location = San Francisco | pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/caseagainstgloba00mand| doi = | id = | isbn = 0-87156-865-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = Steger | first = Manfred | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Globalization: A Very Short Introduction | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2003 | location = Oxford, New York | pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/globalizationver00steg| doi = | id = | isbn = 0-19-280359-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Stiglitz | first = Joseph E. | authorlink = Joseph E. Stiglitz | coauthors = | title = Globalization and Its Discontents | publisher = W.W. Norton | date = 2002 | location = New York | pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/globalizationits0000stig| doi = | id = | isbn = 0-393-32439-7 }}
* {{cite book | last = Wolf | first = Martin | authorlink =  | coauthors = | title = Why Globalization Works | publisher = Yale University Press | date = 2004 | location = New Haven | pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/whyglobalization00mart| doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0300102529 }}
{{stub}}
&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Politics]]
[[vibhag:Samaajik samasya]]</text>
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    <title>Udaarwaad</title>
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      <text bytes="11924" sha1="gxf2eqx20xanoqnspjcswoym5z2wcll" xml:space="preserve">'''Udaarwaad (Liberalism)''' ek rajnitik (political) aur naetik (moral) philosophy hae, jon ek jan ke aapan adhikaar (rights), ajaadi (liberty), shaasan ke marji dena (consent to be governed), rajnitik samaanataa (political equality), aapan sampati ke adhikaar (the right to private property) aur kaanun ke aage baraabari (equality before law), pe adhaarit (based) hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia
 | title = The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics
 | editor-last = McLean
 | editor-first = Iain
 | editor2-last = McMillan
 | editor2-first = Alistair
 | edition = 3rd
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | year = 2010
 | isbn = 978-0-19-920516-5
| oclc = 173498589
| quote = liberalism In general, the belief that it is the aim of politics to preserve individual rights and to maximize freedom of choice.
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;wpt&quot;&gt;{{cite book |quote=political rationalism, hostility to autocracy, cultural distaste for conservatism and for tradition in general, tolerance, and ... individualism. |first=John |last=Dunn |title=Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future |url=https://archive.org/details/westernpolitical0000dunn |date=1993 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-43755-4|oclc=28111574}}&lt;/ref&gt;Liberals  me dher rakam ke bichaar rahe hae jon uu log ke ii siddhaant (principles) ke samjhe ke uppar nirbhar rahe hae lekin jaada kar ke  support sampati ke adhikaar, bajaar arthvyavasth (market economies), aapan adhikaar (jisme [[civil rights]] aur [[human rights]] hae), liberal democracy, dharam ke ajaadi, kaanun ke saashan (rule of law), paisa kamae ke ajaadi, koi political party ke chune ke ajaadi , kuchh bole ke ajaadi, chhaape ke ajaadi, ekkhatta hoe ke ajaadi aur koi dharam ke chune ke ajaadi, me biswas kare hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Generally support&quot;&gt;Generally support:
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkVIYjezrF0C&amp;q=liberalism+secularism |first=Nader |last=Hashemi |title=Islam, Secularism, and Liberal Democracy: Toward a Democratic Theory for Muslim Societies |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |quote=Liberal democracy requires a form of secularism to sustain itself |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-971751-4 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htuTnexZAo8C&amp;q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&amp;pg=PA1 |first=Kathleen G. |last=Donohue |title=Freedom from Want: American Liberalism and the Idea of the Consumer |series=New Studies in American Intellectual and Cultural History |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |quote=Three of them – freedom from fear, freedom of speech, and freedom of religion – have long been fundamental to liberalism. |isbn=978-0-8018-7426-0 |date=19 December 2003 |access-date=31 December 2007 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBzHAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion |title=The Economist, Volume 341, Issues 7995–7997 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |quote=For all three share a belief in the liberal society as defined above: a society that provides constitutional government (rule by law, not by men) and freedom of religion, thought, expression and economic interaction; a society in which .... |year=1996 |access-date=31 December 2007 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndAdGl8ScfcC&amp;q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&amp;pg=PA525 |first=Sheldon S. |last=Wolin |title=Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Western Political Thought |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |quote=The most frequently cited rights included freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, property, and procedural rights |isbn=978-0-691-11977-9 |year=2004 |access-date=31 December 2007 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQJgnEITPRIC&amp;q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&amp;pg=PA366 |first1=Edwin Brown |last1=Firmage |first2=Bernard G. |last2=Weiss |first3=John Woodland |last3=Welch |title=Religion and Law: Biblical-Judaic and Islamic Perspectives |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |quote=There is no need to expound the foundations and principles of modern liberalism, which emphasises the values of freedom of conscience and freedom of religion |isbn=978-0-931464-39-3 |year=1990 |access-date=31 December 2007 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/cyclopaediapoli00lalogoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/cyclopaediapoli00lalogoog/page/n758 760] |first=John Joseph |last=Lalor |author-link=John Joseph Lalor |title=Cyclopædia of Political Science, Political Economy, and of the Political History of the United States |publisher=Nabu Press |quote=Democracy attaches itself to a form of government: liberalism, to liberty and guarantees of liberty. The two may agree; they are not contradictory, but they are neither identical, nor necessarily connected. In the moral order, liberalism is the liberty to think, recognised and practiced. This is primordial liberalism, as the liberty to think is itself the first and noblest of liberties. Man would not be free in any degree or in any sphere of action, if he were not a thinking being endowed with consciousness. The freedom of worship, the freedom of education, and the freedom of the press are derived the most directly from the freedom to think. |year=1883 |access-date=31 December 2007}}
*{{Cite web |title=Liberalism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/liberalism |access-date=2021-06-16 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}[[constitutional government]] and [[privacy rights]]
*{{Cite book |title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7394-7809-7 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Edmund |location=New York |pages=374}} 
&lt;/ref&gt; Liberalism ke aadhmik itihaas ke sab se barraa bichaar samjhaa jaae hae.  &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Wolfe, p. 23.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Adams 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Adams|first=Ian|title=Political Ideology Today|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/mode/2up?view=theater|url-access = registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/page/10/mode/2up?view=theater|chapter-url-access = registration|edition=Second|series=Politics Today|year=2001|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester and New York|isbn=0-7190-6019-2|chapter=2: Liberalism and democracy}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Udaarwaad ek alag  rajnitik andolan (movement) [[Age of Enlightenment]] me hoe gais rahaa, aur western dunia ke  philosophers aur economists me mashuur hoe gais rahaa. Udaarwaad maangat rahaa ki uu samay samaj ke bichaar, jisme raj kare ke janam adhikaar, des ke dharam, ek raja jiske puura adhikaar rahe hae, ii biswas kare ke parre ki raja ke bagwaan adhikaar diis hae, ke hatae ke ii sab ke pratinidhi loktantr (representative democracy, kaanun ke raj, aur kaanuun ke niche baraabari se replace karaa jaae. Udaarwaad me biswas kare waala log  laalchi niti, raja ke puura adhikaar, vypaar se rukaawat hataana  aur free tasre aur bajaar economy me biswas kare hae. Philosopher [[John Locke]] ke udaarwaad ke suruu kare ke credit dewa jaae hae, jon ii bahas karis rahaa ki har ek adnii ke janam ke adhikaar hae jindagi, ajaadi aur property ke aur sarkar ke ii adhikaar ke violate nai kare ke chaahi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |quote=All mankind ... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions |first=John |last=Locke |author-link=John Locke |title=Second Treatise of Government|year=2012 |url=https://archive.org/details/secondtreatiseof0000lock }}&lt;/ref&gt; Jab [[Gladstonian liberalism|British liberal tradition]] democracy ke barrhae pe jor diis, [[French liberalism]], ek jab ke duusre ke uppar raj kare ke janam adhikaar ke hatae aur des ke banae pe jor diis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kirchner, p. 3&quot;&gt;Kirchner, p. 3.&lt;/ref&gt;

1688 ke British [[Glorious Revolution]] ke neta log,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/1688firstmodernr00stev |url-access=registration |title=1688: The First Modern Revolution |first=Steven |last=Pincus |year=2009 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-15605-8 |access-date=7 February 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1776 ke [[American Revolution]] aur 1789 ke  [[French Revolution]] ke namuuna de ke ii batae hae ki raja log ke  armed overthrow me koi kharaabi nai hae. 19th century me liberal sarkar [[Liberalism in Europe|Europe]] aur [[Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America|South America]] me banaa rahaa, aur ii  [[republicanism in the United States]] ke saathe rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Milan |last=Zafirovski |title=Liberal Modernity and Its Adversaries: Freedom, Liberalism and Anti-Liberalism in the 21st Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNlT9Qho0tAC&amp;pg=PA237 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |page=237 |isbn=978-90-04-16052-1 |via=[[Google Books]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Victorian Britain]] me, iske kaam me laae ke  political establishment ke criticize karaa jaawat rahaa, aur ii janata ke bagal se vigyaan ke kaaran diis rahaa.  &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=Matthew Daniel |title=The Politics of Cognition: Liberalism and the Evolutionary Origins of Victorian Education |journal=British Journal for the History of Science |date=2017 |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=677–699 |doi=10.1017/S0007087417000863 |pmid=29019300 |doi-access=free |issn=0007-0874 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 19th aur early 20th centuries me, [[Liberalism in Turkey|liberalism in the Ottoman Empire]] aur [[Middle East]] ke kaaran huan pe badlao bhais , jaise [[Tanzimat]] aur [[Al-Nahda]], aur ii sab des me and the rise of [[constitutionalism]], [[nationalism]], aur [[secularism]] me pragati bhais. Ii sab badlao, duusra factors, ke kaaran  [[Islam]] ke bhittar crisis bhais , jon abhi talak chale hae, jiske kaaran [[Islamic revivalism]] bbhais rahaa. 1920 se pahile, udaarwaad ke khaas birodi me  [[communism]], [[conservatism]], aur [[socialism]] rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lta_DwAAQBAJ |title=Liberalism and Its Critics |last=Koerner |first=Kirk F. |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-429-27957-7 |location=London |via=[[Google Books]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii time udaarwaad ke khass pratyogitaa (challenges) [[fascism]] aur [[Marxism–Leninism]] se rahin. 20th century me, udaarwaad ke bichaar aur faelaa, jaada kar ke   in Western Europe me, jab liberal democracies duuno [[world wars]] ke jiit gay rahin&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Conway |first=Martin |editor-last=Gosewinkel |editor-first=Dieter |title=Anti-liberal Europe: A Neglected Story of Europeanization |chapter=The Limits of an Anti-liberal Europe |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECIfAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA184 |year=2014 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |page=184 |isbn=978-1-78238-426-7 |quote=Liberalism, liberal values and liberal institutions formed an integral part of that process of European consolidation. Fifteen years after the end of the Second World War, the liberal and democratic identity of Western Europe had been reinforced on almost all sides by the definition of the West as a place of freedom. Set against the oppression in the Communist East, by the slow development of a greater understanding of the moral horror of Nazism, and by the engagement of intellectuals and others with the new states (and social and political systems) emerging in the non-European world to the South. |via=[[Google Books]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur [[Cold War]] ke bhi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Patrick|last1=Iber|title=Neither Peace Nor Freedom: The Cultural Cold War in Latin America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqDXCgAAQBAJ|publisher=Harvard University Press|date=13 October 2015|isbn=978-0-674-28604-7|via=Google Books|pages=6}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fukuyama |first=Francis |date=1989 |title=The End of History? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184 |journal=The National Interest |issue=16 |pages=3–18 |jstor=24027184 |issn=0884-9382}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[vibhag:U]]
[[Category:Politics]]</text>
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    <title>Markswaad</title>
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      <text bytes="4508" sha1="6duj750ankrfk44t60nf08hxf1qvwg3" xml:space="preserve">'''Marxism''' ek political aur economic idea ke naam hae. Ii idea ke [[Karl Marx]] aur [[Friedrich Engels]] suruu kare rahin.

==Literature==
* {{cite book |title=Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro|url=https://archive.org/details/fidelbiographyof0000bour|last=Bourne |authorformat=scap|first=Peter G.|date=1986|publisher=Dodd, Mead &amp; Company|location=New York|ref=Bou86}}
* {{cite book |title=The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx|url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryide0000call_i2b6|last=Callinicos |authorformat=scap|first=Alex|authorlink=Alex Callinicos|date=2010|origyear=1983|publisher=Bookmarks|location=Bloomsbury, London|isbn=978-1-905192-68-7|ref=Cal10}}
* {{cite book |title=My Life: A Spoken Autobiography|url=https://archive.org/details/mylifespokenauto0000cast|last1=Castro |authorformat=scap|first1=Fidel|last2=Ramonet|first2=Ignacio (interviewer)|date=2009|publisher=Scribner|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4165-6233-7|ref=Cas09}}
* {{cite book |title=The Real Fidel Castro|url=https://archive.org/details/realfidelcastro00colt_0|last=Coltman |authorformat=scap|first=Leycester|date=2003|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven and London|isbn=978-0-300-10760-9|ref=Col03}}
* {{cite book |title=Prehistorian: A Biography of V. Gordon Childe|last=Green |authorformat=scap|first=Sally|date=1981|publisher=Moonraker Press|location=Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire|isbn=0-239-00206-7|ref=Gre81}}
* {{cite book |title=Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism|last=Lenin |authorformat=scap|first=Vladimir|authorlink=Vladimir Lenin|date=1967|origyear=1913|publisher=Foreign Languages Press|location=Peking|isbn=|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm|accessdate=2014-06-17|nopp=|ref=Len67}}
* {{cite book |title=Wage Labour and Capital|last=Marx |authorformat=scap|first=Karl|authorlink=Karl Marx|date=1849|publisher=Neue Rheinische Zeitung|location=Germany|isbn=|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/index.htm|accessdate=2014-06-17|nopp=|ref=Mar49}}
* {{cite book |title=A History of Archaeological Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarchaeo0000trig|edition=2nd|last=Trigger |authorformat=scap|first=Bruce G.|authorlink=Bruce Trigger|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-60049-1|nopp=|ref=Tri07}}
{{Refend}}
* {{cite book |author=Avineri, Shlomo|date=1968|title=The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx|publisher=Cambridge University Press|authorlink=Shlomo Avineri}}
* {{cite book |author=Dahrendorf, Ralf|title=Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society|url=https://archive.org/details/classclassconfli00dahr|date=1959|authorlink=Ralf Dahrendorf|location=Stanford, CA|publisher=Stanford University Press}}
* [[Jon Elster]], ''An Introduction to Karl Marx''. Cambridge, England, 1986.
* Michael Evans, ''Karl Marx''. London, 1975.
* Stefan Gandler, [http://www.brill.com/products/book/critical-marxism-mexico ''Critical Marxism in Mexico: Adolfo Sánchez Vázquez and Bolívar Echeverría''], Leiden/Boston, Brill Academic Press, 2015. 467 pages. ISBN 978-90-04-22428-5.
* {{cite book |author=Kołakowski, Leszek|title=Main Currents of Marxism|date=1976|publisher=Oxford University Press|authorlink=Leszek Kołakowski}}
* {{cite book |author=Parkes, Henry Bamford|title=Marxism: An Autopsy|url=https://archive.org/details/marxismautopsy00park|date=1939|location=Boston|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|authorlink=Henry Bamford Parkes}}
* [[Cedric Robinson|Robinson, Cedric J.]]: ''Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition'', 1983, Reissue: Univ North Carolina Press, 2000
* [[R. J. Rummel|Rummel, R.J.]] (1977) ''[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE12.HTM Conflict In Perspective]'' Chap. 5 ''[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/CIP.CHAP5.HTM Marxism, Class Conflict, and the Conflict Helix]''
* {{cite book |last=Screpanti|first=E|author2=S. Zamagna|date=1993|title=An Outline of the History of Economic Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/outlineofhistory0000scre}}
* Shenfield, S.D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081112101246/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/2008-204.cfm ''Vladislav Bugera: Portrait of a Post-Marxist Thinker'']
* {{cite book |author=McLellan, David|title=Marxism After Marx|url=https://archive.org/details/alf.3540.355.430.9.mcl|date=2007|location=Basingstoke|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|authorlink=David McLellan (academic)}}

[[Category:Marxism| ]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Rajniti]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Rajnitik dal</title>
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      <text bytes="5327" sha1="nwh91a79mr0klfxn7ow2rbdfpzn7cwa" xml:space="preserve">[[File:People_approving_for_change_at_Parivartan_Yatra,_Beohari_in_April_2013.jpg|right|200px|thumb|India ke Congress Party ke members]]
Ek '''Rajnetic dal (political party)''' ek organized group of voters hae. Ii logan election me aapam bagal se log ke kharraa kare hae. Rajnetic dal ke member log ke jaada kar ke ek rakam ke bichaar rahe hae.

Lagbhag sab des me raaj kare waala log koi rajnetic dal ke member rahe hae. Jab ki kuchh des me rajnetic dal nai rahae hae, ii bahut kamtii hae. Jaada des me dher rajnetic dal rahe hae aur kuchh des me khaali ek rajnetic dal rahe hae. Rajnetic dal duuno [[tanasahi]] (autocracies) aur [[udaarwaad]] (democracies) me rahe hae, lekin udaarwaad me tanasahi se dher rajnetic dal rahe hae. Tanasahi sarkar me jaada kar ke ek rajnetic dal rahe hae jon des pe raj kare hae, lekin rajnetic vigyanil log ii biswas kare hae ki udaarwaad ke khaatir dher rajnetic dal ke rahna jaruri hae.

Rajnetic dal, samaj me rahe waala vibhajan se bane sake hae, jaise dhani log ke dal aur garib log ke dal, nai to majuur ke dal aur business ke dal. Rajnetic dal me ek neta rahe hae, jiske dal ke kaam ke khaas jimedaari rahe hae, dal ke executives jon dal ke chalae aur organise kare ke neta ke madat kare hae aur kabhi-kabhi neta ke chube hae, aur members jon bina talab ke dal ke madat kare hae, dal ke paisa daan kare hae, nai to chanda (donation) batore me madat kare hae, aur chunao me dal ke member ke vote kare hae.

Dher rajnetic dal vichaardhaara (ideology) se prerit (motivated) hae. Dher democratic des me chunao ke time, liberal, conservative aur socialist dal rahe hae. Aur khaas vichaardhaara hae, [[communism]], populism, nationalism air Islamism. Alag-alag des ke rajnetic dal  ekke rakam ke rang aur chinh ke kaam e laae hae, jaise communist party le laal rang.

==Itihaas==
Rajnetic dal ke bichaar puraana jamaana se hae. [[Plato]], puraana [[Athens]] ke rajnetic gut (factions) ke baare me likhis hae&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last=Plato |page=462 | title = The Republic | publisher = Macmillan and Co, Ltd. | year = 1935 }}&lt;/ref&gt; aur [[Aristotle]] ii bahas karis hae ki rajniti me alag-alag rakam ke sarkar me alag-alag rakam ke gut rahe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last=Aristotle | title = The Politics | url=https://archive.org/details/politics0000aris | publisher = The University of Chicago Press | year = 1984 | page = [https://archive.org/details/politics0000aris/page/135 135] }}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuchh puraana vivaad gut ke uppar aadhaarit rahaa, jaise [[Constatinople]] me ek riot dui chiot racing gut ke biich me. Kuch likha gais dal jon itihaas me rahaa me hae; &quot;Populare&quot; aur &quot;Optimates&quot;, [[Roman]] republic me, O|&quot;Orangists&quot; aur &quot;Stattsgezinde&quot;, Holland me. Abhi ke jamaa ke rajnetik dal ke suruwaat [[United Kingdom]] ke [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] aur [[America]] ke [[Democratic Party]] se suruu bhais rahaa. &lt;ref name = &quot;Metcalf97&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last = Metcalf | first = Michael F. | title = The first &quot;modern&quot; party system? Political parties, Sweden's Age of liberty and the historians | journal = Scandinavian Journal of History | volume = 2 | issue = 1–4 | pages = 265–287 | year = 1977| doi = 10.1080/03468757708578923 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name = &quot;Chhibber04&quot;&gt;{{cite book | last1=Chhibber | first1=Pradeep K. | last2 = Kollman | first2 = Ken | title = The formation of national party systems: Federalism and party competition in Canada, Great Britain, India, and the United States | url=https://archive.org/details/formationofnatio0000chhi | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 2004 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | last = Dirr | first = Alison | date = 24 October 2016 | title = Is the Democratic Party the oldest continuous political party in the world? | url = https://www.politifact.com/wisconsin/statements/2016/oct/24/tim-kaine/democratic-party-oldest-continuous-political-party/ | work = Politifact Wisconsin | access-date = 30 September 2019 | archive-date = 30 September 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190930213349/https://www.politifact.com/wisconsin/statements/2016/oct/24/tim-kaine/democratic-party-oldest-continuous-political-party/ | url-status = live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Stanek|first=Wojciech|title=Konfederacje a ewolucja mechanizmów walki politycznej w Rzeczypospolitej XVIII wieku|publisher=Interpress|year=1996|location=Olsztyn|pages=135–136}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Barraa-barra rajnetic dal ke bane se pahile , elections me kamti competition rahaa aur iske jaada kar ke pahile se rahe waala clique aur network dominate karat rahis. &lt;ref name=boix09&gt;{{cite book |editor1=Carles Boix |editor2=Susan C. Stokes |author=Carles Boix |date= 2009 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_d8j9 |chapter=The Emergence of Parties and Party Systems |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_d8j9/page/499 499]–521 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566020.003.0021 |isbn=978-0199566020}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|510}}

===18th century===
[[File:A-Block-for-the-Wigs-Gillray.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.2|In ''A Block for the Wigs'' (1783), [[James Gillray]] caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the centre.]]

[[Category:Political parties| ]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Rajniti]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Parchaar</title>
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      <text bytes="3610" sha1="l0lvow1a2h3nn1t4d7357p3b7t8vkhr" xml:space="preserve">[[File:I Want You for U.S. Army by James Montgomery Flagg.jpg|thumb|James Montgomery Flagg ke mashuur “Uncle Sam” parchaar parchaa, jiske  World War I ke time bnaawa gais rahaa]]
'''Parchaar (Propaganda)''' jaankari hae jon ki biased hae. Isme jaakari ke ii rakam se dewa jaae hae ki log koir rakam ke baat ke biswas kare lage. Isme josiila sabd ke kaam me laae ke log ke utsaawa jaawe hae. &lt;ref name=&quot;brit_BLS&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Bruce L. |author-link=Bruce Lannes Smith |title=Propaganda |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]], Inc. |date=17 February 2016 |url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/propaganda |access-date=23 April 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Parchaar ke dher rakam ke context me paawa jaawe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hobbs2020&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Hobbs |first=Renee |title=Mind Over Media: Propaganda Education for a Digital Age |url=https://archive.org/details/mindovermediapro0000rene |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2020 |location=New York |author-link=Renee Hobbs}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Twentieth century ke suruu se, English sabd ''propaganda'' ke  manipulation se associate kare jaae laga, jab itihaas me  iske matlab uu koi chij rahaa jon jon koi rakam ke biswas ke promote kare hae.  &lt;ref name=&quot;brit_BLS&quot;/&gt;

Dher rakam ke media ke kaam me laae ke parchaar ke sandes ke janata talak pahunchaawa jaawe hae, jisme hae  chhaapa, cartoons, parchaa,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Gibson |first=Stephanie |date=2008-06-01 |title=Display folk: Second World War posters at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa |url=https://tuhinga.arphahub.com/article/34165/ |journal=Tuhinga |language=en |volume=19 |pages=7–27 |doi=10.3897/tuhinga.19.e34165 |doi-access=free |issn=2253-5861}}&lt;/ref&gt; pamphlets, films, radio shows, TV shows, aur websites. Abhi jaldi se,  digital age  ke kaaran nawaa rakam se parchaar ke sandes janata talak phunchaawa jaae hae, jime hae  bots aur algorithms ke kaam me laae ke janata ke biswas ke hera-feri karaa jaawe he, jaise  e.g., by creating [[fake news|fake]] nai to [[Media bias|biased news]] ke kaam me laae ke faelaawa jaawe hae aur [[Chatbot|chatbots]]  ke kaam me laae ke  discussions social networks me kaam me laawa jaae hae.

==Naam==
[[English bhasa|English]] me ''Propaganda'' ek aadhmik [[Latin]] sabd hae, jiske matlab  'faelaao' nai to 'aur paida karo' hae, tab ''parchaar'' ke matlab  '' uu chij jiske jaada karaa jaae sake'' hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/152605 |title=propaganda, n. |date=December 2020 |website=Oxford English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=20 April 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Pahile ii sabd [[Catholic Church]] ke  congregation se aais rahaa, jiske 1622  me banaawa gais rahaa .&lt;ref name=&quot;Diggs-Brown2011p48&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Diggs-Brown |first=Barbara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7c0ycySng4YC&amp;pg=PA48 |title=Strategic Public Relations: An Audience-Focused Approach |date=2011-08-12 |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |isbn=978-0-534-63706-4 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=propaganda|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=6 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Its activity was aimed at &quot;propagating&quot; the Catholic faith in non-Catholic countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;Diggs-Brown2011p48&quot;/&gt;

[[1790s]] se, ii sabd ke Church se bahaar kaam me laae jaae lagaa rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Diggs-Brown2011p48&quot;/&gt; In English, the cognate began taking a pejorative or negative connotation in the mid-19th century, when it was used in the political sphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Diggs-Brown2011p48&quot;/&gt;


==References==
{{reflist}}

[[vibhag:P]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Communication]]
[[Category:Rajniti]]</text>
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    <title>Brahaspati</title>
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      <text bytes="13129" sha1="p4riq0rvrfw805ak50awolazeq75mnt" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Planet
| bgcolour = #FFC8A0
| name = Jupiter
| symbol = [[File:Jupiter symbol (bold).svg|24px|♃]]
| image = [[File:Jupiter by Cassini-Huygens.jpg|center|frameless]]
| caption = A composite [[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]] image of Jupiter. The dark spot is the shadow of [[Europa (moon)|Europa]].
| orbit_ref =
&lt;ref name=horizons&gt;{{cite web
|last = Yeomans|first = Donald K.|date = 2006-07-13
|url = http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons
|title = HORIZONS System|publisher = NASA JPL
|accessdate = 2007-08-08}} — At the site, go to the &quot;web interface&quot; then select &quot;Ephemeris Type: Elements&quot;, &quot;Target Body: Jupiter Barycenter&quot; and &quot;Center: Sun&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=barycenter&gt;Orbital elements refer to the barycenter of the Jupiter system, and are the instantaneous [[osculating orbit|osculating]] values at the precise [[J2000]] epoch. Barycenter quantities are given because, in contrast to the planetary centre, they do not experience appreciable changes on a day-to-day basis from to the motion of the moons.&lt;/ref&gt;
| epoch = [[J2000]]
| aphelion = {{convert|816520800|km|AU|abbr=on}}
| perihelion = {{convert|740573600|km|AU|abbr=on}}
| semimajor = {{convert|778547200|km|AU|abbr=on}}
| eccentricity = 0.048775
| inclination = 1.305° to [[Ecliptic]]&lt;br /&gt;6.09° to [[Sun]]'s equator&lt;br /&gt;0.32° to [[Invariable plane]]&lt;ref name=meanplane&gt;{{cite web
 |date=2009-04-03
 |title=The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter
 |url=http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif
 |accessdate=2009-04-10
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420194536/http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif
 |archivedate=2009-04-20
 |url-status=live
 }} (produced with [http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ Solex 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524145440/http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ |date=2015-05-24 }} written by Aldo Vitagliano; see also [[Invariable plane]])&lt;/ref&gt;
| asc_node = 100.492°
| arg_peri = 275.066°
| mean_anomaly = 18.818°
| period = 4,331.572&amp;nbsp;[[day]]s&lt;br /&gt;11.85920&amp;nbsp;[[julian year (astronomy)|yr]]&lt;br /&gt;10,475.8 Jupiter [[solar day]]s&lt;ref name=&quot;planet_years&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url = http://cseligman.com/text/sky/rotationvsday.htm|title = Rotation Period and Day Length|last = Seligman |first = Courtney|accessdate = 2009-08-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| synodic_period = 398.88&amp;nbsp;days
| avg_speed = 13.07&amp;nbsp;km/s
| satellites = [[Jupiter's natural satellites|63]]
| physical_characteristics = yes
| flattening = 0.06487 ± 0.00015 &lt;!-- calculated from data in ref name=Seidelmann2007 --&gt;
| equatorial_radius = 71,492 ± 4&amp;nbsp;km&lt;ref name=Seidelmann2007&gt;{{cite journal
 |last= Seidelmann| first= P. Kenneth
 |coauthors= Archinal, B. A.; A’Hearn, M. F.; et al.
 |title= Report of the IAU/IAGWorking Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006
 |journal= Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy
 |volume=90
 |issue= 3|pages=155–180|year=2007
 |doi=10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y
 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y
 |accessdate=2007-08-28 |bibcode=2007CeMDA..98..155S}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=1bar&gt;Refers to the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;br /&gt;11.209 [[Earth]]s
| polar_radius = 66,854 ± 10&amp;nbsp;km&lt;ref name=Seidelmann2007/&gt;&lt;ref name=1bar/&gt; &lt;br /&gt;10.517&amp;nbsp;Earths
| mean_radius = 69,911 ± 6&amp;nbsp;km&lt;ref name=Seidelmann2007/&gt;&lt;ref name=1bar/&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
| surface_area = 6.1419×10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;ref name=1bar/&gt;{{cite web |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jupiter&amp;Display=Facts |title=Solar System Exploration: Jupiter: Facts &amp; Figures |work=NASA |date=7 May 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;121.9 Earths
| volume = 1.4313×10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;ref name=1bar/&gt; &lt;br /&gt;1321.3&amp;nbsp;Earths
| mass = 1.8986×10&lt;sup&gt;27&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;kg &lt;br /&gt;317.8&amp;nbsp;Earths&lt;br /&gt;1/1047 Sun&lt;ref name=ssd-constants&gt;{{cite web
 |title=Astrodynamic Constants
 |publisher=JPL Solar System Dynamics
 |date=2009-02-27
 |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?constants
 |accessdate = 2007-08-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| density = 1.326&amp;nbsp;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;ref name=1bar/&gt;
| surface_grav = 24.79&amp;nbsp;[[Acceleration|m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]]&lt;ref name=1bar/&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.528&amp;nbsp;[[g-force|g]]
| escape_velocity = 59.5&amp;nbsp;km/s&lt;ref name=1bar/&gt;
| sidereal_day = 9.925&amp;nbsp;h&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 |author = Seidelmann, P. K.; Abalakin, V. K.; Bursa, M.; Davies, M. E.; de Burgh, C.; Lieske, J. H.; Oberst, J.; Simon, J. L.; Standish, E. M.; Stooke, P.; Thomas, P. C.
 |year = 2001
 |url = http://www.hnsky.org/iau-iag.htm
 |title = Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites: 2000
 |publisher = HNSKY Planetarium Program
 |accessdate = 2007-02-02
 |archive-date = 2018-09-30
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180930043625/http://www.hnsky.org/iau-iag.htm
 |url-status = dead
 }}&lt;/ref&gt; (9 h  55 m 30 s)
| rot_velocity = 12.6&amp;nbsp;km/s&lt;br /&gt;45,300&amp;nbsp;km/h
| axial_tilt = 3.13°
| right_asc_north_pole = 268.057°&lt;br /&gt;17&amp;nbsp;h 52&amp;nbsp;min 14&amp;nbsp;s&lt;ref name=Seidelmann2007/&gt;
| declination = 64.496°&lt;ref name=Seidelmann2007/&gt;
| albedo = 0.343 ([[Bond albedo|Bond]])&lt;br /&gt;
0.52 ([[Geometric albedo|geom.]])
| magnitude = -1.6 to -2.94
| angular_size = 29.8&quot; — 50.1&quot;
| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|en-us-Jupiter.ogg|ˈ|dʒ|uː|p|ɪ|t|ər}}&lt;ref&gt;Jupiter, entry in the Oxford English Dictionary, prepared by J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 8, second edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. ISBN 0-19-861220-6 (vol. 8), ISBN 0-19-861186-2 (set.)&lt;/ref&gt;
| adjectives = Jovian
| temperatures = yes
| temp_name1 = 1 bar level
| min_temp_1 =
| mean_temp_1 = 165&amp;nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]]
| max_temp_1 =
| temp_name2 = 0.1 bar
| min_temp_2 =
| mean_temp_2 = 112&amp;nbsp;K
| max_temp =
| atmosphere = yes
| atmosphere_ref =

| surface_pressure = 20–200&amp;nbsp;[[Pascal (unit)|kPa]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
 |author=Anonymous|title=Probe Nephelometer
 |journal=Galileo Messenger|publisher=NASA/JPL
 |month=March|year=1983|issue=6
 |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/messenger/oldmess/2Probe.html
 |accessdate = 2007-02-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; (cloud&amp;nbsp;layer)
| scale_height = 27&amp;nbsp;km
| atmosphere_composition =
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
89.8±2.0%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Hydrogen]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
10.2±2.0%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Helium]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
~0.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Methane]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
~0.026%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ammonia]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
~0.003%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Hydrogen deuteride]] (HD)
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
0.0006%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ethane]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
0.0004%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[water]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
'''Ices''':&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ammonia]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[water]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[ammonium hydrosulfide]](NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;SH)
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
}}

'''Brahaspati''' (pratiik: [[File:Jupiter symbol (fixed width).svg|16px|♃]], Jupiter), [[Saur mandal]] (Solar System) ke sab se barraa [[grah]] (planet) hae.&lt;ref name=nasabook /&gt; aur ii [[Suraj]] se duur 5th planet hae.  Brahaspati ke ek [[gas giant]] planet bola jaawe hae, kaahe ki ii bahut barraa hae aur gas se banaa hae. Duusra giant planet hae [[Sanigrah]] (Saturn), [[Arungrah]] (Uranus) aur [[Varungrah]] (Neptune). Brahaspati ke [[wajan]]  1.8986×10&lt;sup&gt;27&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Kilogram|kg]] hae jon ki [[Dunia]] se 317.8 dafe jaada hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;nasafact&quot;&gt;{{citeweb|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jupiter&amp;Display=Facts|title=NASA: Solar System Exploration: Planets: Jupiter: Facts &amp; Figures|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2009-07-21}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is twice the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System put together.&lt;ref name=nasabook /&gt;

Brahaspati ke purana Romans log jaanat rahin aur uu logan iske  Roman god, Jupiter, ([[Latin]]: ''luppiter'') ke naam ke baad rakkhin rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Jupiter|title=Etymology of Jupiter |publisher=Etym Online|accessdate=2009-07-20 |format= |work= }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;dic&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Bunson|first=Mathew|title=A Dictionary of the Roman Empire|year=1995|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofroma0000buns|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195102338|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; Brahaspati, raat ke aasmaan me tiisra sab se brightest object hae, [[Chandarma]] aur [[Venus]] ke baad me. &lt;ref name=&quot;unaidedeye&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/scienceques2001/20020201.htm |title=The biggest single object we can see in our galaxy, with the unaided eye |publisher=NASA |accessdate=2009-07-20 |format= |work= |archive-date=2009-06-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605113054/http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/scienceques2001/20020201.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Brahaspati ke lage kamti se kamti 63 [[chandarma]] hae, jisme se 55 5km diameter se chhota hae. Chaar khaar chandarma hae  [[Io]], [[Europa]], [[Ganymede]] aur [[Callisto]]. 

== Banaawat ==
Brahaspati, Solar System ke sab se barraa planet hae, jiske diameter 142,984&amp;nbsp;[[km]] hae. Ii dunia ke diameter se 11 dafe jaada hae. &lt;ref name=nasabook /&gt;
[[File:790106-0203 Voyager 58M to 31M reduced.gif|thumb|left|A series of photographs taken by [[Voyager 1]] as it approached Jupiter, made into an [[animation]].]]
[[File:PIA02863 - Jupiter surface motion animation.gif|thumb|right|An [[animation]] of part of Jupiter's cloud system. The animation is made of over 40 [[photograph]]s taken by the [[Cassini-Huygens|Cassini]] [[spacecraft]] between October 31 and November 9, 2000.]]
[[File:SL9ImpactGalileo.jpg|thumb|Four photographs of Jupiter taken in 1994. The bright white spots are [[explosion]]s where parts of the [[comet]] Shoemaker Levy-9 hit the planet.]]
[[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|A diagram of the inner Solar System. It shows the two groups of [[asteroid]]s that follow Jupiter in its orbit]]
[[File:Voyager.jpg|thumb|right|An picture by an [[artist]] of the [[Voyager 1]] spacecraft that flew past Jupiter in 1979.]]

==== Waatawaran ====
Brahaspati ke surface ke hawaa me  85.8 to 89.8% [[hydrogen]], 8.2 to 12.2% [[helium]], aur 1% duusra gas hae. Planet ke aur bhittar jaao tab bahut garam rahe hae aur pressure etna jada rahe hae ki helium ras ban jaae hae aur planet ke bhitar paani barrse hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://ael.gsfc.nasa.gov/jupiterHighlights.shtml |title=Highlights of the Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer Investigation |accessdate=2009-07-20 |format= |work= |archive-date=2009-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410221648/http://ael.gsfc.nasa.gov/jupiterHighlights.shtml |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Brahaspati ke gas [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] ke rakam hae lekin ii [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] aur [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] se different har jahaan pe aur kamti hydrogen aur helium gas hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
  | author=Ingersoll, A. P.; Hammel, H. B.; Spilker, T. R.; Young, R. E.
  | date=2005 &lt;!-- Date from the PDF properties --&gt;
  | url = http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/outer_planets.pdf
  | format=PDF | title = Outer Planets: The Ice Giants
  | publisher = Lunar &amp; Planetary Institute
  | accessdate = 2007-02-01 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jaada garmi aur pressure ke kaaran scientist logan ii nai batae sake hae ki Brahaspati ke biich me kon chij hae, kaahe ki ii rakam ke pressure dunia me nai mile hae. Iske biich se thorra bahar jaao tab ek mota hydrogen ke ras hae.&lt;ref name=nasabook /&gt; Ii pressure etna jaada hae ki hydrogen karraa hoe jaawe hae lekin fir se garmii ke kaaran ras ban jaawe hae.

==== Wajan ====
Brahaspati solar system ke aur sab planet ke jorr ke  dugna garrhuu hae.&lt;ref name=nasabook&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/jupiter_worldbook.html |title=Jupiter - A world book |accessdate=2009-07-20 |format= |publisher=NASA |archive-date=2011-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810224640/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/nasalife/features/worldbook.html  }}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of all the [[gas]] near the core, it gives off more [[heat]] than it gets from the [[sun]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
  | first=Linda T. | last=Elkins-Tanton | year=2006
  | title=Jupiter and Saturn | url=https://archive.org/details/jupitersaturn0000elki_t3r5 | publisher=Chelsea House
  | location=New York }}&lt;/ref&gt;
Brahaspati, Dunia se 11 dafe jaada lamba hae aur 318 dafe jaada garrhu hae. Iske volume, Dunia ke volume se 1,317 dafe jaada hae, iske matlab ii hae ki 1,317 dunia isme fit hoe jaawe sake hae. &lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=http://er.jsc.nasa.gov/SEH/jupiter.html|title=Jupiter|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2009-07-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;


== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Duusra websites ==
* {{citeweb|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jupiter|title= Jupiter Profile|publisher=[http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration NASA]|accessdate=2009-09-05}}
* {{citeweb|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/jupiterfact.html|title=Jupiter Fact Sheet|accessdate=2009-09-05|publisher=NASA}}
* {{citeweb|url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Archive/Archive-Jupiter.html|title= Moons of Jupiter articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries|publisher=Planetary Science Research Discoveries|accessdate=2009-09-05}}

{{Solar System}}

[[vibhag:B]]
[[Category:Brahaspati| ]]</text>
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'''Harilal Manilal Patel''' (janam: 1941), [[Fiji]] ke ek Hindustani wakiil aur [[Fiji ke House of Representatives]] ke member rahaa.  

Usk janam [[Suva]] me bhais rahaa. 1968 me University of Auckland se wakiili parr ke [[K. C. Ramrakha]] ke saathe practice kare lagaa. 1977 me uu aapan practice suruu karis. 

Uu [[National Federation Party (Fiji)|National Federation Party]] (NFP) ke Sva banch ke President rahaa aur Suva City Council ke member bhi rahaa. Uu NFP Youth ke suruu kare waala log me se ek rahaa. September 1977 ke election me uu[[National Federation Party - Flower faction (Fiji)|NFP-Flower Faction]] ke bagal se kharraa bhais rahaa lekin jiitis nai.

1987 ke election me uu [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]] ke bagal se Suva City Communal Constituency ke jiitis rahaa. &lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages =[https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich/page/381 381]}}&lt;/ref&gt;, lekin Parliament ke member khaali ek mahina talak rahaa jab ki 1987 ke coup uske political caree ne chaak lagae diis. 1994 ke election me uu, Suva City Central Indian Constituency ke sahaj me jiit gais. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title= Fiji Times '94 General Election Scoreboard|url= |work= |publisher=[[Fiji Times]] |date= 28 February 1994|accessdate=2007-06-11 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|1941||Patel, Harilal Manilal}}
[[Category:Suva ke log]]
[[Category:National Federation Party ke member]]
[[Category:Fiji ke House of Representatives ke member]]
[[Category:University of Auckland ke purana student]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1032" sha1="8uniswia3xytxfuxu4h7sat4lufj4dc" xml:space="preserve">'''Vinubhai Patel''', [[Fiji]] ke ek Hindustani politician hae, jon ki [[1987 ke election )Fiji)|1987 ke election]] me [[Fiji ke House of Representatives]] me chuna gais rahaa.   

Uu [[NFP-Labour Coalition (Fiji)|NFP-Labour Coalition]] ke taraf se  [[Lautoka Indian Communal Constituency (Fiji) 1972 - 1987|Lautoka Indian Communal Constituency]] se kharrra bhais rahaa jiske uu sahaj me jiit liis rahaa. Ek mahina ke baad 1987 ke coup ke kaaran uske political carer khatam hoe gais. .&lt;ref name=Howard&gt;{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Fiji: Race and politics in an island state |url=https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich |year=1991 |publisher= UBC Press|location=Vancouver |isbn= 0-7748-0368-1 | pages= [https://archive.org/details/fiji00mich/page/383 383]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{FIJIKEHINDUSTANIPOLITICIAN72-87}}

{{BD|||Patel, Vinubhai}}
[[Category:Lautoka ke log]]
[[Category:National Federation Party ke member]]
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[[File:Oum.gif|left|60px]]
'''Thakur Kundan Pal Singh Kush''' (1881–1967) ek [[Arya Samaj]]i [[missionary]] aur [[teacher]] rahaa, jon ki 1928 me  [[Muzaffarnagar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]] se Fiji aais rahaa. Uu pahile Dharamshala School, [[Nausori]] me parrhae ke suuu karis jhan pe baad me uu Vunimono Arya School suruu karis rahaa. Uu Fiji me dher [[Arya Samaj]] school me parrhais rahaa, jisme rahaa [[Gurukul Primary School]] (1939), Arya Samaj Girls' School, Saweni Lautoka (1940 - 1945), Swami Shraddanand Memorial School, [[Suva]], Vunikavikaloa Arya School, [[Ra]] aur Veisari Primary School, Suva.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Arya Samaj Fiji Centenary Volume (1904 - 2004) |year=2004 |publisher=Arya Pratinidhi Sabha of Fiji |location= Suva, Fiji|isbn= |page= 55}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Arya Samaj Centenary Publication, me THakurji ke baare me ii likha hae:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Thakur Kundan Kush came to Fiji in 1928 as a teacher, served the Arya Samaj with distinction. He conducted debates and lectured ably. His logic and method of presentation of arguments were really very marvellous and worthy of remark.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= Vedalankar|first=Nardev |authorlink= |coauthors=Manohar Somera |title=Arya Samaj and Indians abroad |year= 1975|publisher= Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha|location=New Delhi, India |isbn= |page= 125}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Fiji ke sarkar uske Fiji me kaam ke baare me worry karat rahaa aur dher dafe uske teacher ke kaam kare ke unfit declare kare ke kosis karis aur uske chithi ke censor karaa gais.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= Kelly|first=John|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A politics of virtue : Hinduism, sexuality, and countercolonial discourse in Fiji |url= https://archive.org/details/politicsofvirtue00john|year=1991 |publisher= University of Chicago Press|location= Chicago|isbn=0226430308| page = [https://archive.org/details/politicsofvirtue00john/page/137 137]}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Kush ke khaas haanth Fiji me ''shuddhi'' aur ''sangathan'' me rahaa. 29 June 1930 ke Nausori me [[Hindu Maha Sabha (Fiji)|Hindu Maha Sabha]] ke meeeting me Kush ke pardhan banawa gais. Ii meeting me resolution pass karaa gais jisme Hindu log ke organise kare ke batawa gais rahaa aur ek newspaper, jiske Chistian Hindustani logan chaapat rain, ke boycott kare ke batawa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= Kelly|first=John|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A politics of virtue : Hinduism, sexuality, and countercolonial discourse in Fiji |url= https://archive.org/details/politicsofvirtue00john|year=1991 |publisher= University of Chicago Press|location= Chicago|isbn=0226430308| pages = [https://archive.org/details/politicsofvirtue00john/page/199 199], 202}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[1930s]] me  Kush  ke Samabula Indian School se nikal dewa gais aur sarkar iske apne chalawe lagaa, jab kuchh  Muslim au Christian parents school committee  me Arya Samaj influence ke viod karin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= Gillion|first=Kenneth|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Fiji Indians: Challenge to European dominence 1920-1946 |year=1977 |publisher= Australian National University Press|location= Canberra, Australia|isbn=0-7081-1291-9| page = 108}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kush, Arya Samaj ke sdhant ke follow karat rahaa aur widows ke saadi ke support karat rahaa. Uu apne ek widow  Shiwa Baike saathe saadi karis aur uske tiin larkan Usha, Uma aur Narendra hae. Uu aapan dharam ke kaam 1967 me maut talak karte rahaa. 

==References==
&lt;!-- this 'empty' section displays references defined elsewhere --&gt;
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1881|1967|Kush, Kundan Singh}}

[[Category:India me paide bhae Fiji ke Hindustani]]
[[Category:Arya Samaji]]</text>
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}}
[[file:Spider-characteristics.png|thumb|right|230px|Basic characteristics of arachnids ke lage chaar jorra gorr (1) aur dehin jon dui hissa me hae: cephalothorax (2) aur abdomen (3).]]

'''Makrraa''' (order Araneae) ek rakam ke aath gorr waala, aur saans le waala (air breathing) [[arthropod]] hae, jiske lage [[khaang]] (fang) rahe hae jisse ii [[jahar]] ke inject kare hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |last= Cushing |first=P.E.|editor-last= Capinera |editor-first= J.L. |encyclopedia= Encyclopedia of Entomology |title=  Spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) |year= 2008 |publisher= Springer |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_4320 |page= 3496 |isbn=978-1-4020-6242-1 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii [[jaala]] (web) bhi banae hae. [[Arachnids]] me makrraa sab se jaada hae aur sab jiu me se 7th rank me hae.&lt;ref name=sebastin&gt;{{cite book |editor-last1= Sebastin |editor-first1=  P.A.|editor-last2= Peter | editor-first2= K.V. |date= 2009|title=Spiders of India |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9oVHO-3ZGx4C |location= |publisher=  Universities Press/[[Orient Blackswan]] |isbn=978-81-7371-641-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Makrraa ke, [[Antartica]] ke chhorr ke, [[dunia]] ke sab continent me paawa jaae hae. November 2023 me [[taxonomist]] log 51,673 makrraa ke species, 136 family me record kare rahin.&lt;ref name=WSC_stats /&gt; Lekin jiu vigyanik my bahae hoe hae ki makrraa ke palwaar ke kaise  classify karaa jaae, aur 1900 se lagbhag 20 different classification ke propose karaa gais hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bioofspiders&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title= Biology of Spiders|url= https://archive.org/details/biologyofspiders00foel_0|url-access= registration|last= Foelix|first= Rainer F.|year= 1996|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-509593-7|page= [https://archive.org/details/biologyofspiders00foel_0/page/3 3]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Anatomy|Anatomically]], makrraa (duusra arachnids ke rakam), aur arthopods se different hae kaaheki   usual dehin ke [[segmentation (biology)|segments]] dui  [[Tagma (biology)|tagmata]] me fused rahe hae, [[cephalothorax]] nai to prosoma, aur [[opisthosoma]], nai to peet, ek chhotaa cylindrical [[Glossary of spider terms#pedicel|pedicel]] se jurraa rahe hae. Lekin abhi koi  paleontological nai to embryological sabuut nai hae ki makrraa ke kabhi alag thorax-like division rahaa. Yahii rakam se  term &quot;abdomen&quot; ke virod me bhi argument hae, kaaheki makrraa ke  opisthosoma me dil aur fefrraa rahe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Shultz |first1=Stanley |last2=Shultz |first2=Marguerite |title=The Tarantula Keeper's Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/tarantulakeepers0000schu |date=2009 |publisher=Barron's |location=Hauppauge, New York |isbn=978-0-7641-3885-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/tarantulakeepers0000schu/page/23 23]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Aur sab [[kirwaa]] se alag, makrraa ke lage [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]] nai rahe hae. Sab se primitive group ke chhorr ke aur sab rakam makrraa me aur sab arthopods ke milaan me sab se centralized nervous system rahe hae, kaaheki uske sab [[ganglion|ganglia]] ek mass me  fused rahe hae,  cephalothorax me. Duusra  arthropod ke rakam, makrraa ke koi  [[extensor]] muscles uske  limbs me nai rahe hae, aur iske jaghaa aapan gorr ke  hydraulic pressure se extend kare hae.

Makrraa ke peet me appendages rahe hae, jiske spinnerets me modify bhais hae jon   silk ke chhe rakam ke  glands me se nikaale hae. Makrraa ke jaala dher rakam ke rahe hae, aur dher different amount aur shape me sticky thread ke kaam me laawa jaawe hae.   Ii abhi samjhaa jaae hae ki spiral orb web sab se puraana hoi, aur makrraa jon tangled cobwebs banae hae  [[orb-weaver spider]] se aur jaada hae. Makrraa ke rakam [[arachnid]] jiske silk-producing [[spigot]] hae ([[Uraraneida]])  [[Devonian]] [[Period (geology)|period]] me evolve bhais rahaa, lagbhag {{ma|386}} me, lekin ii jaanwar me  spinnerets nai rahaa. Aslii makrraa  ke [[Carboniferous]] rocks me {{ma|318|299}} se paawa gais hae aur ii sab se puraana jindaa  [[order (biology)|suborder]] hae. Makrraa ke main group, [[Mygalomorphae]] aur [[Araneomorphae]], sab se pahile Triassic period me,  {{ma|200}} se jaada saal pahile aae rahin.

== Chhaapa ke gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Scorpio palmatus.jpg|A scorpion (Sc. Maurus Palmatus)
File:Galeodes.jpg|Galeodes, ek ''camel spider''
File:Whipscorpion.jpg|Ek ''whip scorpion''
File:Ar 1.jpg|Ek Pseudoscorpion, chhaapa gais panna pe
File:Rilaena.triangularis.2.jpg|Ek harvestman (Rilaena triangularis)
File:Amblypigid.jpg|Ek whip spider (Damon diadema)
File:Adult deer tick(cropped).jpg|Ek tick (deer tick)
File:Convolvulus arvenvis with mites.jpg|fuul, velvet mites ke saathe
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==

{{Reflist}}
&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

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    <title>Chirriya</title>
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      <text bytes="10412" sha1="oqtq53d6amiulx7mor9nsk3pjrl9mgn" xml:space="preserve">'''Chirriya''' (Latin: ''Aves)'' ek rakam ke [[vertebrate]] hae, jiske 

{{Taxobox|domain=[[Eukaryota]]|regnum=[[Animalia]]|phylum=[[Chordata]]|classis='''''Aves|name=Chirriya|image=File:Bird Diversity 2013.png}}

matlab ii hae ki iske lage backbones hae. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book  |last=Linnaeus |first=Carolus |authorlink=Carolus Linnaeus  |title=Systema Naturae |publisher=Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii) |year=1758 |page= |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Chiroya [[warm-blooded]] hae au anda de hae. Iske dehin pakhna se covered rahe hae. Iske haddi hollow rahe hae. Iske pakhnaa rahe hae, bina [[daant]] ke chooch, hard shell waala andaa de hae, jaada metabolic rate rahe hae, chaar chamber waala dil hae aur iske haddi bahut halluk rahe hae. Chirriya [[dunia]] bhar me rahe hae aur iske size {{cvt|5.5|cm}} (hummingbird) se lae ke  {{cvt|2.8|m}} (common ostrich) talak rahe hae. 11,000 se jaada species ke chirriya abhi rahe hae aur iske 44 order me baata gais hae. Aadha se jaada &quot;perching&quot; chirriya hae. Chirriya ke pankhaa rahe hae jon species ke rakam different rahe hae. Khaali dui chirriya ke group ke pankhaa nai hae; moa aur elephant bird. Pankhaa modified haanth hae, jisse chirriya urre hae, lekin kuchh chirriya aur evolve hoe ke urre nai paawe hae, jaise penguin. Chirriya ke [[digestive system]] aur [[respiratory system]] urre khaatir adapted hae. Kuchh chirriyapaani me adept hoe ke pahurre sake hae.

Chirriya pankhaa waala dinosaur hae, jon pahile ke theropods se evolve bhais hae, aur ii khaali ek jindaa dinosaur hae. Yhii rakam se, chirriya ke reptile maana jaawe hae, aur iske sab se magiich ke palwaar magarmachh hae. Chirriya ouraana avialan se evolve bhia hae (jiske members me hae ''Archaeopteryx'') jon pahile  [[Late Jurassic]] period me evolve bhae rahin. Kuchh anumaan ke anusaar, aadhmik chirriya, ('''Neornithes''')  [[Late Cretaceous]]  jamaana me evolve bhae rahin, nai to  Early aur Late Cretaceous (100 Ma) ke biich ke aur  [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] ke jamaana me,  66 million saal pahile, jon  [[pterosaur]]s aur sab non-[[ornithuran]] dinosaurs ke maar diis rahaa.&lt;ref name=Claramunt2015/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Brocklehurst&amp;Field2024&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Brocklehurst |first1=Neil |last2=Field |first2=Daniel J. |date=2024 |title=Tip dating and Bayes factors provide insight into the divergences of crown bird clades across the end-Cretaceous mass extinction |journal=Proceedings. Biological Sciences |volume=291 |issue=2016 |pages=20232618 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2023.2618 |pmc=10865003 |pmid=38351798}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dher social species, gyan ke duusra  generations talak lae jaawe hae . Chirriya social hae, jon ek duusre se sankii, awaaj, aur gaana se communicate kare hae, aur khslaa aur hunt ek duusre ke saathe kare hae. Jaada chirriya ke species socially (but not necessarily sexually) khaali ek partner ke saathe rahe hae, usually khaali ek  breeding season bhar, kabhi-kabhi kuchh saal talak, aur bahut kamtii jindagi bhar. Aur species ke breeding systems polygynous rahe hae (ek admi aur dher aurats) nai to, kabhi-kabhi, polyandrous (ek female dher admi ke saathe ). Chirriya andaa de hae  jiske [sexual reproduction sefertilize karaa jaawe hae. Ii andaa ke ek khoslaa me dewa jaawe hae . Jaada chirriya andaa hatch hoe ke baad  dher din talak bachchaa ke paale hae. 

Dher species ke chirriya, [[insaan]] ke khaatir economically important hae, khaana khaatir aur manufacturing ke raw material ke khaatir, janglee aur palti chirriyaa andaa,gos aur pakhnaa ke khaatir important hae. [[Songbird]], parrots, aur duusra species pets ke rakam popular hae. Chirriyaa ke tatti ke khaad ke ruup me kaam me laawa jaae hae. Insaan ke sanskriti me suruu se chirriya rahis rahaa. Inssan ke activity ke kaaran, lagbhag 120 se 130 chirriya ke species, 17th century se, extinct hoe gais hae, aur dher sau isse pahile. Insaan ke activity lagbhag  1,200 chirriya ke species extinct hoe waala hae, jab ki iske bachaae ke kosis karaa jaawe hae.  Recreational [[birdwatching]]  [[ecotourism]] industry ke khaas hissa hae.

==Evolution aur classification==

[[File:Archaeopteryx_lithographica_(Berlin_specimen).jpg|alt= Slab of stone with fossil bones and feather impressions|thumb|''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' ke sab se puraana, cachchaa chirriya maana jaawe hae.]]
Chirriya ke pahila [[biological classification|classification]] ke [[Francis Willughby]] aur [[John Ray]] develop kare rahin, uulog ke 1676 volume ''Ornithologiae'' me.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=del Hoyo |first=Josep |author2=Andy Elliott|author3=Jordi Sargatal |title=Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks |year=1992 |publisher=[[Lynx Edicions]] |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-87334-10-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Carl Linnaeus]], ii kaam ke 1758 me   [[taxonomic classification]] system ke banais rahaa, jiske abhi kaam me laawa jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;
{{Cite book|last=Linnaeus |first=Carolus |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata |publisher=Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii) |year=1758 |page=824 |language=la|title-link=Systema Naturae }}&lt;/ref&gt; Chirriya ke jaada kar ke ek [[Class (biology)|biological class]] me, in traditional [[evolutionary taxonomy]] me classify karaa jaawe hae. Aadhmil [[phylogenetic taxonomy]], Aves ke [[clade]] [[Theropoda]] me rakkhe hae, kabhi-kabhi ek Linnean rank jon class ke niche rahaa, jaise subclass&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Ruggiero |first1=Michael A. |last2=Gordon |first2=Dennis P. |last3=Orrell |first3=Thomas M. |last4=Bailly |first4=Nicolas |last5=Bourgoin |first5=Thierry |last6=Brusca |first6=Richard C. |last7=Cavalier-Smith |first7=Thomas |last8=Guiry |first8=Michael D. |last9=Kirk |first9=Paul M. |date=2015-06-11 |title=Correction: A Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=6 |article-number=e0130114 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0130114 |doi-access=free |pmc=5159126 |pmid=26068874|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1030114R }}&lt;/ref&gt; nai to infraclass.&lt;ref name=&quot;Theropoda&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |date=January 2007 | title=Higher-order phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda, Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative anatomy. II. Analysis and discussion | journal=[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]] | volume=149 | issue=1 | pages=1–95 | doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x | pmid=18784798 | last1=Livezey | first1=Bradley C. | last2=Zusi | first2=RL | pmc=2517308}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Definition===
Aves aur ek sister group, order [[Crocodilia]], me  khaali ek jindaa  representatives reptile clade [[Archosauria]] ke hae. Late [[1990s]] me, Aves ke jaada kar ke  [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] ke modern chirriya ke  [[most recent common ancestor]]  define karaa jaawat rahaa aur ''[[Archaeopteryx|Archaeopteryx lithographica]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Padian|first=Kevin|author-link=Kevin Padian|author2=[[Philip J. Currie]]|title=Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofdi0000curr|year=1997|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|location=San Diego|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofdi0000curr/page/41 41]–96|chapter=Bird Origins|isbn=0-12-226810-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lekin, puraana definition jiske [[Jacques Gauthier]] propose karis rahaa, ke 21st century me jaada kaam me laae jaae lagaa, aur iske dher vigyanik jisme adherents to the ''[[PhyloCode]]'' bhi hae, kaam me laawe hae. Gauthier define karis hae Aves ke   [[crown group]] of the set of aadhmik chirriya me karis hae. Iske ii kaaran se karaa gais rahaa, jisse jon chirriya ke khaali uske fossils se jaana jaawe hae ke nikaala jaae sake, aur uske ek aur motaa group  Avialae rakkhaa jaawe sake,&lt;ref name =Gauthier1986 &gt;{{Cite book |last=Gauthier |first=Jacques |year=1986 |chapter=Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds |editor=Padian, Kevin |title=The Origin of Birds and the Evolution of Flight |series=Memoirs of the California Academy of Science |volume=8 |pages=1–55 |isbn=0-940228-14-9 |publisher=Published by California Academy of Sciences |location=San Francisco, CA|url=https://biostor.org/reference/110202}}&lt;/ref&gt; ii principle ispe based hae ki  extant species should ke limit karaa jaae jisse khaali extant species aur uske nachdik ke  palwaar ii geoup me raha. &lt;ref name =Gauthier1986 /&gt;

Gauthier aur de Queiroz chaar different definitions ke identify kare rahin  biological jiske naam &quot;Aves&quot; hae, ke khaatir, jon ek problem hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;gauthier&amp;dequeiroz2001&quot;/&gt; Iske uthors log ii propose karin ki  Aves naam ke  khaali crown group  khaatir, jisme last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants hae, ke khaatir reserve karaa jaae.&lt;ref name=&quot;gauthier&amp;dequeiroz2001&quot;/&gt; Uu log duusra group ke aur naam de rahin. .&lt;ref name=&quot;gauthier&amp;dequeiroz2001&quot;/&gt;

&lt;gallery&gt;
file:Flock-of-tundra-swans.jpg|A Flock of Tundra [[Swan]]s fly in V-formation.
file:OspreyNASA.jpg|This [[Osprey]] at Kennedy Space Centre is hovering.
file:Wandering Albatross (van Poppel).jpg|A Wandering [[Albatross (chirriya)|Albatross]] can sleep while flying.
file:Cathartes aura 2.jpg|The large broad wings of a [[vulture]] allow it to soar without flapping.
file:Australian barn owl.jpg|The soft feathers of an [[owl]] allow it to fly quietly.
file:California Quail with babies.JPG|Some birds, such as the [[quail]], live mainly on the ground.
file:Casuarius casuarius -Brevard Zoo-8a.jpg|A [[cassowary]] cannot fly but can defend itself.
file:Schwimmender-Pinguin.jpg|[[Penguin]]'s flippers are good for swimming.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Gallery of well-known little birds ==
&lt;gallery&gt; 
Image:Blue Tit aka.jpg|Blue Tit, photo AKa. 
Image:Passer domesticus 02.jpg|This male House Sparrow is [[camouflage]]d among the pebbles 
Image:Fringilla coelebs chaffinch male edit2.jpg|Chaffinch (male), photo M.Maggs 
Image:Sitta-carolinensis-001.jpg|White-breasted Nuthatch
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Duusra websites ==

* [http://www.bsc-eoc.org/avibase/avibase.jsp?lang=EN&amp;pg=home Avibase - The World Bird Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020193845/http://www.bsc-eoc.org/avibase/avibase.jsp?lang=EN |date=2008-10-20 }}
* [http://www.bird-hybrids.com/engine.php?LA=En Bird Hybrids Database - Search by bird name, use Sibley classification]
* [http://www.i-o-c.org/IOComm/index.htm International Ornithological Committee]

[[vibhag:Basic English 850 words]]
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      <text bytes="6496" sha1="blsnu767hkoyo00umu51vsvbe14ebja" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ybc7289-bw.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Babylonian clay tablet BC 7289 (c. 1800–1600 BC) with annotations. The approximation of the [[square root of 2]] is four [[sexagesimal]] figures, which is about six [[decimal]] figures. 1 + 24/60 + 51/60&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 10/60&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; = 1.41421296...&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html |title=Photograph, illustration, and description of the ''root(2)'' tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection |access-date=2010-12-29 |archive-date=2012-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120813054036/http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Image by Bill Casselman.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/ybc/ybc.html YBC 7289, Bill Casselman]&lt;/ref&gt;]]
'''Numerical analysis''', [[algorithm]]s ke parrhai hae, jisme numerical [[approximation]] ([[symbolic computation|symbolic manipulations]] ke jagha) ke kaam me laae ke [[mathematical analysis]]  ke problem ke solve kara jaawe hae. 
==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==References==
&lt;!--
This template can be used for additional references.
*{{cite book |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= |year= |publisher= |location= |id= }}
--&gt;

*{{cite book |last=Gilat |first=Amos |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=MATLAB: An Introduction with Applications |url=https://archive.org/details/matlabintroducti0000gila | edition=2nd edition |year=2004 |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons |location= |isbn=0-471-69420-7 }}
*{{cite book |last=Hildebrand |first=F. B. | authorlink=Francis B. Hildebrand | title=Introduction to Numerical Analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontonu0000hild | edition=2nd edition |year=1974 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location= |isbn= 0-070-28761-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Leader |first=Jeffery J. | title=Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computation |url=https://archive.org/details/numericalanalysi0000lead |year=2004 |publisher=Addison Wesley |location= |isbn= 0-201-73499-0 }}
* Trefethen, Lloyd N. (2006). [http://web.comlab.ox.ac.uk/oucl/work/nick.trefethen/NAessay.pdf &quot;Numerical analysis&quot;], 20 pages. In: Timothy Gowers and June Barrow-Green (editors), ''Princeton Companion of Mathematics'', Princeton University Press.

==External links==

*[http://www-gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/cgi-bin/digbib.cgi?PPN362160546 Numerische Mathematik], volumes 1-66, Springer, 1959-1994 (searchable; pages are images). {{en icon}} {{de icon}}
*[http://www.springerlink.com/content/0029-599X Numerische Mathematik at SpringerLink] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.ph/20121208202239/http://www.springerlink.com/content/0029-599X |date=2012-12-08 }}, volumes 1-112, Springer, 1959–2009
*[http://siamdl.aip.org/dbt/dbt.jsp?KEY=SJNAAM SIAM Journal on Numerical Analysis], volumes 1-47, SIAM, 1964–2009

'''Software and Code'''
*[http://norma.mas.ecp.fr/wikimas/ScientificComputingSoftware Lists of free software for scientific computing and numerical analysis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223214554/http://norma.mas.ecp.fr/wikimas/ScientificComputingSoftware |date=2008-12-23 }} {{en icon}} {{fr icon}}
*[http://people.sc.fsu.edu/~tomek/Fortran/num_meth.html Numerical methods for Fortran programmers]
*[http://www.apropos-logic.com/nc/ Java Number Cruncher] features free, downloadable code samples that graphically illustrate common numerical algorithms
*[http://www.ifh.uni-karlsruhe.de/people/fenton/Lectures.html Excel Implementations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718110037/http://www.ifh.uni-karlsruhe.de/people/fenton/Lectures.html |date=2011-07-18 }}
*[http://www.akiti.ca/Mathfxns.html Several Numerical Mathematical Utilities (in Javascript)]

'''Online Texts'''
*[http://www.nr.com/oldverswitcher.html ''Numerical Recipes''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905141405/http://www.nr.com/oldverswitcher.html |date=2015-09-05 }}, William H. Press (free, downloadable previous editions)
*[http://kr.cs.ait.ac.th/~radok/math/mat7/stepsa.htm#Numerical%20Analysis ''First Steps in Numerical Analysis''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225082123/http://kr.cs.ait.ac.th/~radok/math/mat7/stepsa.htm#Numerical%20Analysis |date=2012-02-25 }}, R.J.Hosking, S.Joe, D.C.Joyce, and J.C.Turner
*[http://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~dwharder/NumericalAnalysis/ ''Numerical Analysis for Engineering''], D. W. Harder
*[http://www.phy.ornl.gov/csep/CSEP/TEXTOC.html ''CSEP'' (Computational Science Education Project)], [[U.S. Department of Energy]]

'''Online Course Material'''
*[http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/fdl/people/sd103/lectures/nummeth98/index.htm#L_1_Title_Page Numerical Methods], Stuart Dalziel [[University of Cambridge]]
*[http://www.math.upenn.edu/~wilf/DeturckWilf.pdf Lectures on Numerical Analysis], Dennis Deturck and Herbert S. Wilf [[University of Pennsylvania]]
*[http://www.ifh.uni-karlsruhe.de/people/fenton/LectureNotes/Numerical-Methods.pdf Numerical methods] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718110104/http://www.ifh.uni-karlsruhe.de/people/fenton/LectureNotes/Numerical-Methods.pdf |date=2011-07-18 }}, John D. Fenton [[University of Karlsruhe]]
*[http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/ Numerical Methods for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906070428/http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu/ |date=2006-09-06 }}, Autar Kaw [[University of South Florida]]
*[http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/numerical.html Numerical Analysis Project], John H. Mathews [[California State University, Fullerton]]
*[http://www.math.jct.ac.il/~naiman/nm/ Numerical Methods - Online Course] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428010420/http://math.jct.ac.il/~naiman/nm/ |date=2007-04-28 }}, Aaron Naiman [[Jerusalem College of Technology]]
*[http://www-teaching.physics.ox.ac.uk/computing/NumericalMethods/NMfP.pdf Numerical Methods for Physicists], Anthony O’Hare [[Oxford University]]
*[http://kr.cs.ait.ac.th/~radok/math/mat7/stepsa.htm#Numerical%20Analysis Lectures in Numerical Analysis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225082123/http://kr.cs.ait.ac.th/~radok/math/mat7/stepsa.htm#Numerical%20Analysis |date=2012-02-25 }}, R. Radok [[Mahidol University]]
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Mechanical-Engineering/2-993JSpring-2005/CourseHome/ Introduction to Numerical Analysis for Engineering], Henrik Schmidt [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Numerical Analysis}}

[[Category:Mathematics]]</text>
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    <title>Epic of Gilgamesh</title>
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      <text bytes="5290" sha1="pdc4z12g64f0orafxggzcenwruy3his" xml:space="preserve">'''''Epic of Gilgamesh''''' ek [[epic poetry|epic poem]] prachin [[Mesopotamia]] se aais hae. 
[[File:GilgameshTablet.jpg|thumb|220px|The [[Deluge]] tablet of the Gilgamesh epic in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]]]


== Bibliography ==
=== Editions ===
* {{cite book | author=George, Andrew R., trans. &amp; edit. | title=The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=England | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-19-814922-0}}
* {{cite book | author=George, Andrew R., trans. &amp; edit. | title=The Epic of Gilgamesh | location= | publisher=Penguin Books| year=1999, reprinted with corrections 2003 | id=ISBN 0-14-044919-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Foster, Benjamin R., trans. &amp; edit. | title=The Epic of Gilgamesh | location=New York | publisher=W.W. Norton &amp; Company | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-393-97516-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Kovacs, Maureen Gallery, transl. with intro. | title=The Epic of Gilgamesh | location=Stanford University Press | publisher=Stanford, California | year=1985,1989 | id=ISBN 0-8047-1711-7}} Glossary, Appendices, Appendix (Chapter XII=Tablet XII). A line-by-line translation (Chapters I-XI).
* {{cite book | author=Jackson, Danny | title=The Epic of Gilgamesh | location=Wauconda, IL | publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-86516-352-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Mason, Herbert | title=Gilgamesh: A Verse Narrative | location=Boston | publisher=Mariner Books | year=1970 | id=ISBN 978-0-618-27564-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Mitchell, Stephen | title=Gilgamesh: A New English Version | location=New York | publisher=Free Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7432-6164-X}}
* Sandars, N. K. (2006). ''The Epic of Gilgamesh (Penguin Epics)''. ISBN 0-14-102628-6 - re-print of the Penguin Classic translation (in prose) by N. K. Sandars 1960 (ISBN 0-14-044100-X) without the introduction.
* {{cite book | author=Parpola, Simo, with Mikko Luuko, and Kalle Fabritius | title=The Standard Babylonian, Epic of Gilgamesh | publisher=''The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project'' | year=1997 | id=ISBN 951-45-7760-4 (Volume 1) in the original Akkadian cuneiform and transliteration; commentary and glossary are in English }}
* {{cite book | author=Ferry, David | title=Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse | url=https://archive.org/details/gilgameshnewrend00ferr | year=1993 | publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux | location=New York | isbn=0374523835}}

=== Other ===
* Damrosch, David (2007) ''The Buried Book: The Loss and Rediscovery of the Great Epic of Gilgamesh''. Henry Holt and Co, ISBN 0-8050-8029-5
* Jacobsen, Thorkild (1976) ''The Treasures of Darkness, A History of Mesopotamian Religion'', New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-01844-4
* West, Martin (1997) ''The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth'', New York: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-815042-3

== Other websites ==
* Translations for several legends of Gilgamesh in the [[Sumer]]ian language can be found in Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Fluckiger-Hawker, E, Robson, E., and Zólyomi, G., ''The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature'' ([http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/ http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/]), Oxford 1998-.
* Babylonian (Akkadian) texts: [http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=c.1.8.1* ETCSL]
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1815.htm Gilgamesh and Huwawa], version A - (the adventure of the cedar forest)
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr18151.htm Gilgamesh and Huwawa], version B
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1812.htm Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven]
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1811.htm Gilgamesh and Aga]
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1814.htm Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the nether world]
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1813.htm The death of Gilgamesh]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11000 The Project Gutenberg eBook, An Old Babylonian Version of the Gilgamesh Epic, by Anonymous, Edited by Morris Jastrow, Translated by Albert T. Clay]
* [http://mcgoodwin.net/pages/otherbooks/gilgamesh.html Epic of Gilgamesh], summary by M. McGoodwin
* [http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM Gilgamesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230123112/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM |date=2005-12-30 }} by Richard Hooker (wsu.edu)
* [http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/world/mideast/mi-wtst.htm The Epic of Gilgamesh: A Spiritual Biography] (theosophy-nw.org)

;Tablets
* [http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/tab11.htm Tablet XI (The Flood Chapter)]

;Flood
* [http://www.noahs-ark-flood.com/parallels.htm Comparison of equivalent lines in six ancient versions of the flood story] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829004437/http://www.noahs-ark-flood.com/parallels.htm |date=2006-08-29 }} (noahs-ark-flood.com)
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/noah_com.htm Comparison of The Epic of Gilgamesh to the Genesis flood] (religioustolerance.org)
* [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/gilgy09.html Comparison of the Flood in Genesis to the Epic of Gilgamesh and related literature] (Christian-thinktank.com)

{{Commons|Category:Gilgamesh}}

[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Literature]]
[[Category:Mesopotamia]]</text>
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    <title>Naastiktaa (Atheism)</title>
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      <text bytes="3142" sha1="ankkc5c8lq6pkjjo2l3b48uojj8ogpy" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Professor Richard Dawkins - March 2005.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Richard Dawkins]], atheism ke samarthan kare waala, aur jaana maana pustak  ke lekhak: &quot;The God Delusion&quot;]]

Itihaas me naastiktaa me me biswas ke &quot;classical antiquity&quot; aur puraana [[India]]n philosophy talak trace karaa jaawe sake hae. Pachchhim ke des me naastiktaa kamti hoe gais jab [[Isai dharam]] me dher jan biswas kare lagin. 16th century aur [[Age of Anlightenment]] me [[Europe]] me naastiktaa fir se barrhaa rahaa. 20th century talak dher jan naastik hoe gae rahin. Ii anumaan karaa jaawe hae ki [[dunia]] bhar me 500 million se 1.1 billion log naastik hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;CambridgeZuckerman&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQTdki1xyK0C&amp;pg=PA122 |title=Secularization and the World Religions |year=2010 |editor1-first=Hans |editor1-last=Joas |editor2-first=Klaus |editor2-last=Wiegandt |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-1-84631-187-1 |ol=25285702M |page=122 (footnote 1) |access-date=April 18, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030194457/https://books.google.com/books?id=rQTdki1xyK0C&amp;pg=PA122 |archive-date=October 30, 2015 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Naastiktaa''' ke matlab hae [[ishvara|bhagwaan]] me biswas nai kare ke. Iske ultaa hae, &quot;theism&quot;, jiske matlab hae, biswas ki bhagwaan hae. Jon koi bhagwaan me biswas nai kare hae ke naastik bola jaawe hae.
&lt;ref&gt;
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Kai |last=Nielsen |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica]|title=Atheism |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/40634/atheism |year=2009 |accessdate=2009-08-23}}

* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Atheism |first=Paul |last=Edwards|publisher=Collier-MacMillan |year=1967 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Philosophy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Philosophy |volume=Vol. 1 |page=175 }}
&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;
{{cite encyclopedia |first=William L. |last=Rowe|encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |title=Atheism |year=1998 |editor=Edward Craig}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

Naastiktaa me biswas kare ke kaaran philosophical se samajik approach talak based hae. EK khass kaaran kahee bhagwaan me nai biswas karaa jaawe hae, ii hae ki bhagwaan ke rahe ke koi sabuut nai hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;logical&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://shook.pragmatism.org/skepticismaboutthesupernatural.pdf |title=Skepticism about the Supernatural |last=Shook |first=John R. |access-date=October 2, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018210402/http://shook.pragmatism.org/skepticismaboutthesupernatural.pdf |archive-date=October 18, 2012 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Naastik log ii bole hae ki sab koi paida hoe hae bina koi bhagwaan ke biswaas me aur ii naastik ke kaam nai hae ki uu prove kare ki bhagwaan nai hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Stenger|2007|pp=17–18}}, citing {{cite book |last=Parsons |first=Keith M. |title=God and the Burden of Proof: Plantinga, Swinburne, and the Analytical Defense of Theism |url=https://archive.org/details/godandtheburdeno0000pars |year=1989 |location=Amherst, New York |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-0-87975-551-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;


== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[vibhag:Dharam]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[vibhag:Samaj]]</text>
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    <title>Ek Ishwarwaad</title>
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      <text bytes="11500" sha1="j49xmm2hdtofue2potubi0m2k37e9g3" xml:space="preserve">'''Ek Ishwarwaad''' (('''Monotheism''') me khaali ek bhagwaan, nai to khaas sevtaa me biswas karaa jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Solano_Community_College/SOC_002%3A_Social_Issues_and_Problems/14%3A_Religion/14.02%3A_Types_of_Religions#:~:text=The%20most%20prominent%20modern%20day,original%20plan%20for%20the%20universe | title=14.2: Types of Religions | date=4 June 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;EncyclopædiaBritannica&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia | title= Monotheism | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/monotheism | encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]| date=24 May 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |publisher=[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]] (12th edition) |title= Monotheism |page=644}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;odccmono&quot;&gt;[[F. L. Cross|Cross, F.L.]]; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). &quot;Monotheism&quot;. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia|year=2018|title=Monotheism|encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/monotheism/|author=William Wainwright}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ekmaatr monotheism me khaali ek bhagwaan rahe hae , aur koi devta nai. Pluriform monotheism me dher devtaa rahe hae lekin ii sab ke ek bhagwaan ke dher ruup maana jaae hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;EncyclopædiaBritannica&quot; /&gt;

Monotheism, &quot;henitheism&quot; se different hae, kaaheki isme ek biswas kare waala ek bhagwaan me biswas kare hae lekin ii maane hae ki duusre log jon bhagwaan me biswas kare hae uu ekke chij hae. &quot;Monolatrism&quot; me sher detaa me biswas karaa jaae hae lekin khaali ek ke puja jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;Frank E. Eakin, Jr. ''The Religion and Culture of Israel'' (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), 70.&lt;/ref&gt; ''Monolatry'' sabd ke sab se pahile Julius Wellhausen kaam me laais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |last=Mackintosh|first=Robert|year=1916|title=Monolatry and Henotheism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics]]|volume=VIII|page=810 |url=https://archive.org/details/EncyclopaediaOfReligionAndEthics.Hastings-selbie-gray.13Vols|access-date=Jan 21, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ek Ishwarwaad me Atenism, Babism, [[Bahá'í Faith]] aur [[Isai Dharam]] me biswas karaa jaae hae. Catholic Encyclopoedia, Isai dharam me monothism ke confirm kare hae. 

==Itihaas==
Iron-Age ke samay, South Asia ke Vedic jamaana&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last= Sharma | first= Chandradhar|author-link= Chandradhar Sharma Guleri| title= Indian Philosophy: A Critical Survey| publisher= Barnes &amp; Noble| location= New York | year= 1962 | page= vi | chapter= Chronological Summary of History of Indian Philosophy}}&lt;/ref&gt;, me monotheism ke bagal jhukao rahaa. [[Rigveda]] me [ Brahman]] bhagwaan maana jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10190.htm|title=Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 10: HYMN CXC. Creation.|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2022-08-05|archive-date=2022-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220720072656/https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10190.htm|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Baad ke Hindu biswas dher bhagwaan me biswas hae lekin ek supreme Brahman hae.

China me Shang dynasty (1766 BC) se abhi talak ek bhagwaan me biswas karaa jaae hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;Homer H. Dubs, &quot;Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy&quot;, ''Philosophy of East and West'', Vol. 9, No. 3/4, 1959&lt;/ref&gt; 

6th century BC se Zoroastrian log ek bhagwaan, Ahura Mazda, me biswas kare hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/zor/sbe23/sbe2330.htm|title=The Zend Avesta, Part II (SBE23): Nyâyis: I. Khôrshêd Nyâyis|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2022-08-05|archive-date=2023-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203140005/https://www.sacred-texts.com/zor/sbe23/sbe2330.htm|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

6th century BC me Judaism me ek bhagwaan me biswas karaa jaat rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBSJNDndGjwC&amp;pg=PA225|title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel|first=Robert Karl|last=Gnuse|date=1 May 1997|publisher=Sheffield Academic Press|isbn=1-85075-657-0|page=225}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Ilaaka==
===Africa===
====Eastern Africa====
[[File:Oromo_Irrecha.jpg|200px|thumb|Nile Valley ke log Bhagwaan &quot;Waaq&quot; ke thank kare hae]]
Nile valley ke log 5000 BC me &quot;Waaq&quot;, ek aasmaan ke Bhagwaan, ke puja karat rahin. Jab ii log south ke bagal nigrate bhain tab ii logan ii biswas ke rakhe rahin, jaise aaj kal ke Masai, lekin ii biswas ke &quot;ancestor worship&quot; aur spirits me biswas ke saathe puja karaa jaawat rahaa. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dunbar2023&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Dunbar |first=R.I.M. |date=2023 |title=Why did doctrinal religions first appear in the Northern Subtropical Zone? |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2023.13 |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |volume=5 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2023.13 |issn=2513-843X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dher Nilotic bhasa me baat kare waala log puraana ek Bhagwaan me biswas kare waala log se decendant hae.&lt;ref&gt;Prendergast, Mary E.; Lipson, Mark; Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; Olalde, Iñigo; Ogola, Christine A.; Rohland, Nadin; Sirak, Kendra A.; Adamski, Nicole; Bernardos, Rebecca; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Callan, Kimberly; Culleton, Brendan J.; Eccles, Laurie; Harper, Thomas K.; Lawson, Ann Marie (5 July 2019). &quot;Ancient DNA reveals a multistep spread of the first herders into sub-Saharan Africa&quot;. Science. 365 (6448). doi:10.1126/science.aaw6275. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 6827346. PMID 31147405&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Wang, Ke; Goldstein, Steven; Bleasdale, Madeleine; Clist, Bernard; Bostoen, Koen; Bakwa-Lufu, Paul; Buck, Laura T.; Crowther, Alison; Dème, Alioune; McIntosh, Roderick J.; Mercader, Julio; Ogola, Christine; Power, Robert C.; Sawchuk, Elizabeth; Robertshaw, Peter (12 June 2020). &quot;Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa&quot;. Science Advances. 6 (24). doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7292641. PMID 32582847&lt;/ref&gt;
Horn of Africa ke  ke dher log yahi sankriti ke rahin lekin aaj kar [[Islam]] nai to [Isai dharam]] ke maane hae.&lt;ref&gt;Mire, Sada (5 February 2020). Divine Fertility. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-76925-2&lt;/ref&gt;

===Puraana Egypt===
====Atenism====
[[File:La_salle_dAkhenaton_(1356-1340_av_J.C.)_(Musée_du_Caire)_(2076972086).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Pharaoh Akhenaten aur uske palwaar Aten ke puja kare hae]]
1348/1346BC me Atenism ke Egypt me suruu karaa gais rahaa. Isme Aten, surya bhgwaan ke sab se barraa Bhagwaan maana jaawat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first= Rosalie |last= David |year= 1998 |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt |publisher= Facts on File |isbn= 9780816033126 |page= 125 |via= [[Archive.org]] |url=https://archive.org/details/handbooktolifein00aros |url-access= registration }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Americas===
====Native American dharam====
Native American dharam ek ishwarwaad, dher bhagwaan me biswas, henotheistic, animistic, nai to ii sab ke koi combination rahat rahaa. Jaise Cherokee dharam Ek ishwarwaad aur pantheist rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Buskirk |first=Kathy Van |date=2007-04-04 |title=The Cherokee religion |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/culture/2007/04/cherokee-language-dances-songs |access-date=2024-02-28 |website=New Statesman |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ek barraa aatma (spirit) jiske  Sioux log &quot;Wakan Tanka&quot; bole hae aur &quot;Gitche Manitou&quot; jon Algonquian bhasa me ek &quot;supreme being&quot; hae, [[Canada]] aur [[America]] ke natives me common hae. &lt;ref name=Thomas&gt;Thomas, Robert Murray. Manitou and God: North-American Indian Religions and Christian Culture. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. {{ISBN|0313347794}} pg 35.&lt;/ref&gt; Lakota log ke anusaar &quot;Wakan Tanka&quot; ke matlab &quot;Great Mystery&quot; hae.&lt;ref name=Means&gt;Means, Robert. Where White Men Fear to Tread: The Autobiography of Russell Means. Macmillan, 1995. {{ISBN|0312147619}} pg 241.&lt;/ref&gt;

Aztec pandit aur barra admi log  ii nischay pe aae rahin ki Toet ek universal force hae jiske dher ruup hae. &lt;ref name=&quot;iepMaffie&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia|author=James Maffie|title=Aztec Philosophy|encyclopedia= [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|date= 2005|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aztec.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Asia===
====South Asia====
=====Hinduism=====
[[File:Vishnuvishvarupa.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Krishna]] aapan ''[[Vishvarupa]]'' (universal form) Kurukshetra ke  battlefield me Arjuna ke dekhae hae]]
Ek puraana dharam hoe ke anusaar [[Hinduism]] dharmik concept ke inherit karis hae jisme polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, aur atheism hae. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last = Rogers| first = Peter|title = Ultimate Truth, Book 1| publisher = AuthorHouse| year = 2009| page = 109| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=e3kf6GtwaT0C&amp;pg=PA109| isbn = 978-1-4389-7968-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last = Chakravarti| first = Sitansu| title = Hinduism, a way of life| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ.| year = 1991| page = 71| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&amp;pg=PA71| isbn = 978-81-208-0899-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;EBpolytheism&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism |title=Polytheism|access-date= 2007-07-05 |year=2007 |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | last = Pattanaik| first = Devdutt| title = The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore| publisher = Routledge| year = 2002| page = 38| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&amp;pg=PA38| isbn = 978-1-56023-181-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur iske Bhagwaan ke concept complex hae aur individual ke uppar nirbhar hae. 

[[Rig Veda]] 1.164.46,
:''{{IAST|Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān,}}''
:''{{IAST|ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}''
:&quot;Uulog iske Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, aur swarag ke nobly-winged Garuda.
:Jon chij ek hae, gyani log dher s give manaam de hae, aur iske  Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan bola jaae hae.&quot; (trans. [[Ralph T.H. Griffith|Griffith]])

=====Sikhism=====
[[File:Sikh Temple Manning Drive Edmonton Alberta Canada 01A.jpg|thumb|Ek Sikh mandir, jiske ''Nanaksar [[Gurudwara]]'' ke naam hae, [[Alberta]], Canada me]]
Sikhism ek Bhagwaan me biswas kare waala dharam hae&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last=Mark Juergensmeyer
|first=Gurinder Singh Mann
|year=2006
|title=The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions
|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_i0h0
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|location=US
|isbn=978-0-19-513798-9
|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_i0h0/page/41 41]
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last=Ardinger
|first=Barbara
|year=2006
|title=Pagan Every Day: Finding the Extraordinary in Our Ordinary Lives
|url=https://archive.org/details/paganeverydayfin0000ardi
|publisher=Weisfer
|isbn=978-1-57863-332-6
|page=[https://archive.org/details/paganeverydayfin0000ardi/page/13 13]
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and a [[revealed religion]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Nesbitt2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last=Nesbitt
|first=Eleanor M.
|title=Sikhi: a very short introduction
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fvTK_CfkeasC&amp;pg=PP6
|access-date=19 July 2010
|date=15 November 2005
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-280601-7
|page=136}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sikhism me Bhagwaan ke Akal Purakh bola jaae hae (jiske matlab &quot;The Immortal Being&quot;) nai to ''[[Waheguru|Vāhigurū]]'' (Wondrous Enlightener) hae.

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/monotheism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]

==References==
{{reflist}}

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    <title>Devanagari</title>
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'''Devanagri''', jiske '''Nagari'''&lt;ref name=&quot;kathleen&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |first=Kathleen |last=Kuiper |date=2010 |title=The Culture of India |url=https://archive.org/details/cultureofindia0000unse |location=New York |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1615301492 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cultureofindia0000unse/page/83 83]}}&lt;/ref&gt; bhi bola jaae hae,  ek [[Indic script]] hae jiske north [[India]] me kaam me laawa jaae hae. Iske left-to-right likha jaae hae. Ii ek [[abugida]] writing system hae, jiske matlab hae ki isme [[consonant]] pahile likha jaae hae aur isme [[vowel]] ke chinh lagaawa jaae hae. Ii [[Brahmi]] script se aais hae. Ii India aur [[Nepal]] ke ke sarkari script hae. 8th century talak ii puura develop hoe ke puura kaam me laae jaawa lagaa aur 1200 talak aaj ke likhe ke rakam hoe gais. Devanagri script me 48 characters hae, jisme se 14 vowels aur 34 consonants hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Devanagari – an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/devanagari#:~:text=Devanagari%20has%2048%20letters:%2034,vowel%20in%20the%20spoken%20language. |access-date=2023-08-02 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii [[dunia]] ke 4th sab se jaada kaam me laae waala writing system hae&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Vaughan |first=Don |title=The World’s 5 Most Commonly Used Writing Systems |url=https://www.britannica.com/list/the-worlds-5-most-commonly-used-writing-systems |access-date=15 September 2024 |website=britannica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;mostused1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Templin |first=David |title=Devanagari script |url=https://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/devanagari.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401062015/https://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/devanagari.htm |archive-date=1 April 2015 |access-date=5 April 2015 |website=omniglot.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur iske 120 [[bhasa]] ke khaatir kaam me laawa jaae hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;devasilusa&quot;&gt;{{Citation |url=https://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&amp;key=Deva |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702003440/https://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&amp;key=Deva |archive-date=2 July 2017 |title=Devanagari (Nagari), Script Features and Description |publisher=[[SIL International]] |date=2013 |location=United States}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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'''Bhautik vigyan  (Physics)''' ek [[vigyan]] hae jisme [[matter]] aur space aur [[samay]] kaise interact kare hae, ke baare me parrha jaawe hae. Ii [[energy]] aur [[force]] ke bhi adhyan kare hae. &quot;Physics&quot; sabd [[Greek bhasa]] se aais hae, jisme iske matlab &quot;nature&quot; hae. 

Bhautik vigyan, [[engineering]] aur nawaa technology, jaise [[aviation]], [[electronics]] aur hatyaar ke banae me jaruri hae. [[Mathematics]] me calculus ke ii kaaran se suruu karaa gais rahaa ki ii [[machanics]], bahutik vigyan ke ek hissa, me kaam me laawa jaae sake. Bhautik vigyan ek sab se puraana parrhe waala subject hae, aur kaaheki isme [[astronomy]] bhi hae, saait sab se puraana hae.

==Bhautik vigyan ke hissa==
===Classical mechanics===
Classical mechanics me [[force]] ke adhyan karaa jaae hae aur [[solid]], [[liquid]] aur [[gas]] ke behaviour ke bhi adhyan karaa jaae hae. Iske jaada kar ke &quot;Newtonian mechanics&quot; bhi bolaa jaae hae, kaaheki [[Isaac Newton]],, [[laws of motion]] ke banais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Perot&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Perot, Pierre |title=A to Z of Thermodynamics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-856552-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Clark, John O.E. |title=The Essential Dictionary of Science |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialdiction0000unse_d8d8 |publisher=Barnes &amp; Noble Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7607-4616-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Iske aur chhotaa hissa me bhi karaa jaae hae, jaise ki [[statics]], [[dynamics]], [[kinematics]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Clausius |first=Rudolf |title=On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat |chapter=LXXIX | publisher=Dover Reprint |year=1850 |isbn=978-0-486-59065-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Thermodynamics===
Isme [[temperature]], [[pressure]] aur [[volume]] ke effect ke adhyan karaa jaae hae, aur energy kaise [[heat]] se transfer hoe hae. Thermodynamics ii kaaran se aage barrha  ki log [[steam engine]] ke aur achchhaa kare ke kosis karat rahin.

==Itihaas==
===Puraana astronomy===
[[File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG|right|200px|thumb|Egypt ke puraana astronomy ke Pharoah ke tomb me paawa gais rahaa]]
Astronomy, natural sciences me ke ke sab se puraana hae. Sumerians aur puraana Egyptians, taara ke adhyan kare rahin, jisse future ke baare me jaana jaae sake aur dhra ke khaatir. Babylon ke pahila taara ke map 1200 BC puraana hae. Babylonians ii bji paawe rahin ki astronomy ke ghatna repeat hoe hae.&lt;ref&gt;Aaboe A. 1991. ''Mesopotamian mathematics, astronomy, and astrology''. The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume III (2nd ed). Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-22717-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uulog ke ii samajhnaa scientific nai, ii observation baad ke astronomy ke influence karis rahaa. Dher astronomy [[Mesopotamia]], [[Babylon]], [[Ancient Egypt]], aur [[Ancient Greece]] se aais hae. Egypt ke astronomer log imaarat ke banae rahin jon ii dekhais ki aasmaan ke chij gaise ghume hae aur constellations ke jaada naam Greek astronomers se aais hae.

===Aristotle aur Greece ke bhautik vigyan===
[[File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg|right|thumb|[[Aristotle]] (384-322 BCE)]]
6th, 5th aur 4th centuries BCE me aur Hellenistic jamaana me, Greece me Aristotle, jon [[Plato]] ke student rahaa, bhautik vigyan ke baare me likhis rahaa, jisme 2000 saal talak log biswas karat rahin. Uu motion aur gravity ke samjhais rahaa aur chaar classical elemenys ke, jon [[hawaa]], [[aagi]], [[paani]] aur [[dharti]] rahaa, jiske nature me aapan jagha rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Daily 40 no. 2 – Aristotle and the Four Simple Bodies and Elements |website=Cal State LA |url=https://www.calstatela.edu/sites/default/files/dept/chem/09summer/158/daily40-aristotle.pdf |access-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106231001/https://www.calstatela.edu/sites/default/files/dept/chem/09summer/158/daily40-aristotle.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii chaaro ke different density ke kaaran koi ek element apne se aapan jagha pe chal de hae..&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=tbcaldwe |title=Natural Philosophy: Aristotle {{!}} Physics 139 |date=14 October 2012 |url=https://blogs.umass.edu/p139ell/2012/10/14/natural-philosophy-aristotle/ |access-date=17 December 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209043612/https://blogs.umass.edu/p139ell/2012/10/14/natural-philosophy-aristotle/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske matlab hae ki iske wajan ke kaaran, aagi sab se uppar rahii, iske niche hawaa, fir paani aur tab dharti.

===Bhautik vigyan medieval Islamic dunia me===
Islamik vigyanik, [[Islamic Golden Age]] ke time Aristotel ke bhutik vigyan ke adhyan kare rahin. Iske ek khaas yogdaan dekhae waala astronomy rahaa. Kuchh, jaise [[Ibn Sahl]], [[Al-Kindi]], [[Alhazen|Ibn al-Haytham]], [[Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī|Al-Farisi]] aur[[Avicenna]],  [[optics]] aur [[vision]] me kaam kare rahin. ''[[Book of Optics]]'' me Ibn al-Haytham puraana Greek ideas ke reject karis aur nawaa theory propose karis.  Uu ii adhyan karis ki  [[roshni]] kaise [[aankhi]] ke bhittar jaawe hae, aur [[camera obscura]] ke develop karis rahaa. Europe ke vugyanik baad me chasma, magnifying glasses, telescopes, aur camera ke ii book se banae rahin.

===Classical bhutik vigyan===
[[Scientific revolution]] ke baad bhautik vigyan ek alag adhyan ke field hoe gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Dijksterhuis E.J. 1986. ''The mechanization of the world picture: Pythagoras to Newton''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-08403-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Galileo Galilei]] ke ke experiment ke madat se classical bhautik vigyan suruu bhais rahaa. Jab ki uu telescope ke invent nai karis rahaa, uu telescope se raat ke aasmaan ke adyan karis rahaa. Uu Copernicus ke idea ki [[dunia]], [[suraj]] ke parikrama kare hae, ke support karis rahaa. Uu gravity ke baare me bbhi khoj karis rahaa. [[Isaac Newton]], Galileo ke ideas ke kaam me laae ke  [[Newton's laws of motion|three laws of motion]] aur uske [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|law of universal gravitation]] ke banais rahaa. Ii sab niyam ek saathe dunia ke niche ke gire waala body aur dunia aur duusra ke motion ke samjhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Ben-Chaim M. 2004. ''Experimental philosophy and the birth of empirical science: Boyle, Locke and Newton''. Aldershot: Ashgate. {{ISBN|0-7546-4091-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Kuchh century baad, [[Industrial Revolution]] bhais, aur vigyan me aur dher chij paawa gais rahaa. Classical bhutik vigyan ke niyam uu chij jon shire cjale hae aur dher chhota nai hae, ke samjhaawa jaae sake hae. Jab vigyanik [[qantum meuchanics]] ke pahila dafe adhyan kare rahin, tab uu log ke nawaa niyam ke banae ke parraa rahaa, jon aadhmik bhautik vigyan ke suruu rahaa.

=== Aadhmik bhautik vigyan ===
Jab vigyanik chhota-chhota  particles ke adhyan karin tab uu logan paain ki kon chij ke  classical mechanics explain nai kare paawat rahaa. Classical  mechanics ii predict karis rahaa ki [[speed of light]] badle hae, lekin experiments dekhais ki speed of light nai badle hae. Iske  [[Albert Einstein]] ke theory of [[special relativity]] predict karis rahaa. Einstein ii predict karis rahaa ki  [[electromagnetic radiation]] ke speed empty space me nai badle hae. Uske ii  [[space-time]] ke view puraana idea ki space aur time ek duusre se separate hae, ke replace karis. 

[[Max Planck]], [[quantum mechanics]] ke kaam me laae ke ii samjhais ki  [[Photoelectric effect|sab dhaatu (metal)  electrons ke release kare hae jab uspe batti chamkaawa jaawe hae]], aur kaaheke [[Black-body radiation|matter radiation ke emit kare hae]]. Quantum mechanics chhota-chhota chij, jaise  electrons, protons, aur neutrons ke apply kare hae, jisse ek [[atom]] banaa rahe hae. Log, jaise [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]], aur [[Paul Dirac]]  quantum mechanics me kaam karte rahin aur aakhri me   [[Standard Model]] bhais.&lt;ref&gt;Einstein, Albert and Infeld, Leopold 1938. ''The evolution of physics: from early concept to relativity and quanta''. Cambridge University Press. A non-mathematical account.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Feynman R.P; Leighton R.B. &amp; Sands M. 1963. ''The Feynman Lectures on Physics''. 1. {{ISBN|0-201-02116-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Jaana-maana bhautik vigyanik==
{{div col|rules=yes|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Galileo Galilei]] (1564–1642)
*[[Christiaan Huygens]] (1629–1695)
*[[Isaac Newton]] (1643–1727)
*[[Leonhard Euler]] (1707–1783)
*[[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] (1736–1813)
*[[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] (1749–1827)
*[[Joseph Fourier]] (1768–1830)
*[[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]] (1796–1842)
*[[William Rowan Hamilton]] (1805–1865)
*[[Rudolf Clausius]] (1822–1888)
*[[James Clerk Maxwell]] (1831–1879)
*[[J. Willard Gibbs]] (1839–1903)
*[[Ludwig Boltzmann]] (1844–1906)
*[[Hendrik A. Lorentz]] (1853–1928)
*[[Henri Poincaré]] (1854–1912)
*[[Nikola Tesla]] (1856–1943)
*[[Max Planck]] (1858–1947)
*[[Albert Einstein]] (1879–1955)
*[[Milutin Milanković]] (1879–1958)
*[[Emmy Noether]] (1882–1935)
*[[Max Born]] (1882–1970)
*[[Niels Bohr]] (1885–1962)
*[[Erwin Schrödinger]] (1887–1961)
*[[Louis de Broglie]] (1892–1987)
*[[Satyendra Nath Bose]] (1894–1974)
*[[Wolfgang Pauli]] (1900–1958)
*[[Enrico Fermi]] (1901–1954)
*[[Werner Heisenberg]] (1901–1976)
*[[Paul Dirac]] (1902–1984)
*[[Eugene Wigner]] (1902–1995)
*[[Robert Oppenheimer]] (1904–1967)
*[[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]] (1906–1979)
*[[Hideki Yukawa]] (1907–1981)
*[[John Bardeen]] (1908–1991)
*[[Lev Landau]] (1908–1967)
*[[Anatoly Vlasov]] (1908–1975)
*[[Nikolay Bogolyubov]] (1909–1992)
*[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] (1910–1995)
*[[John Archibald Wheeler]] (1911–2008)
*[[Richard Feynman]] (1918–1988)
*[[Julian Schwinger]] (1918–1994)
*[[Feza Gürsey]] (1921–1992)
*[[Chen Ning Yang]] (1922– )
*[[Freeman Dyson]] (1923–2020 )
*[[Gunnar Källén]] (1926–1968)
*[[Abdus Salam]] (1926–1996)
*[[Murray Gell-Mann]] (1929– )
*[[Riazuddin (physicist)|Riazuddin]] (1930– )
*[[Roger Penrose]] (1931– )
*[[George Sudarshan]] (1931– )
*[[Sheldon Glashow]] (1932– )
*[[Tom W. B. Kibble]] (1932– )
*[[Steven Weinberg]] (1933– )
*[[Gerald Guralnik]] (1936–)
*[[Sidney Coleman]] (1937–2007)
*[[C. R. Hagen]] (1937–)
*[[Ratko Janev]] (1939– )
*[[Leonard Susskind]] (1940– )
*[[Michael Berry (physicist)|Michael Berry]] (1941– )
*[[Bertrand Halperin]] (1941–)
*[[Stephen Hawking]] (1942–2018 )
*[[Alexander Markovich Polyakov|Alexander Polyakov]] (1945–)
*[[Gerardus 't Hooft]] (1946– )
*[[Jacob Bekenstein]] (1947–)
*[[Robert Laughlin]] (1950–)
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Duusra websites ==
{{commonscat}}
* [http://physics.webplasma.com/physicstoc.html Physics For Beginners] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224215352/http://physics.webplasma.com/physicstoc.html |date=2010-12-24 }}
* [http://www.physicisttv.com/ PhysicistTv] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115132645/http://www.physicisttv.com/ |date=2010-11-15 }}.

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      <text bytes="3773" sha1="outqkzol422zkdou5qnqpu9ea2hlw6z" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox religion
| name               = Sikhism
| image              = Hamandir Sahib (Golden Temple).jpg
| imagewidth         = 250px
| caption            = [[Golden Temple]] in [[Amritsar]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], India. The [[Holy site|holiest site]] of Sikhism.
| main_classification = [[Indian religion|Indian]]
| scripture          = {{plainlist|
* [[Guru Granth Sahib]]
* [[Dasam Granth]]
* [[Sarbloh Granth]]
}}
| theology           = {{plainlist|
* [[Monotheism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Nesbitt |first1=Eleanor |title=Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/sikhismveryshort0000nesb_d7x4 |date=2016 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=9780191062773}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Panentheism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Takhar |first1=Opinderjit Kaur |title=Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs |url=https://archive.org/details/sikhidentityexpl0000takh |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781351900102 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Pashaura |last2=Mandair |first2=Arvind-Pal Singh |title=The Sikh world |date=2023 |publisher=Routledge |location=London New York |isbn=9780429848384 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
| governance         = [[Panj Takht]]
| language           = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sant Bhasha]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Mann |first1=Gurinder Singh |title=The Making of Sikh scripture |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_KS-004-512 |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780195130249 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_KS-004-512/page/5 5]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Khalsa bole]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |publisher=OUP Oxford |others=Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech |year=2014 |isbn=9780191004117 |series=Oxford Handbooks |pages=380}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| founder            = [[Guru Nanak]]
| founded_date       = 15th&amp;ndash;16th century [[Common Era|CE]]
| founded_place      = [[Punjab|Punjab region]], Indian subcontinent
| headquarters       = [[Akal Takht]], Amritsar, Punjab, India
| separations        = [[Ravidassia]]
| number_of_followers = 25&amp;ndash;30 million (referred to individually as &quot;[[Sikhs]]&quot; or collectively as the &quot;Sikh Panth&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://pluralism.org/sikhism-0#:~:text=Sikhs%20call%20their%20tradition%20the,Guru%20Gobind%20Singh%20in%201708. | title=Sikhism | access-date=30 April 2023 | archive-date=30 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430193915/https://pluralism.org/sikhism-0#:~:text=Sikhs%20call%20their%20tradition%20the,Guru%20Gobind%20Singh%20in%201708. | url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area               = Predominant religion in [[Punjab, India]] (58%), and [[Sikhism by country|widespread worldwide]] as minorities ([[Sikh diaspora]])
}}
[[File:Khanda.svg|thumb|180px|The Khanda is one of most important symbols of Sikhism it is made up three different weapons, which also have a symbolic meaning.]]
'''Sikhism''' ek [[dharam]] hae jiske maane waala log ke &quot;Sikh&quot; aur uu logan ke pavitra pustak ke [[Guru Granth Sahib]] bola jaae hae. Lagbhag 20 million log Sikh dharam ke maane hae, jiske matlab ii hae ki ii dunia ke 5th sab se barraa dharam hae.

== Duusra websites ==
{{commonscat|Sikhism}}

* [http://www.sikhs.org/topics.htm Sikhs.org]
* [http://www.gurmat.info/sms/smssikhism/ Sikh Missionary Society (UK)] — Non-profit organization dedicated to promoting the Sikh religion, culture and history
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/sikhism.htm Religious Tolerance]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/sikhism/ BBC]
* [http://www.sikhnet.com/ Siknet]
* [http://www.sikhiwiki.org/index.php?title=Main_Page Sikh Wiki] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060706175101/http://www.sikhiwiki.org/index.php?title=Main_Page |date=2006-07-06 }}

[[Category:S]]
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    <title>Vigyan</title>
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      <text bytes="11262" sha1="9vq8qpyszx13tu2hox2tze7mb34ghsn" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The Scientific Universe.png|thumb|350px|Brahmaand (universe) ke scale, jiske vigyan ke shaakhaa (branches) se map karaa gais hae]]

'''Vigyan (Science)''' uu chij hae jon hamlog kartaa hae prakritik (natural) [[dunia]] ke baare me jaane ke khaatir.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford companion to the history of modern science|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_s7n3|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-511229-0|editor-last=Heilbron|editor-first=J. L.|location=Oxford ; New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;wilson&quot; /&gt; Dher rakam ke vigyan hae. Prakritik vigyan (Natural sciences) prakriti aur bhautik (physical) dunia ke adhyan kare hae. Isme hae [[rasayan vigyan]] (chemistry), [[jiu vigyan]] (biology), [[geology]], [[taara vigyan]] (astronomy), aur [[bhautik vigyan]] (physics). Samaajik vigyan (Social sciences) log aur samaj kaise chale hae, ke adhyan kare hae.   Isme hae, [[manovigyan]] (psychology), [[samaj vigyan]] (sociology], aur [[arthsaatr]] (economics). Applied vigyan, vigyan se sikha gias chij ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke hal kare hae (solve problems). Isme hae, [[engineering]] aur [[doctori]] (medicine). Vigyan [[mathematics]], [[computer science]] aur [[logic]] ke kaam me laawe hae, jiske kabhi-kabhi &quot;formal sciences&quot; bola jaawe hae. Vigyan nigrani rakkhe hae (makes observations) aur parikchhan (experiments) kare hae. Vigyan, thiik sachchaai (accurate facts) , vigyanik niyam, aur theories ke banae hae.&lt;ref name=wilson&gt;Wilson, Edward O. 1998. Consilience: the unity of knowledge. New York: Vintage Books, 49–71. {{ISBN|0-679-45077-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Heilbron J.L. 2003. ''The Oxford companion to the history of modern science''. New York: Oxford University Press, vii. {{ISBN|0-19-511229-6}}. &lt;br/&gt;&quot;...&amp;nbsp;modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by [[mathematics]]; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; 'Science' dher gyan jiske ii process me paawa gais hae ke bhi bolaa jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/science |quote= knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method... |publisher=Merriam-Webster |title=Online dictionary |accessdate=2009-05-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Popper&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl |authorlink=Karl Popper |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_859 |orig-date=1959 |edition=2nd English |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge Classics |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-415-27844-9 |oclc=59377149 |page=[https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_859/page/n147 3]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jaanch partaal (Research), vigyanik tarika (scientific method) ke kaam me laawe hae. Vigyanik praikchhan, anumaan (hypotheses) ke kaam me laawe hae, jon pahile ke gyan aur bichaar pe based hae, jiske dher topic me baata jaawe sake hae. Tab ii bichaar ke parikchhan se jaanch karaa jaawe hae.  Jon log vigyan ke adhyan aur jaanch kare hae ke vigyanik bola jaawe hae. Vigyanik chij ke adhyan kare hae iske achchhaa se dekh ke, naap ke aur parikchhan kar ke. Vigyanik kosis kare hae ii sanjhaawe ke ki chij kaahe ek rakam chale hae aur predict kare hae ki aage kon chij hoi. 

Vigyan ke [[itihaas]] hajaaro saal puraana hae. Aadhmik vigyan ke suruwaat  [[ancient Egypt|puraana Egypt]] aur [[Mesopotamia]] (lagbhag 3000–1200 BCE) me paawa jaawe hae. Uu log [[Mathematics|maths]], [[taara vigyan]], aur [[doctori]] ke bichaar ke suruu kare rahin. Uu log ke asar  [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] pe parraa rahaa, jon dunia me kon chij hoe hae ke samjhaawe ke kosis kare rahin natural causes ke kaam me laae ke. Baad me [[Golden Age of India|India’s Golden Age]] me, aur pragati bhais rahaa. Jisme  Hindu–Arabic number system ke banaana, bhi hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=India: a history|url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay|last=Keay|first=John|date=2000|publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press|isbn=978-0-87113-800-2|edition=1st|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=A history of natural philosophy: from the ancient world to the nineteenth century|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran|last=Grant|first=Edward|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-68957-1|location=Cambridge New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The beginnings of western science: the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450|url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5|last=Lindberg|first=David C.|date=2007|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-48205-7|edition=2nd|location=Chicago, Ill.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jab [[Western Roman Empire]] khalaas hoe gais [[Early Middle Ages]] (400–1000 CE) me, tab [[Europe]] me vigyanik prgriti kamti hoe gais. Lekin kuch-kuch jamaana me pragati fir se bhais. Islamik dunia me gyaani log Greece ke science ke adhyan kar ke iske [[Islamic Golden Age]] me aur achchhaa kar diin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The beginnings of western science: the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450|url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5|last=Lindberg|first=David C.|date=2007|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-48205-7|edition=2nd|location=Chicago, Ill.}}&lt;/ref&gt; baad me, jaise [[Byzantine Empire]] kamjor parraa, hian ke gyaani log  Greek books ke Western Europe laegain, jisse [[Renaissance]] suruu bhaisrahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=A history of natural philosophy: from the ancient world to the nineteenth century|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran|last=Grant|first=Edward|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-68957-1|location=Cambridge New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;

10th se 13th century talak, Europe, Greek aur Islamic vigyan ke fir se sikhis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Isse 16th century me [[scientific revolution]] suruu bhais. Science began to change a lot. New discoveries removed old ideas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The beginnings of western science: the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450|url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5|last=Lindberg|first=David C.|date=2007|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-48205-7|edition=2nd|location=Chicago, Ill.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The scientific revolution: a very short introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin|last=Principe|first=Lawrence|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-956741-6|edition=1st|series=Very short introductions|location=Oxford}}&lt;/ref&gt; Vigyanik tarika aur  important bhais.  19th century talak, vigyan aur professional aur organized bhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=From natural philosophy to the sciences: writing the history of nineteenth-century science|url=https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse|date=2003|publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-08928-7|editor-last=Cahan|editor-first=David|location=Chicago, Ill. London}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske  “natural philosophy”, bole ke jagha “natural science” bola jaawe lagaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The territories of science and religion|last=Harrison|first=Peter|date=2015|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-18451-7|location=Chicago London}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Itihaas==
===Prehistoric science===
[[File:Stonehenge2007 07 30.jpg|thumb|[[Stonehenge]] was a [[megalith]] built by prehistoric humans]]
Prehistoric science me [[Palaeolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], aur [[Neolithic|Neolithic age]]s hae, jon lagbhag  2.5 million saal talak rahaa, 3000 BCE talak. Jab ki ii jamaana ke kosis  &quot;vigyan&quot; nai rahaa jaise aaj-kal hamlog jantaa hae, uulog achchhaa se observation, experiments, karat rahin aur ii time   organized thinking suruu bhais rahaa. Ek sab se pahila aur khaas, uu time ke vigyan rahaa, patthar ke aujaar ke banaana. Ii  [[Homo habilis]] se suruu bhais rahaa aur baad ke sanskriti me chalte rahaa, jaise   [[Acheulean]], [[Mousterian]], aur [[Upper Paleolithic]] log. Log ii time aujaar jaise tangaari, scraper, chhed banae waala aur spear tip banaawat rahin. Iske kare ke khaatir uulog ke ii samjhe ke parrat rahaa ke patthar ke kaise tuura jaawe hae, kon rakam ke paththarr sab se achchhaa rahe hae aur iske kaise thiik force se maara jaawe sake hae.  [[Archeology|Archaeologists]] (scientists who study ancient human history) ii sabuut paain hae ki ii puraana insaan [[trial and error]] se sikhe rahin, aur ii jaankari ke duusre se share kare rahin. Jaise time pass bhais, ii log aapan aujar ke aur achchhaa kar ke iske aur tagrraa banae rahin.  Ii rakam ke  hands-on sikhna aur ii jaan kari ke duusre ke dena, vigyan ke kaam me laaae ke problem ke solve kare ke namuuna hae, khaas kar ke materials ke samajhna aur iske kaise kaam me laana, jiske aaj-kal  [[materials science]] bola jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Tine|first=Shalon van|date=2017|title=Prehistory|url=https://press.rebus.community/historyoftech/front-matter/prehistory/|journal=Rebus|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Puraana jamaana ke insaan ke lage  [[taara vigyan]] ke kuchh jaankaari rahaa, aasmaan ke adhyan.  Iske archaeological discoveries me dekha jaawe hae, jaise  [[Blanchard bone]] (lagbhag 30,000 BCE) aur [[Lascaux|Lascaux Cave paintings]] (lagbhag 17,000 BCE). Ii chij aur chhaapa dekhae hae ki puraana insaan chandarma ke phases ke dekhat rahin aur taara ke jhund ke recognise karat rahin, jaise [[Pleiades|Pleiades constellation]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Ishango and Blanchard Bones - PlanetQuest|url=https://www.planetquest.org/learn/ishango.html|access-date=2025-07-17|website=www.planetquest.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Cottier|first=Cody|date=2023-01-17|title=Ancient humans and their early depictions of the universe|url=https://www.astronomy.com/science/ancient-humans-and-their-early-depictions-of-the-universe/|access-date=2025-07-17|website=Astronomy Magazine|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ek sab se puraana aasmaan dekhe waala structure  [[Nabta Playa]] hae, patthar ke circle[[Egypt|southern Egypt]] me, jiske lagbhag 6000 BCE me banaawa gais rahaa. Ii ek sab se puraana namuuna hae jisme log barraa-barra patthar ke   [[Summer solstice|summer solstice sunrise]] se line kare hae, saal ke sab se lambaa din.  Isse mausam ke barsaat pe bhi nigraani rakkhaa jaawat rahaa , jon huura jagha me rahe ke khaatir jaruri hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Handbook of archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy|date=2014|publisher=Springer Reference|isbn=978-1-4614-6140-1|editor-last=Ruggles|editor-first=C. L. N.|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii viyan aur taara vigyan ke taraf ek khaas kadam rahaa. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Astronomy Lecture Notes - Early History|url=http://www.phy.olemiss.edu/~luca/astr/Topics-Introduction/Ancient-N.html|access-date=2025-07-17|website=www.phy.olemiss.edu}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[vibhag:V]]
[[Category:1000 khaas Fiji Hindi sabd]]
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      <text bytes="6526" sha1="f1upt5nr7hmnu2lywgj3l2czs7sfzjc" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Hubble_ultra_deep_field.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Hubble telescope se utaara gais sansaar ke ek chhotaa hissa]]
'''Sansaar''' me uu sab chij hae jon ki hae. Isme sab rakam ke physical chij aur energy, [[grah]], [[tara]], [[Galaxy|galaxies]] aur [[space]] ke sab chij hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeilik1998&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Introductory Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductoryastr0000zeil |last1=Zeilik |first1=Michael |last2=Gregory |first2=Stephen A. |date=1998 |edition=4th |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |quote=The totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be. |isbn=978-0-03-006228-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; 20th century ke suruu se vigyanik ii pataa lagaain ki space aur samay ek saathe [[Big Bang]] se 13.383 billion saal pahile suruu bhais rahaa&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Planck Collaboration|last2=Aghanim|first2=N.|author2-link=Nabila Aghanim|last3=Akrami|first3=Y.|last4=Ashdown|first4=M.|last5=Aumont|first5=J.|last6=Baccigalupi|first6=C.|last7=Ballardini|first7=M.|last8=Banday|first8=A. J.|last9=Barreiro|first9=R. B.|last10=Bartolo|first10=N.|last11=Basak|first11=S.|date=September 2020|title=Planck 2018 results: VI. Cosmological parameters|url=https://www.aanda.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201833910|journal=Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics|volume=641|pages=A6|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201833910|arxiv=1807.06209|bibcode=2020A&amp;A...641A...6P|s2cid=119335614|issn=0004-6361}}&lt;/ref&gt;, aur iske baad sansaar barrhe lagaa. Abhi sansaar, umar aur size me etnaa barraa hoe gais hae ki &quot;observable universe&quot; ke abhi 93 billion light saal ke diameter hae aur puura sansaar ke size nai jaana jaae sake hae aur saait infinite hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brian Greene 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Brian |last=Greene |author-link=Brian Greene |title=The Hidden Reality |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |date=2011|title-link=The Hidden Reality }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sab se puraana, sansaar ke medel ke [[Greece|Greek]] aur [[India|Indian]] philosophers log develop kare rahin, aur ii duuno &quot;geocentric&quot; rahaa, jiske matlab hae ki [[dunia]], sansaar ke biich me rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=From China to Paris: 2000 Years Transmission of Mathematical Ideas |first=Yvonne |last=Dold-Samplonius |author-link=Yvonne Dold-Samplonius|date=2002 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Routledge&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Medieval Science Technology and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalsciencet0000unse |first1=Thomas F. |last1=Glick |first 2=Steven |last2=Livesey |first3=Faith |last3=Wallis |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-96930-7 |oclc=61228669}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuchh sau saal baad [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] ek duusra model banais jisme [[suraj]] ke [[solar system]] ke biich me rakkha gais rahaa. Iske baad [[Isaac Newton]] aur [[Johannes Kepler]], Copernicus ke model ke aur refine karin.

Kuchh aur astronomers ke kaam ke baad ii realise karaa gais ki Suraj [[Milky Way]] me kuch hundred billion [[Tara]] me se ek hae aur Milky Way kuchh 100 billion galaxy me se ek hae. Ajj-kal ii bhi samjhaa jaae hae ki sansaar ke koi centre aur edge nai hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RLwangEACAAJ|title=An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics|last1=Carroll|first1=Bradley W.|last2=Ostlie|first2=Dale A.|date=2013|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-1-292-02293-2|edition=International|pages=1173–1174|language=en|access-date=May 16, 2018|archive-date=December 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228141015/https://books.google.com/books?id=RLwangEACAAJ|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; 29th century ke discoveries se ii samjhaa jaae hae ki sansaar ke ek suruwaat rahaa aur tab se ii barrhtee jaae hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hawking&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Hawking, Stephen|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofti00step_1|title=A Brief History of Time|date=1988|publisher=Bantam Books|isbn=978-0-553-05340-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofti00step_1/page/43 43]|author-link=Stephen Hawking|url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Big Bang theory ke anusaar, jon energy aur matter suruu me rahaa, kamtii dense hoe gais hae jaise sansaar expand bhais hae. Jaise sansaar barraa bhais . waise ii aur thandaa hoe gais aur subatomic particle aur [[atom]]s banaa. [[Hydrogen]] aur [[helium]] ke baadal (cloud) huan pe khiicha gais jahaan pe density jaada rahaa aur pahila galaxy ayr taara banaa. [[Gravity]] ke matter aur light pe effect ke adhyan ke baad ii paawa gais hae ki sansaar me me jetna taara, nebula, aur gas hae, se jaada matter hae. Jon matter ke dekhaa jaae nai sake hae ke [[dark matter]] bolaa jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Redd|first1=Nola|title=What is Dark Matter?|url=https://www.space.com/20930-dark-matter.html|website=Space.com|access-date=February 1, 2018|archive-date=February 1, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201075430/https://www.space.com/20930-dark-matter.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ek jaana maana model, [[Lambda-CDM model]] ke anusaar dark matter sansaar ke 25.8% mass aur energy hae aur dark energy 69.2% hae, jiske kaaran sansaar barraa hoe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;planck_2015&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2016/10/aa27101-15/T9.html |title=Planck 2015 results, table 9 |access-date=May 16, 2018 |archive-date=July 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727024529/https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2016/10/aa27101-15/T9.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske matlab ii hae ki sadhaaran matter universe ke khaali 4.84% hae. Taara, planet, dekhaae waala gas cloud matter ke khaali 6% hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal| last1=Persic| first1=Massimo| last2=Salucci| first2=Paolo| date=September 1, 1992| title=The baryon content of the Universe| journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society| volume=258| issue=1| pages=14P–18P| doi=10.1093/mnras/258.1.14P| doi-access=free| issn=0035-8711| arxiv=astro-ph/0502178 |bibcode=1992MNRAS.258P..14P |s2cid=17945298}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dher theory hae ii chij ke baare me kiBig Bang se pahile kon chij bhais rahaa. Kuchh bhautik vigyanik ii bole hae ki ek se jaada sansaar hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=August 3, 2011|title='Multiverse' theory suggested by microwave background|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-14372387|access-date=February 14, 2023|archive-date=February 14, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214233557/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-14372387|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[vibhag:S]]
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|nativename=''Italiano  or idioma Italiano''
|pronunciation={{IPA-it|itaˈljano|}}
|states={{Flag|Italy}} &lt;br /&gt;{{Flag|Switzerland}} &lt;br /&gt;{{Flag|San Marino}} &lt;br /&gt;{{Flag|Vatican City}} &lt;br /&gt;{{Flag|Malta}}  &lt;br /&gt;{{Flag|Eritrea}} &lt;br /&gt; {{Flag|Somalia}} &lt;br /&gt; {{Flag|Libya}} &lt;br /&gt;   Regional in {{Flag|Slovenia}} and {{Flag|Croatia}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Flag|Monaco}}
|region=
|speakers= 65 million or 80 million in the European Union;&lt;ref name=&quot;europa2006&quot;&gt;[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_sum_en.pdf Eurobarometer – Europeans and their languages], February 2006&lt;/ref&gt; more than 75 million as second language 
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]]
|fam4=[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
|fam5=Italo-Dalmatian
|script=[[Latin alphabet]] ([[Italian alphabet|Italian variant]])
|nation={{EU}}&lt;br /&gt;{{ITA}}&lt;br /&gt;{{SUI}}&lt;br /&gt;{{SMR}}&lt;br /&gt;{{VAT}}&lt;br /&gt;{{MLT}}&lt;br /&gt;{{CRO}} ([[Istria County]])&lt;br /&gt;{{SLO}} ([[Slovenian Istria]]) |agency=not officially by [[Accademia della Crusca]]
|iso1=it|iso2=ita|iso3=ita|lingua=51-AAA-q
|map=
|notice=IPA
}}


'''Italian bhasa''' ek [[Romance bhasa]] hae.&lt;ref&gt;[[#berloco2018|Berloco 2018]]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#simone2010|Simone 2010]]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Italian bhasa me ginti ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Number Italian bhasa me!!Number Fiji Hindi me
|-
| uno 	 ||ek
|-
|due||dui
|-
|tre ||tiin
|-
|quattro ||chaar
|-
|cinque||paanch
|-
|sei ||chhe
|-
|sette ||saat
|-
|otto  ||aath
|-
|nove||nau
|-
|dieci  ||das
|}&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.zompist.com/million.htm Numbers in Million-Speaker Languages]&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hafta ke din ===

&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=330 caption=&quot;&quot;&gt;
Lengua italiana.png|Italian bhasa ke kaam me laae waala des
Corsivo- come scriverlo a mano in italiano, schede didattiche con alcuni esempi di Paolo Villa (prima edizione commons wikimedia org)-Letters-characters in italics-cursive- how to write it by hand in Italian.pdf|Volavola ni liga ena koronivuli ni Itali

&lt;/gallery&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Fiji Hindi || Italian || IPA
|-
||Sombaar||''lunedì''||{{IPA|/luneˈdi/}}
|-
||Mangar||''martedì''||{{IPA|/marteˈdi/}}
|-
||Budh||''mercoledì''||{{IPA|/merkoleˈdi/}}
|-
||Bif||''giovedì''||{{IPA|/dʒoveˈdi/}}
|-
||Suk||''venerdì''||{{IPA|/venerˈdi/}}
|-
||Sanichar||''sabato''||{{IPA|/ˈsabato/}}
|-
||Etwaar||''domenica''||{{IPA|/doˈmenika/}}
|}

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;
* {{cite book|last=Simone |first=Raffaele |year=2010 |title=Enciclopedia dell'italiano |publisher=Treccani |ISBN= |ref=simone2010}}
* {{cite book|last=Berloco |first=Fabrizio |year=2018 |title=The Big Book of Italian Verbs: 900 Fully Conjugated Verbs in All Tenses. With IPA Transcription, 2nd Edition |publisher=Lengu |ISBN=9788894034813 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYynDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |ref=berloco2018}}
* {{cite book|last=Palermo |first=Massimo |year=2015 |title=Linguistica italiana |url=https://archive.org/details/linguisticaitali0000pale |publisher=Il Mulino |ISBN=9788815258847 |ref=palermo2015}}

[[vibhag:Romance bhasa]]
[[vibhag:Italy ke bhasa]]
[[vibhag:Switzerland ke bhasa]]
[[vibhag:San Marino ke bhasa]]
[[vibhag:Vatican City ke bhasa]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lombard bhasa</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="4063" sha1="1bdxnxdz8divz2ddsfmx0hv2vhq76sc" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox language
| name             = Lombard
| nativename       = {{lang|lmo|lombard}}, {{lang|lmo|lumbard}}, {{lang|lmo|lumbart}}, {{lang|lmo|lombart}}
| states           = {{plainlist|
*[[Italy]]
*[[Switzerland]]
}}
| region           = Italy&lt;ref name=JMI&gt;{{cite book |title=One Europe, many nations: a historical dictionary of European national groups |url=https://archive.org/details/oneeuropemanynat0000mina |first=James |last=Minahan |year=2000 |place=Westport}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=CMO&gt;{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages |first=Christopher |last=Moseley |year=2007 |place=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=AFI&gt;{{cite book |title=Minority language planning and micronationalism in Italy |first=Paolo |last=Coluzzi |year=2007 |place=Berne}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*[[Lombardy]]
*[[Piedmont]]
*[[South Tyrol]]
*[[Trentino]]
Switzerland&lt;ref name=JMI/&gt;&lt;ref name=CMO/&gt;&lt;ref name=AFI/&gt;
*[[Grisons]]
*[[Ticino]]
Brazil&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;Spoken in [[Botuverá]], in [[Brazil]], municipality established by Italian migrants coming from the valley between [[Treviglio]] and [[Crema, Lombardy|Crema]]. A thesis of [[Leiden University]] about ''Brasilian Bergamasque'': [https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/52581/Thesis.pdf?sequence=1].&lt;/ref&gt;
*[[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]
| speakers         = 3.8 million
| date             = 
| ref              = e18
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3             = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]
| fam4             = [[Latin]]
| fam5             = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
| fam6             = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
| fam7             = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]]
| fam8             = Gallo-Iberian
| fam9             = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]
| fam10            = [[Gallo-Italic languages|Gallo-Italic]]
| fam11            = Lombard–[[Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]]?&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/piem1239 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - Piemontese-Lombard |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029130658/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/piem1239 |archive-date=2023-10-29 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |author-link=Harald Hammarström |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |publication-place=[[Leipzig]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7398962 |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |author-link3=Martin Haspelmath |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| dia1             = [[Western Lombard dialect|Western Lombard]]
| dia2             = [[Eastern Lombard dialect|Eastern Lombard]]
| iso3             = lmo
| glotto           = lomb1257
| glottorefname    = Lombard
| lingua           = 51-AAA-oc &amp; 51-AAA-od
| notice           = IPA
| map              = File:Lombard_Language_distribution.png
| mapcaption       = '''Lombard language distribution in Europe:'''
{{legend|#01987c|Areas where Lombard is spoken}}
{{legend|#01f0c4|Areas where Lombard is spoken alongside other languages ([[Alemannic German|Alemannic]], [[Ladin language|Ladin]] and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]) and areas of linguistic transition (with [[Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]], with [[Emilian language|Emilian]] and with [[Venetian language|Venetian]])}}
{{legend|#a6feee|Areas of influence of Lombard ([[Trento|Tridentine]] dialect)}}
'''?''' Areas of uncertain diffusion of Ladin
| script           = Latin
| ancestor         = [[Old Latin]]
| ancestor2        = [[Vulgar Latin]]
| ancestor3        = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]]
| ancestor4        = [[Old Gallo-Italic language|Old Gallo-Italic]]
| ancestor5        = [[Old Lombard]]
}}
'''Lombard bhasa''' ek [[Indo-European bhasa]] hae jisme [[Italy]] aur [[Switzerland]] ke 3.8 million log baat kare hae.

[[vibhag:L]]
[[vibhag:Italy ke bhasa]]
[[vibhag:Switzerland ke bhasa]]
[[vibhag:Indo-European bhasa]]

{{Bhasa-stub}}</text>
      <sha1>1bdxnxdz8divz2ddsfmx0hv2vhq76sc</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Batak (Indonesia)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="3078" sha1="pyiv1udzap5qptghswaybryhvu5hwht" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox language family
| name          = Batak
| altname       = Batakic&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Wälchli |first=Bernhard |date=2023-04-20 |title=The interplay of contrast markers ('but'), selectives (&quot;topic markers&quot;) and word order in the fuzzy oppositive contrast domain |journal=Linguistic Typology |volume=28 |pages=53–99 |language=en |doi=10.1515/lingty-2022-0019 |issn=1613-415X|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Adelaar |first=Alexander K. |title=Endangered languages of Austronesia |url=https://archive.org/details/endangeredlangua0000unse |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-954454-7 |editor-last=Florey |editor-first=Margaret |location=Oxford |pages=[https://archive.org/details/endangeredlangua0000unse/page/24 24] |chapter=Language documentation in the west Austronesian world and Vanuatu: An overview}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|image :Batak Warriors 60011135 edit.jpg
| speakers      = {{sigfig|3.318360|2}} million (2010 census)
| ref           = &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
| publisher       = Badan Pusat Statistik
| title       = Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia – Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010
| year       = 2011
| isbn       = 9789790644175
| url       = http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html
}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html |date=2017-07-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region        = [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]]
| ethnicity     = [[Batak people|Batak]]
| familycolor   = Austronesian
| fam2          = [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
| fam3          = [[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]]
| protoname     = Proto-Batak
| child1        = Northern Batak
| child2        = Southern Batak
| iso2          = btk
| iso5          = btk
| glotto        = toba1265
| glottorefname = Batakic
| map           = Batak languages.png
| mapcaption    = The distribution of Batak languages in northern Sumatra
{{maplink
|frame-width=300|frame-height=270
|frame-align=center
|frame=yes
|plain=yes
|zoom=7

|type5=point
|id5=Q2891042
|title5=[[Alas-Kluet language]]
|marker-color5=#e41a1c

|type2=point
|id2=Q33012
|title2=[[Batak Karo language]]
|marker-color2=#ff7f00

|type3=point
|id3=Q2891045
|title3=[[Batak Pakpak language]]
|marker-color3=#ffff33

|type4=point
|id4=Q2891054
|title4=[[Batak Simalungun language]]
|marker-color4=#4daf4a

|type=point
|id=Q33017
|title=[[Batak Toba language]]
|marker-color=#377eb8

|type6=point
|id6=Q2640686
|title6=[[Batak Angkola language]]
|marker-color6=#984ea3

|type7=point
|id7=Q2891049
|title7=[[Batak Mandailing language]]
|marker-color7=#a65628
}}
Interactive map of Batak languages
| glottoname    = Batakic
}}
'''Batak (Indonesia)''' ek [[Austronesian bhasa]] hai jisme [[Indonesia]] aur [[Malaysia]] ke 8.5 million log baat kare hai.

[[vibhag:B]]
[[vibhag:Indonesia ke bhasa]]
[[vibhag:Malaysia ke bhasa]]
[[vibhag:Austronesian bhasa]]

{{Bhasa-stub}}</text>
      <sha1>pyiv1udzap5qptghswaybryhvu5hwht</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Phulwaria</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>12349</id>
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      <id>337700</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>A09</username>
        <id>27024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Special:Contributions/Falwaria|Falwaria]] ([[User talk:Falwaria|Talk]]) ke badlao ke [[User:Bill william compton|Bill william compton]] ke aakhri badlao ke jaise kar dewa gais hai.</comment>
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      <text bytes="350" sha1="52ngz04gz7t1gttgn5l5x6a5ujres8n" xml:space="preserve">[[file:BiharDistricts.svg|thumb|200px|right|[[Bihar]] ke districts]] '''Phulwaria''' [[India]] ke state [[Bihar]] ke [[Gaya]] division ke [[Aurangabad, Bihar|Aurangabad]] district ka ek gaon hae.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[vibhag:Gaon]]
[[vibhag:India ke Gaon]]
[[vibhag:Bihar ke Gaon]]
[[vibhag:Aurangabad (Bihar) ke Gaon]]


{{Jagha stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Classical mechanics</title>
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      <comment>Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="4256" sha1="6zqcc4dk95gzrssxid36sz2qfmbjzmx" xml:space="preserve">[[Physics]], me '''classical mechanics''' me se [[mechanics]] ke dui hissa mwe se ek hae. Ii [[physical law]]s  join ki motion of [[physical body|bodies]] under the action of a system of forces ke baare me hae. Ii study bahut purana hae jiske kaaran  classical mechanics [[science]], [[engineering]] aur [[technology]] ke sab se purana topic hae. 

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Aur parrhe ke khatir==
* {{Cite book| author=Feynman, Richard | title=Six Easy Pieces | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-201-40825-2}}
* {{Cite book| author=Feynman, Richard; Phillips, Richard | title=Six Easy Pieces | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-201-32841-0}}
* {{Cite book| author=Feynman, Richard | title=Lectures on Physics | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-7382-0092-1}}
* {{Cite book| author=Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. | title=Mechanics  Course of Theoretical Physics , Vol. 1 | publisher=Franklin Book Company | year=1972 | id=ISBN 0-08-016739-X}}
* {{Cite book|last=Eisberg|first=Robert Martin|title=Fundamentals of Modern Physics|url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofmo0000eisb|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=1961}}
* {{Cite book|coauthors=M. Alonso &amp; J. Finn|title=Fundamental university physics|year=1980|url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalunive0000alon_w6x8|publisher=Addison-Wesley}}
* {{Cite book|coauthors=[[Gerald Jay Sussman]] &amp; [[Jack Wisdom]]|title=[[Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics]]|publisher=MIT Press|year=2001|isbn=0-262-19455-4}}
* {{Cite book|coauthors=D. Kleppner &amp; R. J. Kolenkow|title=An Introduction to Mechanics|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontome00dani|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1973|isbn=0-07-035048-5}}
* {{Cite book|coauthors=[[Herbert Goldstein]], Charles P. Poole, John L. Safko|title=Classical Mechanics|url=https://archive.org/details/classicalmechani0000herb|publisher=Addison Wesley|year=2002|edition=3rd|isbn=0-201-65702-3}}
* {{Cite book| author=Thornton, Stephen T.; Marion, Jerry B. | title=Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (5th ed.) | publisher=Brooks Cole | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-534-40896-6}}

==Bahaari jorr==
{{Commons category|Classical mechanics}}
* Crowell, Benjamin. [http://www.lightandmatter.com/area1book1.html Newtonian Physics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425194924/http://lightandmatter.com/area1book1.html |date=2011-04-25 }} (an introductory text, uses algebra with optional sections involving calculus)
* Fitzpatrick, Richard. [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/301/301.html Classical Mechanics] (uses calculus)
* Hoiland, Paul (2004). [http://doc.cern.ch//archive/electronic/other/ext/ext-2004-126.pdf Preferred Frames of Reference &amp; Relativity]
* Horbatsch, Marko, &quot;''[http://www.yorku.ca/marko/PHYS2010/index.htm Classical Mechanics Course Notes]''&quot;.
* Rosu, Haret C., &quot;''[http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9909035 Classical Mechanics]''&quot;. Physics Education. 1999. [arxiv.org : physics/9909035]
* Schiller, Christoph. [http://www.motionmountain.net Motion Mountain] (an introductory text, uses some calculus)
* Shapiro, Joel A. (2003). [http://www.physics.rutgers.edu/ugrad/494/bookr03D.pdf Classical Mechanics]
* Sussman, Gerald Jay &amp; Wisdom, Jack &amp;  Mayer,Meinhard E. (2001). [http://mitpress.mit.edu/SICM/ Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920024409/http://mitpress.mit.edu/SICM/ |date=2012-09-20 }}
* Tong, David. [http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/tong/dynamics.html Classical Dynamics] (Cambridge lecture notes on Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism)
* [http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/index.php Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL)]&lt;br /&gt; Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at [[Cornell University]]. Also includes an [http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/e-books.php e-book library] of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-01sc-physics-i-classical-mechanics-fall-2010/ MIT OpenCourseWare 8.01: Classical Mechanics] Free videos of actual course lectures with links to lecture notes, assignments and exams.


{{DEFAULTSORT:Classical Mechanics}}
[[Category:Classical mechanics| ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Radioactive decay</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="10614" sha1="t3vdugjelfl956ga1rq5tkilgdp6rw6" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Alpha Decay.svg|thumb|[[Alpha decay]] ek nucleus se [[alpha particle]] jisme dui neutron aur dui proton rahe hae; jiske [[helium|helium-4]] nucleus bhi bola jaawe hae, ke bige hae.|300x300px]]
'''Radioactive decay''' (jiske '''nuclear decay''', '''radioactivity''', '''radioactive disintegration''', nai to '''nuclear disintegration''' ke naam se bhi jaana jaawe hae), uu process hae jisse ek unstable [[atomic nucleus]],  [[radiation]] se [[shakti]] kamti kare hae. Ek chij jiske  unstable nucleus hae ke   ''radioactive'' maana jaawe hae. Sab se jaana maana rakam ke  decay hae [[Alpha decay|alpha]], [[Beta decay|beta]], aur [[Gamma ray|gamma decay]]. [[Weak force]] uu [[Fundamental interactions|mechanism]] hae jisse beta decay hoe hae, jab baaki duuno  [[electromagnetic force|electromagnetic]] aur [[nuclear force]] se hoe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;edp&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Radioactivity: Weak Forces |url=https://www.radioactivity.eu.com/site/pages/Weak_Forces.htm |website=Radioactivity |publisher=EDP Sciences |access-date=4 March 2020 |archive-date=12 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812235150/https://www.radioactivity.eu.com/site/pages/Weak_Forces.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Radioactive decay ek [[randomness|random]] process hae jon ek atom ke level pe kaam kare hae.  [[quantum mechanics|Quantum theory]] ke anusaar, ii nai bataawa jaawe sake hae ki kab ek atom decay hoi, aur ii decay atom ke umar ke uppar nai nirbhar hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;IntroductionToHealthPhysics&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Radiation Protection and Dosimetry: An Introduction to Health Physics |last1=Stabin |first1=Michael G. |editor1-first=Michael G |editor1-last=Stabin |isbn=978-0-387-49982-6 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |chapter=3 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-49983-3|chapter-url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/1105894 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;RadiationOncologyPrimer&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Radiation Oncology Primer and Review |url=https://archive.org/details/radiationoncolog0000rodr |isbn=978-1-62070-004-4 |last1=Best |first1=Lara |last2=Rodrigues |first2=George |last3=Velker |first3=Vikram |publisher=[[Demos Medical Publishing]] |year=2013 |chapter=1.3}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Modern Nuclear Chemistry |isbn=978-0-471-11532-8 |last1=Loveland |first1=W. |last2=Morrissey |first2=D. |author3-link=Glenn T. Seaborg |last3=Seaborg |first3=G.T. |publisher=Wiley-Interscience |year=2006 |page=57|bibcode=2005mnc..book.....L }}&lt;/ref&gt; Lekin, dher atom jon ekke rakam ke hae ke decay rate ke ek [[decay constant]] me express karaa jaawe sake hae, nai to ek  [[half-life]] me. Radioactive atom ke half-life ke barraa range rahe hae range: jon lagbhag instantaneous se lae ke   universe ke umar talak rahe sake hae.

Jon nucleus decay hoe hae, ke  parent [[radionuclide]] (nai to parent [[Isotope#Isotope vs. nuclide|radioisotope]]) bola jaawe hae, aur ii  process se kamti-se-kamti ek [[Decay product|daughter nuclide]] bane hae.  Gamma decay nai to [[internal conversion]] ek nuclear [[excited state]] se, jiske decay ek  [[nuclear transmutation]] hae aur isse ek  daughter atom bane hae jisme  different number of [[proton]] nai to [[neutron]] (nai to duuno) rahe hae. Jab number of protons badle hae tab ek duusra [[chemical element]] ke atom bane hae.

[[Dunia]] ke 28 naturally occurring chemical elements  radioactive hae, jisme se  35 [[radionuclide]]s (saat elements ke dui different radionuclides each rahe hae) jon [[Solar System]] ke bane se pahile ke hae. Ii 35 ke [[primordial radionuclide]]s bola jaawe hae. Isme se kuchh jaana-maana hae, [[uranium]] aur [[thorium]], lekin isme kuch naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes bhi hae, jaise [[potassium-40]].  [[Primordial nuclide|primordial radionuclides]] me se har ek four [[decay chain]] reaction me se ek me bhagg le hae.

==Radioactivity ke paawa jaawe ke itihaas==
[[File:Pierre and Marie Curie.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Pierre aur Marie Curie aapan  Paris laboratory me, 1907 se pahile|left]]

[[Henri Poincaré]], radioactivity ke paawa jaawe ke kaaran rahaa, kaaheki uu  [[X-ray]] ke adhyan karis rahaa, jiske khaas asar,  physicist [[Henri Becquerel]] pr rashaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Radvanyi |first1=Pierre |last2=Villain |first2=Jacques |date=2017-11-01 |title=The discovery of radioactivity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631070517300786 |journal=Comptes Rendus. Physique |language=en |volume=18 |issue=9–10 |pages=544–550 |doi=10.1016/j.crhy.2017.10.008 |bibcode=2017CRPhy..18..544R |issn=1878-1535|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; 1896 me radioactivity ke duuno  Becquerel aur [[Marie Curie]] paae rahin, jab uu logan aapan aapan kaam  [[Phosphorescence|phosphorescent]] materials me karat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Mould |first=Richard F. |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine : with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |date=1995 |publisher=Inst. of Physics Publ. |location=Bristol |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |page=12 |edition=Reprint. with minor corr}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Retrieved 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Retrieved 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; Ii chij andhera me  glow hoe hae jab ispe light chamkaawa jaawe hae,  aur Becquerel ke ii sandhay rahaa ki [[cathode-ray tube]] ke gloww  ke kaaran  X-rays hae. Uu ek kaiyaa paper me photographic plate ke lapetis aur iske dher phosphorescent [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] ke uppar rakkhis. Sab natija negative rahaa, [[uranium]] salts ke chhorr ke.  Uranium salts ke kaaran  plate kariyaa hoe gais rahaa,  plate ke kariyaa paper me lapete ke baawajuut.&lt;ref name=PaisInward&gt;{{Cite book |last=Pais |first=Abraham |title=Inward bound: of matter and forces in the physical world |date=2002 |publisher=Clarendon Press [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-19-851997-3 |edition=Reprint |location=Oxford}}&lt;/ref&gt; Curie ii radiation ke naam ''rayons de Becquerel'', &quot;Becquerel Rays&quot; diis rahaa aur ii dekhais ki ii  rays atoms ke property rahaa.&lt;ref name=PaisInward/&gt;

Jab X-rays ke electrical energy produce kare hae, radiation ke taagat ke nahi samjhaa jaawat rahaa. 1899 me, [[Julius Elster]] aur [[Hans Geitel]]  experiments karin ii jaane ke khaatir ki  radioactivity ke shakti kahaan se aawe hae. Ii experiment ke vacuum me karaa gais rahaa jisse shakti hawaa me se nai aawe aur ek 300m gahiraa mine me jisse shakti space se nai aawe.&lt;ref name=PaisInward/&gt; Agar atoms apne shaki dewat rahin, tab iske matlab hae ki atoms apne badalte hoi  jab uu ray ke emit kare hae. 1900 me Curie summarize karis, the puzzle of radioactivity as a choice between two equally unlikely possibilities: either energy was not conserved or chemical elements could be transmuted.&lt;ref name=PaisInward/&gt;

Rutherford pahila jan rahaa jon ii  realize karis rahaa ki sab ii rakam ke   elements decay hoe hae koi mathematical exponential formula ke anusaar. Rutherford aur uske  student, [[Frederick Soddy]] pahila jan rahin jon ii  realize kare rahin kidher decay processes ke natija rahaa ek element se duusra element ka bananaa.  Iske baad [[radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy]] ke banaawa gais rahaa jon alpha aur [[beta decay]] ke product ke describe kare hae.&lt;ref&gt;Kasimir Fajans, &quot;Radioactive transformations and the periodic system of the elements&quot;. [[Chemische Berichte|Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft]], Nr. 46, 1913, pp. 422–439&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Frederick Soddy, &quot;The Radio Elements and the Periodic Law&quot;, Chem. News, Nr. 107, 1913, pp. 97–99&lt;/ref&gt;

Pahila researchers ii bhi paain ki dher aur  [[chemical element]],  uranium ke alaawa, ke radioactive isotopes hae. Ek systematic khoj, uranium me puura  radioactivity ke samay  Pierre aur Marie Curie dui nawaa  element ke isolate kare rahin: [[polonium]] aur [[radium]]. Radium ke  radioactivity ke chhorr ke, radium aur  [[barium]] ke chemical similarity ke kaaran ii duuno two elements ke biich ke antar nai paawa jaawe sakat rahaa.

Marie aur Pierre Curie ke  radioactivity ke adhyan, science and medicine aur medicine me  ek khaas factor hae. UUlog ke Becquerel's rays ke research se uulog duuno  radium aur polonium ke paain aur , &quot;radioactivity&quot; sabd ke banain&lt;ref name=&quot;L'Annunziata-2007&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Radioactivity: Introduction and History|url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivityint0000lann|last=L'Annunziata|first=Michael F.|publisher=Elsevier Science|year=2007|isbn=9780080548883|location=Amsterdam, Netherlands|pages=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivityint0000lann/page/2 2]}}&lt;/ref&gt; emission of [[ionizing radiation]] by some heavy elements ke  define kare ke khaatir.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Petrucci |first1=Ralph H. |last2=Harwood |first2=William S. |last3=Herring |first3=F. Geoffrey |title=General chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry0008petr |date=2002 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=0-13-014329-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry0008petr/page/1025 1025] |edition=8th}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Baad me ii term ke generalize kar ke sab element ke apply karaa gais rahaa.) Uulog ke research  penetrating rays in uranium me aur   radium ke paawe ke kaaran  radium ke cancer ke treatment me kaam me laawe jaae lagaa. Uulog ke exploration of radium ke dekha jaawe hae  pahila dafe  nuclear energy ke modern [[nuclear medicine]] me kaam me laana.&lt;ref name=&quot;L'Annunziata-2007&quot; /&gt;

==Pajila health pe khatraa==

[[File:Crookes tube xray experiment.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|1896 me [[Crookes tube]] apparatus se  X-ray chhaapa lewa jaawe hae. Crookes tube biich me dekhae hae. Kharra admii aapan haanth ke ek ek [[fluoroscope]] screen se dekhe hae; ii ek  common eakam hae jisse  tube ke set-up karaa jaawe hae. Radiation exposure ke khaatir koi precautiomn nai lew jaawe hae kaaheki iske khatraa ke baare me nai jaana jaawat rahaa.]]
 [[Ionizing radiation]]  radioactivity aur X-rays ke kaaran je khatraa  ke pahile nai jaana jaawat rahaa. 

===X-rays===

==References==
{{reflist}}

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    <title>Indus Valley Civilization</title>
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      <text bytes="18635" sha1="s0fjadw367rje8l4kojntb6g4i3fw1k" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Mohenjodaro Sindh.jpeg|thumbnail|right|260px|sindh men mohenjodaaro men harppaa sanskriti ke avashesh]]
'''Indus Valley civilization'''(3250-1750 B.C.) vishv ki praachin nadi ghaati civilizationon men se ek pramukh civilization thi. Yah harppaa civilization aur sindhu civilization ke naam se bhi jaani jaati hae. Isakaa vikaas [[Sindhu nadi|sindhu]] aur ghaghghara/hakaraa (praachin sarasvati) ke kinaare huaa. &lt;ref name=&quot;ching 2006 28-32&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Ching|first=Francis D. K.|coauthors=Jarzombek, Mark;Prakash, Vikramaditya|year=2006|title=A Global History of Architecture|url=https://archive.org/details/globalhistoryofa0000chin_n0o7|location=Hoboken, N.J.|publisher=J. Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=0471268925|pages=[https://archive.org/details/globalhistoryofa0000chin_n0o7/page/28 28]–32}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Mohanajodaro]], [[Kaalibanga]] , [[Lothal]] , [[Dholaavira]] , [[Raakhigari]] , aur [[Harppa]] isake pramukh kendr the. British kaal men hui khudaaiyon ke aadhaar par puraatatvavettaa aur Historyakaaron kaa anumaan hae ki yah atyant vikasit civilization thi aur ye shahar anek baar base aur ujare hae.
chaarls maesen ne pahali baar is puraani civilization ko khojaa. Kaningham ne [[1872]] men is civilization ke baare me sarvekshan kiyaa. Phlit ne is puraani civilization ke baare me ek lekh likhaa. [[1921]] men [[Dayaaraam saahani]] ne harppaa kaa utkhanan kiyaa. Is prakaar is civilization kaa naam harppaa civilization rakhaa gayaa. Yah civilization sindhu nadi ghaati me phaeli hui thi isalie isakaa naam Indus Valley civilization rakhaa gayaa. Pratham baar nagaron ke uday ke kaaran ise pratham nagarikaran bhi kahaa jaataa hae pratham baar [[Kaansy]] ke prayog ke kaaran ise [[Kaansy yuga|kaansy Civilization]] bhi kahaa jaataa hae. Sindhu ghaati civilization ke 1400 kendron ko khojaa jaa sakaa hae jisamen se 925 kendr India men hae. 80 percentt sthal sarasvati nadi aur usaki sahaayak nadiyo ke aasa-paas hae. Abhi taka  kul khojon men se 3 percent sthalon kaa hi utkhanan ho paayaa hae.

== Naamotpatti ==
Indus Valley civilization kaa kshetr atyant vyaapak thaa. Aarambh men [[Harppa]] aur [[Mohanajodaro]] ki khudaai se is civilization ke pramaan mile hae. Ata  vidvaanon ne ise Indus Valley ki civilization kaa naam diyaa, kyonki yah kshetr sindhu aur usaki sahaayak nadiyon ke kshetr men aate hae, par baad men [[Ropar]], [[Lothal]], [[Kaalibanga]], vanamaali, rangaapur aadi kshetron men bhi is civilization ke avashesh mile jo sindhu aur usaki sahaayak nadiyon ke kshetr se baahar the. Ata  kai Historyakaar is civilization kaa pramukh kendr harppaa hone ke kaaran is civilization ko &quot;harppaa civilization&quot; naam denaa adhik uchit maanate hae.

== Khoj aur utkhanan ==
== Vibhinn kaal ==
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! samay (bi.si.i.)
! kaala
! yuga
|-
|5500-3300
|[[Meharagar ]] II-VI ([[Pottery Neolithic]])
|rowspan=4|Regionalisation Era
|-
!3300-2600
! praarambhik harppaa ([[Early Bronze Age]])
|-
|3300-2800
|harppaa 1 (Ravi Phase)
|-
|2800-2600
|harppaa 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I, meharagar  VII)
|-
!2600-1900
!Mature harppaa ([[Middle Bronze Age]])
|rowspan=4|Integration Era
|-
|2600-2450
|harppaa 3A (Nausharo II)
|-
|2450-2200
|harppaa 3B
|-
|2200-1900
|harppaa 3C
|-
!1900-1300
!Late harppaa ([[Cemetery H]], [[Late Bronze Age]])
|rowspan=3|Localisation Era
|-
|1900-1700
|harppaa 4
|-
|1700-1300
|harppaa 5
|-
|}

== Vistaar ==
[[Image:IVC Map.png|thumbnail|right|260px|harppaa sanskriti ke sthal]]
is civilization kaa kshetr sansaar ki sabhi praachin civilizationon ke kshetr se anek gunaa baraa aur vishaal thaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://hindi.indiawaterportal.org/content/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%B5-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE|title=Sarasvati nadi v praachinatam civilization|accessmonthday=[[15 janavari]]|accessyear=[[2009]]|format=|publisher=Indiyaa vaatar portal (hindi)|language=|access-date=2012-06-26|archive-date=2009-07-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090712121606/http://hindi.indiawaterportal.org/content/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%B5-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; is paripakv civilization ke kendra-sthal panjaab tathaa [[Sindh]] men thaa. Tatpashchaat isakaa vistaar dakshin aur purv ki dishaa men huaa. Is prakaar harppaa sanskriti ke antargat panjaaba, sindh aur baluchistaan ke bhaag hi nahin, balki [[Gujaraat]], [[Raajasthaan]], [[Hariyaana]] aur pashchimi [[Uttar pradesh]] ke simaant bhaag bhi the. Isakaa phaelaav uttar men [[Jammu]] se lekar dakshin men [[Narmada]] ke muhaane tak aur pashchim men [[Baluchistaan]] ke [[Makaraan]] samudr tat se lekar uttar purv men [[Merath]] tak thaa. Yah sampurn kshetr tribhujaakaar hae aur isakaa kshetraphal 12,99,600 varg kilomitar hae. Is tarah yah kshetr aadhunik paakistaan se to baraa hae hi, [[Praachin misr]] aur [[Mesopotaamiya]] se bhi baraa hae. Isaa purv tisari aur dusari sahastraabdi men sansaar bhaar men kisi bhi civilization kaa kshetr harppaa sanskriti se baraa nahin thaa. Ab tak [[Bhaaratiy upamahaadvip]] men is sanskriti ke kul 1000 sthalon kaa pataa chal chukaa hae. Inamen se kuchh aaranbhik avasthaa ke hae to kuchh paripakv avasthaa ke aur kuchh uttaravarti avasthaa ke. Paripakv avasthaa vaale kam jagah hi hae. Inamen se aadhe darjanon ko hi nagar ki sanjञा di jaa sakati hae. Inamen se do nagar bahut hi mahatvapurn hae - panjaab kaa harppaa tathaa sindh kaa mohen jo daro (shaabdik arth - ''preton kaa tilaa''). Dono hi sthal paakistaan men hae. Dono ek dusare se 483 kimi dur the aur sindhu nadi dvaaraa jure hue the. Tisaraa nagar mohen jo daro se 130 kimi dakshin men chanhudaro sthal par thaa to chau thaa nagar gujaraat ke khanbhaat ki khaari ke upar '''lothala''' naamak sthal para. Isake atirikt raajasthaan ke uttari bhaag men '''kaalibangaan''' (shaabdik arth -''kaale rang ki churiyaan'') tathaa hariyaanaa ke [[Hisaar jilaa|hisaar jile]] kaa banaavali. In sabhi sthalon par paripakv tathaa unnat harppaa sanskriti ke darshan hote hae. Sutakaagendor tathaa surakotaraa ke samudratatiy nagaron men bhi is sanskriti ki paripakv avasthaa dikhaai deti hae. In donon ki visheshataa hae ek ek nagar durg kaa honaa. Uttar ङrppaa avasthaa gujaraat ke kathiyaavaar praayadvip men rangapur aur rojari sthalon par bhi paai gai hae. Is sabhya्taa ki jaaऩkaari sabase pehale 1826 me chaalsr maen ko praapt hui.

== Nagar nirmaan yojanaa ==
[[Image:Dholavira1.JPG|thumbnail|right|260px]]
is civilization ki sabase vishesh baat thi yahaan ki vikasit nagar nirmaan yojanaa. Harppaa tathaa mohan jodaro dono nagaron ke apane durg the jahaan shaasak varg kaa parivaar rahataa thaa. Pratyek nagar men durg ke baahar ek ek usase nimn star kaa shahar thaa jahaan inton ke makaanon men saamaany log rahate the. In nagar bhavanon ke baare men vishesh baat ye thi ki ye jaal ki tarah vinyast the. Yaani sarke ek dusare ko samakon par kaatati thin aur nagar anek aayataakaar khandon men vibhakt ho jaataa thaa. Ye baat sabhi sindhu bastiyon par laagu hoti thin chaahe ve chhoti hon yaa bari. Harppaa tathaa mohan jodaro ke bhavan bare hote the. Vahaan ke smaarak is baat ke pramaan hae ki vahaan ke shaasak majadur jutaane aur kara-sangrah men param kushal the. Inton ki bari-bari imaarat dekh kar saamaany logon ko bhi yah lagegaa ki ye shaasak kitane prataapi aur pratishthaavaan the.

mohan jodaro kaa ab tak kaa sabase prasiddh sthal hae vishaal saarvajanik snaanaagaara, jisakaa jalaashay durg ke tile men hae. Yah into ke sthaapaty kaa ek sundar udaaharan hae. Yab 11.88 mitar lanbaa, 7.01 mitar chau raa aur 2.43 mitar gaharaa hae. Dono siron par tal tak jaane ki siriyaan lagi hae. Bagal men kapare badalane ke kamare hae. Snaanaagaar kaa pharsh paki inton kaa banaa hae. Paas ke kamare men ek baraa saa kunaa hae jisakaa paani nikaal kar hoja़ men daalaa jaataa thaa. Hauja़ ke kone men ek nirgam (Outlet) hae jisase paani bahakar naale men jaataa thaa. Aesaa maanaa jaataa hae ki yah vishaal snaanaagar dharmaanushthaan sambandhi snaan ke lie banaa hogaa jo India men paaranparik rup se dhaarmik kaaryon ke lie aavashyak rahaa hae. Mohan jodaro ki sabase baraa sanrachanaa hae - anaaj rakhane kaa kothaara, jo 45.71 mitar lanbaa aur 15.23 mitar chau raa hae. Harppaa ke durg men chha  kothaar mile hae jo inton ke chabutare par do paanton men khare hae. Har ek kothaar 15.23 mi. Lanbaa tathaa 6.09 mi. Chau raa hae aur nadi ke kinaare se kuchhek mitar ki duri par hae. In baarah ikaaiyon kaa talakshetr lagabhag 838.125 varg mi. Hae jo lagabhag utanaa hi hotaa hae jitanaa mohan jodaro ke kothaar kaa. Harppaa ke kothaaron ke dakshin men khulaa pharsh hae aur isapar do kataaron men int ke vrittaakaar chabutare bane hue hae. Pharsh ki daraaron men gehun aur jau  ke daane mile hae. Isase pratit hotaa hae ki in chabutaron par pha़sal ki davani hoti thi. Harppaa men do kamaron vaale baerak bhi mile hae jo shaayad majaduron ke rahane ke lie bane the. Kaalibangaan men bhi nagar ke dakshin bhaag men inton ke chabutare bane hae jo shaayad kothaaron ke lie bane honge. Is prakaar yah spasht hotaa hae ki kothaar harppaa sanskriti ke abhinn ang the.

harppaa sanskriti ke nagaron men int kaa istemaal ek vishesh baat hae, kyonki isi samay ke misr ke bhavanon men dhup men sukhi int kaa hi prayog huaa thaa. Samakaalin mesopetaamiyaa men pakki inton kaa prayog milataa to hae par itane bare paemaane par nahin jitanaa Indus Valley civilization men. Mohan jodaro ki jal nikaas pranaali adbhut thi. Lagabhag har nagar ke har chhote yaa bare makaan men praangan aur snaanaagaar hotaa thaa. Kaalibangaan ke anek gharon men apane-apane kuen the. Gharon kaa paani bahakar sarkon tak aataa jahaan inake niche moriyaan (naaliyaan) bani thin. Aksar ye moriyaan inton aur patthar ki silliyon se dhakin hoti thin. Sarkon ki in moriyon men naramokhe bhi bane hote the. Sarkon aur moriyon ke avashesh banaavali men bhi mile hae.

== Aarthik jivan ==
=== Krishi evan pashupaalan ===
aaj ke mukaabale sindhu pradesh purv men bahut upajaau thaa. Isaa-purv chau thi sadi men sikandar ke ek itidaasakaar ne kahaa thaa ki sindh is desh ke upajaau kshetron men ginaa jaataa thaa. Purv kaal men praakritik vanaspati bahut thin jisake kaaran yahaan achchhi varshaa hoti thi. Yahaan ke vanon se inte pakaane aur imaarat banaane ke lie lakari bare paemaane par istemaal men laai gai jisake kaaran dhire dhire vanon kaa vistaar simatataa gayaa. Sindhu ki urvarataa kaa ek kaaran sindhu nadi se prativarsh aane vaali baar  bhi thi. Gaanv ki rakshaa ke lie khari paki int ki divaar ingit karati hae baar  har saal aati thi. Yahaan ke log baar  ke utar jaane ke baad [[Navanbar]] ke mahine men baar  vaale maedaanon men bij bo dete the aur agali baar  ke aane se pahale april ke mahine men genhu aur jau  ki pha़sal kaat lete the. Yahaan koi phaavaraa yaa phaal to nahin milaa hae lekin kaalibangaan ki praak-harppaa civilization ke jo kunt (halarekhaa) mile hae unase aabhaas hotaa hae ki raajasthaan men is kaal men hal jote jaate the.

Indus Valley civilization ke log [[Genhu]], [[Jau ]], [[Raai]], [[Matar]], [[Jvaar]] aadi anaaj paedaa karate the. Ve do kism ki genhu paedaa karate the. Banaavali men milaa jau  unnat kism kaa hae. Isake alaavaa ve [[Til]] aur [[Sarason]] bhi upajaate the. Sabase pahale [[Kapaas]] bhi yahin paedaa ki gai. Isi ke naam par yaूnaan ke log is sindan (Sindon) kahane lage. Harppaa yonto ek krishi pradhaan sanskriti thi par yahaan ke log pashupaalan bhi karate the. [[Bael]]-[[Gaay]], [[Bhaens]], [[Bakari]], [[Bher]] aur [[Suar]] paalaa jaataa thaa . Harppaai logon ko [[Haathi]] tathaa [[Gaendaa|gaende]] kaa knowledge thaa.

=== Business ===
yahaan ke log aapas men patthara, dhaatu shalk (haddi) aadi kaa business karate the. Ek bare bhubhaag men dher saari sil (mrinmudraa), ekarup lipi aur maanakikrit maap tau l ke pramaan mile hae. Ve chakke se parichit the aur sanbhavata  aajakal ke ikke (ratha) jaesaa koi vaahan prayog karate the. Ye [[Afganistan]] aur [[Iraan]] ([[Pharas]]) se business karate the. Unhone uttari Afganistanmen ek commercial upanivesh sthaapit kiyaa jisase unhen business men sahuliyat hoti thi. Bahut si harppaai sil mesopotaamiyaa men mili hae jinase lagataa hae ki mesopotaamiyaa se bhi unakaa business sambandh thaa. Mesopotaamiyaa ke abhilekhon men meluhaa ke saath business ke pramaan mile hae saath hi do madhyavarti business kendron kaa bhi ullekh milataa hae - dalamun aur maakana. Dilamun ki pahachaan shaayad pha़ाras ki khaari ke baharin ke ki jaa sakati hae.

== Raajanaetik jivan ==
itanaa to spasht hae ki harppaa ki vikasit nagar nirmaan pranaali, vishaal saarvajanik snaanaagaaron kaa astitv aur videshon se businessik sanbandha
kisi bari raajanaetik sattaa ke binaa nahin huaa hogaa par isake pukhtaa pramaan nahin mile hae ki yahaan ke shaasak kaese the aur shaasan pranaali kaa svarup kyaa thaa. Lekin nagar vyavasthaa ko dekhakar lagataa hae ki koi nagar nigam jaesi sthaaniy svashaasan vaali sansthaa thi|

== Dhaarmik jivan ==
[[Image:IndusValleySeals swastikas.JPG|thumbnail|right|260px]]
harppaa men paki mitti ki stri murtikaaen bhaari sankhyaa men mili hae. Ek murti men stri ke garbh se nikalataa ek pau dhaa dikhaayaa gayaa hae. Vidvaanon ke mat men yah prithvi devi ki pratimaa hae aur isakaa nikat sanbandh pau dhon ke janm aur vriddhi se rahaa hogaa. Isalie maalum hotaa hae ki yahaan ke log dharati ko urvarataa ki devi samajhate the aur isaki pujaa usi tarah karate the jis tarah misr ke log [[Nil nadi]] ki devi aaisis ki. Lekin praachin misr ki tarah yahaan kaa samaaj bhi maatri pradhaan thaa ki nahin yah kahanaa mushkil hae. Kuchh vaedik sukton men prithvi maataa ki stuti hae, kintu unakon koi pramukhataa nahin di gai hae. Kaalaantar men hi hindu dharm men maatridevi ko uchch sthaan milaa hae. Isaa ki chhathi sadi aur usake baad se hi [[Durga]], [[Anba]], [[Chandi]] aadi deviyon ko aaraadhy deviyon kaa sthaan milaa.

yahaan mile sil par purush devataa kaa chitr mahaayogi aadinaath bhagavaan kaa hae jo jaeno ke pahale tirthakar hae bhaensaa vo bhaensaa n hokar vel {oxe}hae jo aasan ke niche paayaa gayaa hae. Vo aadinaath kaa chhin hae. Yah saty hae ki yahaan par ling pujaa kaa bhi prachalan thaa parantu aadinaath yahaan ke prarmukh dev the. Hiran bhagavaan shaantinaath kaa chhin hae. Baagh yaa sher bhaagavaan mahaavir kaa chhin hae.haathi bhagavaan ajitaath kaa chhin hae prmaanaanusaar ऋgved me varanit vraaty jaati jo vaatarasanaa muni ko pujaa karate the vaatarasanaa muni yaani jaen muni yaa jaen tirthakar vraaty yahaan ki pramukh jaati thi any jaatiyon mae naag asur thae aur kai mahaan logo ne yah pramaanit bhi kiyaa

== Shilp aur takaniki knowledge ==
[[Image:Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|thumbnail|right|220px|mohenjodaaro men paai gai ek murti - karaanchi ke raashtriy sangrahaalay se]]
[[Image:Dancing girl mohenjodaro.jpg|thumbnail|left|260px|The &quot;dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro.&quot;]]
[[Image:The_'Ten_Indus_Scripts'_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg|thumbnail|sindhu-sarasvati civilization ke das varn jo [[Dholaavira]] ke uttari get ke nikat san 2000 isavi men khoje gaye hae]]
yadyapi is yug ke log pattharon ke bahut saare aujaar tathaa upakaran prayog karate the par ve kaanse ke nirmaan se bhali bhinti parichit the. Taanbe tathaa tin milaakar dhaatushilpi [[Kaansy]] kaa nirmaan karate the. Hanlaanki yahaan dono men se koi bhi khanij prachur maatraa men upalabdh nahin thaa. Suti kapare bhi bune jaate the. Log naav bhi banaate the. Mudraa nirmaana, murtikaa nirmaan ke saat baratan banaanaa bhi pramukh shilp thaa.

praachin [[Mesopotaamiya]] ki tarah yahaan ke logon ne bhi lekhan kalaa kaa aavishkaar kiyaa thaa. Harppaai lipi kaa pahalaa namunaa 1853 isvi men milaa thaa aur [[1923]] men puri lipi prakaash men aai parantu ab tak pari nahin jaa saki hae. Lipi kaa knowledge ho jaane ke kaaran niji sampatti kaa lekhaa-jokhaa aasaan ho gayaa. Business ke lie unhen maap tau l ki aavashyakataa hui aur unhone isakaa prayog bhi kiyaa. Baat ke tarah ki kai vastue mili hae. Unase pataa chalataa hae ki tau l men 16 yaa usake aavartakon (jaese - 16, 32, 48, 64, 160, 320, 640, 1280 ityaadi) kaa upayog hotaa thaa. Dilachasp baat ye hae ki aadhunik kaal tak India men 1 [[Rupaya]] 16 aane kaa hotaa thaa. 1 kilo men 4 paav hote the aur har paav men 4 kanavaan yaani ek kilo men kul 16 kanavaan.

== Avasaan ==
yah civilization mukhyata  2500 B.C. Se 1800 i. Pu. Tak rahi. Aesaa aabhaas hotaa hae ki yah sabhya्taa apane antim charan men hvaasonmukh thi. Is samay makaanon men puraani inton ke prayog ki jaanakaari milati hae. Isake vinaash ke kaaranon par vidvaan ekamat nahin hae. Sindhu ghaati civilization ke avasaan ke pichhe vibhinn tark diye jaate hae jaese: barbar aakramana, jalavaayu parivartan evan paaristhitik asantulana, baadh tathaa bhu-taatvik parivartana, mahaamaari, aarthik kaarana. Aesaa lagataa hae ki is civilization ke patan kaa koi ek kaaran nahin thaa balki vibhinn kaaranon ke mel se aesaa huaa. Jo alag alag samay men yaa ek saath hone ki sambhaavanaa hae. Mohenjo daro me nagar aur jal nikaas ki management se mahaamari ki sambhaavan kam lagati hae. Bhishan agnikaand ke bhi pramaan praapt hue hae. Mohenjodaro ke ek kamare se 14 nar kankaal mile hae jo aakramana, aagajani, mahaamaari ke sanket hae.

== Chitr dirghaa ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:WellAndBathingPlatforms-Harappa.jpg|Indus Valley civilization ke nagar men sthit ek kuaan  aur snaan ghar 
File:Votive_Image_of_Bull,_ca._2000_B.C.E._Hand-modeled_terracotta._Brooklyn_Museum.jpg|ek bael ke murti 
File:A_drain_at_Lothal.jpg|lothaal sthit praachin nagar men sthit ek naali 
File:Red_pottery,_IVC.jpg|laal mitti se bane ek paatr ke avashesh 
&lt;/gallery&gt;
== Aur dekho ==
* [[Meharagar ]]
* [[Sarasvati lipi]]

== Sandarbh ==
{{reflist}}

== External Link ==
{{commonscat|Indus Valley Civilization|harppaa civilization}}
* [http://www.jansamachar.net/display.php3?id=&amp;num=496&amp;lang=Hindi '''hadappaa ki civilization'''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060223091925/http://www.jansamachar.net/display.php3?id=&amp;num=496&amp;lang=Hindi |date=2006-02-23 }}
* [http://www.panchjanya.com/18-8-2002/29.html sindhu-sarasvati civilization : India kaa ushaakaala] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061027183350/http://www.panchjanya.com/18-8-2002/29.html |date=2006-10-27 }} (mishel danino)

[[vibhag:I]]
[[Vibhag:Civilization]]
[[Vibhag:India ke itihaas]]</text>
      <sha1>s0fjadw367rje8l4kojntb6g4i3fw1k</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Varanasi</title>
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      <text bytes="9333" sha1="5ao2q1qzpvez31mslwypmc5tz9frq50" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name                    = वाराणसी
| native_name             = बनारस
| native_name_lang        = [[Hindi]]
| other_name              = 
| nickname                = 
| settlement_type         = 
| image_skyline           = Ahilya_Ghat_by_the_Ganges,_Varanasi.jpg
| image_alt               = 
| image_caption           =
| subdivision_type        =  State
| subdivision_name        = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1       = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1       = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2       = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2       = 
| established_title       = 
| established_date        = 
| founder                 = 
| named_for               = 
| government_type         = 
| governing_body          = 
| unit_pref               = Metric
| area_footnotes          = 
| area_rank               = 
| area_total_km2          = 
| elevation_footnotes     = 
| elevation_m             = 
| population_total        = 
| population_as_of        = 
| population_rank         = 
| population_density_km2  = auto
| population_demonym      = 
| population_footnotes    = 
| demographics_type1      = Languages
| demographics1_title1    = Official
| demographics1_info1     = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1               = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1             = +5:30
| postal_code_type        = 
| postal_code             = 
| area_code_type          = Telephone 
| area_code               =  
| registration_plate      = 
| blank1_name_sec1        = 
| website                 = https://varanasi.nic.in/
| footnotes               = 
}}
'''Varanasi''' ([[Hindi]]: वाराणसी, {{IPA-hns|ʋaːˈɾaːɳəsiː|-|hi-Varanasi.ogg}}), jise Banaras, {{Lang-ur|بنارس}}, ''{{Unicode|Banāras}}'' {{IPA-hns|bəˈnɑːɾəs||hi-Banaras.ogg}}) aur '''[[Kaashi]]''', {{Lang-ur|کاشی}}, ''{{Unicode|Kāśī}}'' {{IPA-hns|ˈkaːʃiː||hi-Kashi.ogg}}) bhi kahii hae, [[Gangaa nadi]] ke tat par bhaarat ke [[Uttar pradesh]] raajy men basaa shahar hae. Ise [[Hindu dharm]] men sarvaadhik pavitr shahar maanaa jaataa hae aur ise '''avimukt kshetra''' kahaa jaataa hae. {{Ref_label|avimuktan |cha|none}}{{Ref_label|avimuktan2 |chha|none}}&lt;ref&gt;[[Mahaabhaarat]], [[Van parv]]., 84/18&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;([[Mahaabhaarat]], [[Van parv]]., 82/77)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;sandarbha:[http://tdil.mit.gov.in/CoilNet/IGNCA/kv_0012.htm kaashi tathaa Varanasi kaa tirth svarupa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100515070716/http://tdil.mit.gov.in/coilnet/ignca/kv_0012.htm |date=2010-05-15 }}.Varanasi vaebhava&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://dharmadesh.mywebdunia.com/2009/10/29/1256835420001.html kaashi- mukti ki janmabhumi]{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.maai veb duniyaa.29 October, 2009.abhigaman tithi:25 April, 2010&lt;/ref&gt; isake alaavaa [[Bau ddh]] evan [[Jaen dharm]] men bhi ise pavitr maanaa jaataa hae. Yah sansaar ke praachinatam base shaharon men se ek aur bhaarat kaa praachinatam basaa shahar hae. &lt;ref name=Bsfw&gt;{{cite book |last=Laenoya|first=Richarda|title=Banarasa-sin pharonm vidina|url=https://archive.org/details/benaresseenfromw0000lann|publisher=Vonshingtan pres vishvavidyaalay |pages=Blaek phlaepa|date=October, 1999|isbn=029597835X | oclc = 42919796 |nopp=True}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=Http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074835/Varanasi |title=Vaaraanasi|publisher=[[Britaenikaa vishvakosh]] |accessdate=3 June, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Famous log==
[[Narendra Modi]] and Notable artists (musicians and dancers) aur historians jo is city se jure hae Thakur Jaidev Singh, Mahadev Prasad Mishra, [[Bismillah Khan]], [[Ravi Shankar]], [[Girija Devi]], [[Gopal Shankar Misra]], [[Gopi Krishna (dancer)|Gopi Krishna]], [[Kishan Maharaj]], [[Lalmani Misra]], Premlata Sharma, [[N. Rajam]], [[Siddheshwari Devi]], [[Samta Prasad]], [[Sitara Devi]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://varanasi.nic.in/|title=DEO Portal Varanasi |publisher=District Varanasi|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903151035/http://varanasi.nic.in/|archive-date=3 September 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chhannulal Mishra, Rajan Sajan Mishra, Ritwik Sanyal, Soma Ghosh, Devashish Dey, Ramkrishna Das and Harish Tiwari.
[[File:Girija Devi at Bhopal (1).JPG|thumb|Girija Devi]]
[[File:Official Photograph of Prime Minister Narendra Modi Portrait.png|thumb|Prime Minister of India, [[Narendra Modi]]]]

==Education==
[[Banaras Hindu University]] (BHU) hiya ke sabase baraa aur old university hae.
[[File:BHU Main Gate, Banaras Hindu University enhanced.jpg|thumb|Main Gate, Banaras Hindu University]]

==Transportation ==

===Airport===
Hiyaa [[Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport]]  (IATA: VNS, ICAO: VEBN) hae.
[[File:Vns .jpg|thumb|Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport]]
===Railways===
Varanasi Junction, jise Varanasi Cantt Railway Station naam se bhi jaanta hae city kaa sabse baraa railway station hae.
[[File:Manduadih Railway Station at night.jpg|thumb|Banaras railway station raat me]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;background:#fff;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#ffd750;&quot;| Station Name
! style=&quot;background:#ffd750;&quot;| Station Code
! style=&quot;background:#ffd750;&quot;| Railway Zone
! style=&quot;background:#ffd750;&quot;| Number of Platforms
|-
| Varanasi Junction
''Also: Varanasi Cantt''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| BSB
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| Northern Railway
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| 9
|-
| Banaras Railway Station
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| BSBS
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|North Eastern Railway
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| 8
|-
| Varanasi City Railway Station
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| BCY
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| North Eastern Railway
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| 5
|-
| [[Kashi railway station|Kashi Railway Station]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| KEI
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| Northern Railway
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| 3
|-
| Sarnath Railway Station
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| SRNT
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| North Eastern Railway
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| 3
|-
| Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| DDU
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| East Central Railway
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| 8
|-
| Shivpur Railway Station
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| SOP
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| Northern Railway
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| 3
|-
| Bhulanpur Railway Station
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| BHLP
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| Northern Railway/North Eastern Railway
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| 2
|-
| Lohta Railway Station
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| LOT
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| Northern Railway
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| 3
|-
|}

===Roadways===
Ii National Highways Varanasi se pass hotaa hae:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nhai.gov.in/nhdp-english-map.htm|title=State-wise length of National Highways (NH) in India|access-date=1 July 2020|archive-date=3 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703201946/https://nhai.gov.in/nhdp-english-map.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nhai.gov.in/nhdp-english-map.htm|title=State-wise length of National Highways NH in India|access-date=1 July 2020|archive-date=3 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703201946/https://nhai.gov.in/nhdp-english-map.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nhai.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/Images/pdf/StateWiseLengthNHsIndia.pdf|title=Statewise length of National Highways (NH) in India|access-date=1 July 2020|archive-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128081526/https://nhai.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/Images/pdf/StateWiseLengthNHsIndia.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/photos/lifestyle-gallery/express-wanderlust-heres-why-jabalpur-should-be-next-on-your-must-visit-list-6242680/|title=Express Wanderlust|date=30 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.rome2rio.com/s/Varanasi/Rummin-dei|title=Varanasi to Rummindei}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
!National Highway
!Route
!Total Length
|-
|NH 19
|[[Delhi]] » [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] » [[Agra]] » [[Kanpur]] » [[Allahabad]] » '''Varanasi''' » [[Mohania]] » [[Barhi, Hazaribagh|Barhi]] » [[Palsit]] » [[Kolkata]]
|1,323 km (822 mi)
|-
|NH 233
| '''Varanasi''' » [[Azamgarh]] » [[Tanda, Ambedkar Nagar|Tanda]] » [[Basti, Uttar Pradesh|Basti]] » [[Siddharthnagar]] » [[Lumbini]] ([[Nepal]])
|288 km (179 mi)
|-
|NH 35
|[[Mahoba]] » [[Banda, Uttar Pradesh|Banda]] » [[Chitrakoot district|Chitrakoot]] » [[Allahabad]] » [[Mirzapur]] » '''Varanasi'''
|346 km (215 mi)
|-
|NH 31
|[[Unnao]] » [[Raebareli]] » [[Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh|Pratapgarh]] » '''Varanasi''' » [[Patna]] » [[Samsi, Malda|Samsi]]
|968 km (601 mi)
|-
|NH 7
| '''Varanasi''' » [[Jabalpur]] » [[Nagpur]] » [[Hyderabad]] » [[Bangalore]] » [[Kanyakumari]]
|2,369 km (1,472 mi)
|-
|}

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:pavitra shahar]]
[[Category:Varanasi jila ke shahar]]
[[Category:Hindu pavitra shahar]]
[[Category:praachin bharatiy shahar]]
[[Category:Hindu tirth]]
[[Category:shaiv dharm]]
[[Category:Varanasi]]
[[Category:shaktipith]]
[[Category:1857 ke bhaaratiy svatantrataa sangraam ke sthal]]
[[Category:bauddh dhaarmik sthal]]
[[Category:bhaarat ke ghaat]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Arab-Israeli conflict</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="12685" sha1="8itm7dervbnoe4o3nfjcqz9dq2kvbat" xml:space="preserve">'''Arab–Israeli conflict''' ''Al-Sura'a Al'Arabi A'Israili''; , ''Ha'Sikhsukh Ha'Yisraeli-Aravi'') [[Arab people|Arabs]] aur [[Israelis]] ke biich ke larrai ke bola jaae hae. 
==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==Aur parrho==
{{See also|Bibliography of the Arab-Israeli conflict}}
*[[Associated Press]], comp. (1996). ''Lightning Out of Israel: [The Six-Day War in the Middle East]: The Arab-Israeli Conflict''. Commemorative Ed. Western Printing and Lithographing Company for the Associated Press. ASIN B000BGT89M.
*[[Mitchell Bard|Bard, Mitchell]] (1999). ''Middle East Conflict''. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. ISBN 0-02-863261-3.
*[[Gad Barzilai|Barzilai, Gad]] (1996). ''Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order: A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East''. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2944-X
* Brown, Wesley H. &amp; Peter F. Penner (ed.): ''Christian Perspectives on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict''. Neufeld Verlag, Schwarzenfeld 2008. ISBN 978-3-937896-57-1.
*[[Jimmy Carter|Carter, Jimmy]] (2006). ''[[Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid]]''. New York: [[Simon and Schuster]]. ISBN 0-7432-8502-6.
* Casper, Lionel L. (2003). ''Rape of Palestine and the Struggle for Jerusalem''. New York &amp; Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-297-4.
*[[Sabina Citron|Citron, Sabina]] (2006). ''The Indictment: The Arab-Israeli Conflict in Historical Perspective''. New York &amp; Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-373-3.
*{{cite book |last=Cramer |first=Richard Ben |year=2004 |title=How Israel Lost: The Four Questions |url=https://archive.org/details/howisraellostfou00cram |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |location=New York |isbn=0-7432-5028-1}}
*[[Alan Dershowitz|Dershowitz, Alan]] (2004). ''The Case for Israel''. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons. ISBN 0-471-67952-6.
* [[Avner Falk|Falk, Avner]] (2004). ''Fratricide in the Holy Land: A Psychoanalytic View of the Arab-Israeli Conflict.'' Madison: U of Wisconsin P. ISBN 0-299-20250-X
*{{cite book |last=[[Gelvin]] |first=James L. |year=2005 |title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: 100 Years of War |url=https://archive.org/details/israelpalestinec0000gelv |publisher=Cambridge UP |location=New York &amp; Cambridge, Eng. |isbn=0-521-61804-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Gold |first=Dore | authorlink = Dore Gold |year=2004 |title=Tower of Babble: How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_h8s1 |publisher=Crown Forum |location=New York |isbn=1-4000-5475-3}}
*[[Norman Finkelstein|Finkelstein, Norman G.]] (2003). ''Image and Reality of the Israel-Palestine Conflict''. Verso Books. ISBN 1-85984-442-1.
*Goldenberg, Doron (2003). ''State of Siege''. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-310-5.
*[[Marc Gopin|Gopin, Marc]]. (2002). ''Holy War, Holy Peace: How Religion Can Bring Peace to the Middle East''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514650-6.
*{{cite journal|last=Hamidullah|first=Muhammad |author-link=Muhammad Hamidullah |year=1986|month=January|title=Relations of Muslims with non-Muslims|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=7|issue=1|page=9|doi=10.1080/13602008608715960}}
* Howell, Mark (2007). ''What Did We Do to Deserve This? Palestinian Life under Occupation in the West Bank'', Garnet Publishing. ISBN 1-85964-195-4
*[[Raphael Israeli|Israeli, Raphael]] (2002). ''Dangers of a Palestinian State''. New York &amp; Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-303-2.
*[[Shmuel Katz (politician)|Katz, Shmuel]] (1973). ''Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine''. Shapolsky Pub. ISBN 0-933503-03-2.
*{{cite book |last=Khouri |first=Fred J. |year=1985 |title=The Arab-Israeli Dilemma |url=https://archive.org/details/arabisraelidilem0000khou | edition = 3rd |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, NY |isbn=0-8156-2339-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard | authorlink = Bernard Lewis |year=1984 |title=The Jews of Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/jewsofislam0000lewi |publisher=Princeton UP |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=0-691-05419-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Lesch |first= David |year=2007 |title=The Arab-Israeli Conflict A History |url=https://archive.org/details/arabisraeliconfl0000lesc |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=0-19-517230-2}}
*–––. (September 1990). &quot;The Roots of Muslim Rage.&quot; ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]''.
*[[Zeev Maoz|Maoz, Zeev]] (2006). ''Defending the Holy Land''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. ISBN 0-472-11540-5
*{{cite book |last=Morris |first=Benny | authorlink = Benny Morris |year=1999 |title=Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001 |publisher=Knopf |location=New York |isbn=0-679-42120-3}}
*Morris, Benny (2009). ''1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War'', Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15112-1
*[[Yitzhak Reiter|Reiter, Yitzhak]] (2009). ''National Minority, Regional Majority: Palestinian Arabs Versus Jews in Israel (Syracuse Studies on Peace and Conflict Resolution)'', Syracuse Univ Press (Sd). ISBN 978-0-8156-3230-6
*Rogan, Eugene L., ed., and [[Avi Shlaim]], ed. (2001). ''The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948''. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-79476-3.
*[[Tom Segev|Segev, Tom]] (1999). ''One Palestine Complete: Jews and Arabs Under British Mandate''. New York: Henry Holt &amp; Co. ISBN 0-8050-6587-3.

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}

===Government and official sources===
* [http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
**[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+since+2000/Victims+of+Palestinian+Violence+and+Terrorism+sinc.htm Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism since September 2000]
* [http://www.arableagueonline.org/ League of Arab States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013055010/http://www.arableagueonline.org/ |date=2016-10-13 }}
* [http://www.mofa.gov.ps/ Palestinian Authority Ministry of Foreign Affairs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805011339/http://www.mofa.gov.ps/ |date=2010-08-05 }}
* [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/qpal/ United Nations on the Question of Palestine]
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/arabisrael.htm Arab-Israeli Conflict] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''

===Regional media===
;Israeli
* [http://www.ynetnews.com/ Israel News – Yedioth Aharonoth] Israel's largest newspaper, centrist [http://www.ynet.co.il/ (Hebrew)]
* [http://www.jpost.com/ Jerusalem Post], Israel's oldest English newspaper, conservative
* [http://www.haaretz.com/ Ha'aretz] Israeli newspaper, liberal
* [http://www.jnewswire.com/ Jerusalem Newswire] Christian-run Jerusalem-based news website, conservative
;Arab
* [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/ Lebanon Daily Star], largest English-circulation newspaper in the Arab world
* [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/ Al Ahram], Egypt's largest newspaper (see also [[Al Ahram]])
* [http://www.palestinechronicle.com/ Palestine Chronicle], weekly electronic paper

===Think tanks and strategic analysis===
*[http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552621 Dean Peter Krogh Examines Prospects for Peace] from the [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* [http://www.ngo-monitor.org/ NGO Monitor], NGO watchdog group, highlighting perceived instances of anti-Israeli NGO bias
* [http://www.jcpa.org/ Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]
* [http://www.passia.org/index_pfacts.htm Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs (PASSIA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041211100305/http://www.passia.org/index_pfacts.htm |date=2004-12-11 }}, Palestinian research organization
* [http://www.ipcri.org/ Israel/Palestine Center for Research and Information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125104211/http://www.ipcri.org/ |date=2014-01-25 }} Joint Israeli-Palestinian think tank
* [http://www.merip.org/ Middle East Research and Information Project] (see also [[Middle East Research and Information Project]])
* [http://www.brookings.edu/saban.aspx Saban Center for Middle East Policy] (see also [[Saban Center for Middle East Policy]])
*[http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/ Washington Institute for Near East Policy] (see also [[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]])
*[http://www.memri.org/conflict.html Original analysis of current developments in the peace-process] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060301003045/http://www.memri.org/conflict.html |date=2006-03-01 }}, from [[Middle East Media Research Institute]]
*[http://www.acpr.org.il/ The Ariel Center for Policy Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060422071051/http://www.acpr.org.il/ |date=2006-04-22 }}
*[http://www.acpr.org.il/ENGLISH-NATIV/05-issue/shapiro-5.htm A Regional Perspective on the Arab-Israeli Conflict by Jay Shapiro] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807062521/http://www.acpr.org.il/ENGLISH-NATIV/05-issue/shapiro-5.htm |date=2011-08-07 }}
*[http://www.jiis.org/ Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

===Peace proposals===
{{Main|List of Middle East peace proposals}}
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/peaceplans.htm An historical summary of Middle East Peace Plans and Proposals]

===Maps===
*[http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm MideastWeb Middle East Map Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606011729/http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm |date=2010-06-06 }}
*[http://factsofisrael.com/blog/index.php FactsOfIsrael.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207031600/http://factsofisrael.com/blog/index.php |date=2017-02-07 }} Maps, history, statistics, victims
*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east.html University of Texas Map Collection]

===General sources===
*[http://www.cfr.org/publication/13850/ Crisis Guide: The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict from the Council on Foreign Relations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605162725/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13850/ |date=2010-06-05 }}
*[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=780&amp;rsid=478 Resources &gt;Modern Period&gt;20th Cent.&gt;History of Israel&gt;State of Israel] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
*[http://www.FocusOnMideast.com/ Daily digest of commentary about the Arab-Israeli conflict from around the world]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/2001/israel_and_the_palestinians/default.stm Israel and the Palestinians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226184942/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/2001/israel_and_the_palestinians/default.stm |date=2009-02-26 }}
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588322/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.html Encarta Encyclopedia on the Arab-Israeli Conflict]( {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028022144/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588322/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.html |date=2009-10-28 }} 2009-10-31)
* [http://historyteacher.net/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.htm Guide to the Arab-Israeli Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611211654/http://historyteacher.net/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.htm |date=2010-06-11 }}, includes links to historical sources, as well as sources representing the Arab and Israeli sides of the conflict.
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,720353,00.html The Guardian (UK) A Brief History of Arab-Israeli Conflict] (flash)
*{{dmoz|Society/Issues/Warfare_and_Conflict/Specific_Conflicts/Middle_East/Israel-Palestine|Israel-Palestine Conflict}}
* [http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&amp;cat=Middle_East Diplomacy Monitor – Middle East] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204203437/http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&amp;cat=Middle_East |date=2012-02-04 }}
* [http://www.israel-palaestina.de/ Information (articles, reports, maps, books, links, ...) on the israeli palestinian conflict (middle east conflict)]
* [http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/israel_palestina/index.asp Holy Land, Unholy War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070109191230/http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/israel_palestina/index.asp |date=2007-01-09 }} Independent coverage of the Middle East conflicts by the news agency [[Inter Press Service]]
* [http://web.uconn.edu/polisci/people/faculty/doc/history_pressman.pdf &quot;A Brief History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict&quot;] by Jeremy Pressman

{{Arab-Israeli Conflict|state=expanded}}
{{Middle East conflict}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arab–Israeli Conflict}}
[[Category:Arab–Israeli conflict| ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Jahangir</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="4504" sha1="t6mka7nfvwg59jejtzr9guel9w4rcss" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch
| name         = Jahangir
| title        = [[Padishah]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Imperial and royal titles of the Mughal emperors|Al-Sultan al-Azam]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Shah|Sehenshah-e-Hind]] (Emperor of India)
| image        = [[File:Jahangircrop.jpeg|200px]]
| caption      = Portrait by [[Abu'l-Hasan (artist)|Abu al-Hasan]], {{circa|1617}}
| succession   = 4th [[Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]]
| reign        = 3 November 1605 – 28 October 1627
| coronation   = 24 November 1605
| predecessor  = [[Akbar|Akbar I]]
| successor    = [[Shah Jahan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Shahryar Mirza]] (''de facto'')&lt;br /&gt;[[Dawar Bakhsh]] (titular)
| birth_name   = Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim
| birth_date   = {{birth date|1569|8|31|df=y}}
| birth_place  = [[Fatehpur Sikri]],[[Agra Subah]],[[Mughal Empire]]&lt;ref&gt;Henry Beveridge, ''Akbarnama of Abu'l Fazl Volume II'' (1907), p. 503&lt;/ref&gt;
| death_date   = {{death date and age|1627|10|28|1569|8|30|df=yes}}
| death_place  = [[Bhimber]],[[Kashmir Subah]],[[Mughal Empire]]
| burial_place = [[Tomb of Jahangir]],[[Lahore]],[[Pakistan]]
| spouse       = {{Unbulleted list|
{{marriage|[[Shah Begum (wife of Jahangir)|Shah Begum]]|13 February 1585|16 May 1604|end= {{Abbr|d.|death}}}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Emperor of India|first=Jahangir|title=The Jahangirnama: memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India|publisher=Washington, D. C.: Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution; New York: Oxford University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-19-512718-8|page=12|translator-last=Thackston|translator-first=W. M.}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|{{marriage|[[Jagat Gosain|Bilqis Makani]]|21 September 1586|8 April 1619|end= {{Abbr|d.|death}}}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Trimizi|first=S. A. I.|title=Mughal Documents|publisher=Manohar|year=1989|page=31}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Sarkar|first=Jadunath|title=Mughal Administration|publisher=M. C. Sarkar|year=1952|pages=156–57}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|{{marriage|[[Khas Mahal]]|1596}}&lt;ref name=Q&gt;{{cite book|first=Sir William|last=Foster|title=Early travels in India, 1583-1619|url=https://archive.org/details/earlytravelsinin0000fost|publisher=AMS Press|year=1975|pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlytravelsinin0000fost/page/100 100]–101|isbn=978-0-404-54825-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|{{marriage|[[Saliha Banu Begum]]|1608|1620|end= {{Abbr|d.|death}}}}&lt;ref name=Q/&gt;
|{{marriage|[[Nur Jahan]]|1611}}&lt;ref name=Q/&gt;}}
| spouses      = {{ubl
|{{Marriage|[[Sahib Jamal]]|1586|1599|end= {{Abbr|d.|death}}}}
|{{marriage|[[Malika Jahan]]|1587}}
|{{marriage|[[Nur-un-Nissa Begum (wife of Jahangir)|Nur-un-Nissa]]|1592}}
}}
| spouse-type  = Consort
| spouses-type = Wives &lt;br /&gt;[[#Marriages|''more...'']]
| issue        = {{Plainlist|
*[[Sultan-un-Nissa Begum]]
*[[Khusrau Mirza]]
*[[Parviz Mirza]]
*[[Bahar Banu Begum]]
*[[Shah Jahan]]
*[[Luzzat-un-Nissa Begum]]
*[[Shahryar Mirza]]
}}
| issue-link   = #Issue
| issue-pipe   = more...
| full name    = Mirza Nur-ud-din Baig Muhammad&lt;br/&gt; Khan Salim
| era dates    = [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th centuries]]
| regnal name  = Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Khushru-i-Giti Panah Abu'l-Fath Nur ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah
| posthumous name = Jannat Makani ({{lit|Dwelling in Heaven}})
| house        = [[Mughal dynasty|House of Babur]]
| father       = [[Akbar]]
| mother       = [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]]
| signature    = Persian 47 Wellcome L0050349.jpg
| signature_type = [[Seal (emblem)|Imperial Seal]]
| religion     = [[Sunni Islam]]&lt;ref&gt;Andrew J. Newman, ''Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam 632 to 1722'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2013), online version: p. 48: &quot;Jahangir [was] ... a Sunni.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;John F. Richards, ''The Mughal Empire'' (Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; ([[Hanafi]])
| dynasty      = [[Mughal Dynasty]]
}}
'''Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim''' (janam ka naam: ''Shahzada'' /'''Salim''')  ([[31 August]] [[1569]] – [[28 October]] [[1627]]), jiske jaada kar ke '''Jahangir''' ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa, chautah [[Mughal]] [[Emperor]] rsahaa, jon ki from [[1605]] se [[1627]] talak raaj karis rahaa.

Jahangir, [[Akbar]]  ka larrkaa rahaa. Uski saadi [[Nur Jahan]] ('Light of the World') ke saath bhais rahaa. Uske jaada kar ke uske memoirs, ''Tuzk-i-Jahangiri'' (''Jahangir-nameh'') khatir jaana jaawe hae. 

Uske maut ke baad uske [[Shah Dara]], [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]] me matti dewa gais. Uske baad [[Shah Jahan]] badhshah banaa.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{bio-stub}}

{{BD|1569|1627|Jahangir}}

[[Category:J]]
[[Category:Mughal badshah]]</text>
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    <title>Aston Villa Football Club</title>
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{{Infobox football club
| clubname      = Aston Villa
| image         = [[File:Aston Villa.png|150px|Badge of Aston Villa Football Club|alt=A badge with a claret border, light blue background and yellow lion rampant facing to the left with a small star slightly above an outstretched leg. AVFC is atop the lion in claret writing with &quot;Prepared&quot; written underneath.]]
| fullname      = Aston Villa Football Club
| nickname      = The Villa, The Villans, The Lions, The Claret and Blue Army
| short name    = Villa, AVFC
| founded       = November 1874&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/aston_villa/default.stm|title=Aston Villa Football Club information |publisher=BBC Sport |accessdate=26 June 2007 | date=1 January 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070622084515/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/aston_villa/default.stm| archivedate= 22 June 2007 |deadurl= no}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| ground        = [[Villa Park]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Birmingham]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.avfc.co.uk/page/GettingToVillaPark |title=Getting to Villa Park |publisher=Aston Villa F.C |accessdate=19 March 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| capacity      = 42,682&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |title=Premier League Handbook Season 2013/14 |format=PDF |accessdate=17 August 2013 |work=[[Premier League]] |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019021137/http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| owner         = Reform Acquisitions LLC
| chairman      = [[Randy Lerner]]
| manager       = [[Rémi Garde]]
| league        = [[Premier League]]
| website       = http://www.avfc.co.uk/
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'''Aston Villa Football Club''', ek prasid english football club hae,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=http://www.birminghammail.net/news/top-stories/2007/11/26/cup-presented-to-aston-villa-founder-member-jack-hughes-is-back-with-his-family-97319-20162107/ |title=Cup presented to Aston Villa founder member Jack Hughes is back with his family |first=Nick |last=McCarthy |date=26 November 2007 |newspaper=Birmingham Mail |accessdate=21 July 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819132833/http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/local-news/cup-presented-to-aston-villa-founder-47077 |date=19 August 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ward, Adam; Griffin, Jeremy; p. 161.&lt;/ref&gt; jo [[England]] kay [[Birmingham]] shehr, mae sthit hae.&lt;ref name=Derby&gt;{{cite book |last=Matthews |first=Tony |title=The Encyclopedia of Birmingham City Football Club 1875–2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofb0000matt |chapter=Aston Villa |year=2000|publisher=Britespot |location=Cradley Heath |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofb0000matt/page/17 17] |isbn=978-0-9539288-0-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii ka home ground [[Villa Park]] hae, ii team abhi premier league mae khel rahiis hae.&lt;ref name=.premierleague&gt;{{cite web|title=.premierleague|url=http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs.html|website=.premierleague|access-date=2015-04-30|archive-date=2016-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704123840/http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{-}}
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
==Bahaari jorr==
{{Commonscat|Aston Villa FC}}
*[http://www.avfc.co.uk Aston Villa Football Club ka official website]
*[http://www.facebook.com/avfcofficial Aston Villa Football Club] facebook par
*[http://twitter.com/#!/avfcofficial Aston Villa Football Club] twitter par
*[http://www.skysports.com/football/teams/astonvilla Aston Villa Football Club] skysports par
*[http://www.bbc.com/sport/football/teams/aston-villa Aston Villa Football Club] BBC par
*[http://www.statto.com/football/teams/aston-villa Aston Villa Football Club] statto.com par
[[vibhag:England ke Football Club]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Arsenal Football Club</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>24302</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-23T17:51:22Z</timestamp>
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        <id>26740</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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{{infobox football club
| clubname    = Arsenal
| image       = [[File:Arsenal FC.png|180px]]
| fullname    = Arsenal Football Club
| nickname    = The Gunners
| founded     = 1886 ''Dial Square'' kay jaisan &lt;ref name=&quot;soartyler23&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first1=Phil |last1=Soar |first2=Martin |last2=Tyler |title=The Official Illustrated History of Arsenal |url=https://archive.org/details/officialillustra0000soar_i5c4 | publisher=Hamlyn | year=2005 | page=[https://archive.org/details/officialillustra0000soar_i5c4/page/23 23] | isbn=978-0-600-61344-2 |lastauthoramp=&amp;}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| ground      = [[Emirates Stadium]]&lt;br/&gt;[[London]]
| capacity    = 60,338&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |title=Premier League Handbook Season 2013/14 |format=PDF |accessdate=17 August 2013 |work=[[Premier League]] |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019021137/http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| owner       = [[#Ownership and finances|Arsenal Holdings plc]]
| chairman    = [[Chips Keswick|Sir Chips Keswick]]
| manager     = [[Unai Emery]]
| league      = [[Premier League]]
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&lt;!-- Do not add kits that display logos or crests as this is against Wikipedia 's copyright policies.
A discussion is happening at Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Football/Archive_71#Logos_on_kits
--&gt;
| website     = http://www.arsenal.com/
}}

'''Arsenal Football Club''', ek prasid english football club hae,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=English Premier League : Full All Time Table|url=http://www.statto.com/football/stats/england/premier-league/all-time-table/full|website=statto.com|accessdate=25 June 2014|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110074328/http://www.statto.com/football/stats/england/premier-league/all-time-table/full|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Independent: Hodgson&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Football: How consistency and caution made Arsenal England's greatest team of the 20th century|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football-how-consistency-and-caution-made-arsenal-englands-greatest-team-of-the-20th-century-1133020.html|work=The Independent|accessdate=27 April 2012|location=London|first=Guy|last=Hodgson|date=17 December 1999}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Football Money League|url=http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_GB/uk/industries/sportsbusinessgroup/sports/football/deloitte-football-money-league/|website=deloitte.com|publisher=Deloitte|accessdate=25 June 2014|date=January 2014|archive-date=20 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220013031/http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_GB/uk/industries/sportsbusinessgroup/sports/football/deloitte-football-money-league/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=O'Connor|first1=Ashling|title=Liverpool lag in fight for global fan supremacy as TV row grows|url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/sport/football/premierleague/article3192868.ece|accessdate=25 June 2014|publisher=The Times|date=October 13, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; jo [[England]] kay [[London]] shehr, mae sthit hae. Ii ka home ground [[Emirates Stadium]] hae,&lt;ref&gt;http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/1011234.stm&lt;/ref&gt; ii team abhi premier league mae khel rahiis hae. Manager : Unai Emery.
{{-}}

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
==Bahaari jorr==
{{Commonscat|Arsenal F.C.}}
* [http://www.arsenal.com/ Arsenal Football Club ka official website]
* [http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs/profile.overview.html/arsenal Arsenal Football Club] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102040907/http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs/profile.overview.html/arsenal |date=2014-11-02 }} premier league ka website par
* [http://www.uefa.com/teamsandplayers/teams/club=52280/profile/index.html Arsenal Football Club] UEFA ka website par
* [http://www.skysports.com/football/teams/arsenal Arsenal Football Club] skysports par
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/teams/arsenal Arsenal Football Club] BBC par
[[vibhag:England ke Football Club]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Everton Football Club</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-23T17:28:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>26740</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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{{Infobox football club
| clubname    = Everton
| fullname    = Everton Football Club
| image       = [[File:Everton F.C. (2014–).png|210px|Everton logo]]
| nickname    = The Toffees, The Blues,&lt;br&gt;The School of Science,&lt;br&gt;The People's Club.
| motto       = Nil Satis Nisi Optimum = Nothing but the best
| founded     = 1878 ''St Domingo's F.C.'' ke jaisan&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://evertonfc.com/history/everton-the-begining.html?page=0 |title=Everton F.C. website |publisher=Everton F.C. |accessdate=7 March 2010 |archive-date=3 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091203203826/http://www.evertonfc.com/history/everton-the-begining.html?page=0 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.talkfootball.co.uk/guides/football_clubs_history_everton_fc.html|title=History of Everton F.C.|accessdate=19 November 2008|publisher=Talk Football}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Club profile: Everton |publisher=Premier League |url=http://www.premierleague.com/page/everton |accessdate=23 August 2010 |archive-date=13 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813085355/http://www.premierleague.com/page/everton |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| ground      = [[Goodison Park]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Liverpool]]
| capacity    = 39,572&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |title=Premier League Handbook Season 2013/14 |format=PDF |accessdate=17 August 2013 |work=[[Premier League]] |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019021137/http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| chairman    = [[Bill Kenwright]]
| owner       = [[Robert Elstone]]
| owntitle    = CEO
| manager     = Roberto Martinez
| league      = [[Premier League]]
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'''Everton Football Club''', ek jaana maana English football club hae, jon [[England]] ke [[Liverpool]] ilaaka, me sthit hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Townships - Everton|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=41282|work=British History Online|accessdate=12 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iiske home ground [[Goodison Park]] hae,&lt;ref name=&quot;School of Science&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Corbett|first=James|title=School of Science|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/evertonschoolofs0000corb_n8m4|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4050-3431-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii team abhi premier league me khele hae.
{{-}}
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
==Bahaari jorr==
{{Commonscat|Everton FC}}
*[http://www.evertonfc.com/ Everton Football Club ka official website]
*[http://www.bbc.com/sport/football/teams/everton Everton Football Club] BBC par
*[http://www.skysports.com/football/teams/everton Everton Football Club] sky sports par
*[http://www.premierleague.com/page/everton Everton Football Club] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813085355/http://www.premierleague.com/page/everton |date=2010-08-13 }} premier league par
*[http://www.evertonfc.com/club/everton-former-players-foundation.html Everton Former Players' Foundation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716101816/http://www.evertonfc.com/club/everton-former-players-foundation.html |date=2011-07-16 }}
*[http://www.nsno.co.uk Everton Football Club] kay fans ki website
[[vibhag:England ke Football Club]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Goodison Park</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-23T17:31:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>26740</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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{{Infobox stadium
| stadium_name = Goodison Park
| nickname = ''The Grand Old Lady''
| image = [[File:Goodisonview1.JPG|alt=Goodison Park|300px]]
| location = [[Liverpool]], &lt;br&gt;England
| opened = 24 August 1892&lt;ref name=&quot;School of Science&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Corbett|first=James|title=School of Science|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/evertonschoolofs0000corb_n8m4|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4050-3431-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| owner = [[Everton Football Club]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|53|26|20|N|2|57|59|W|type:landmark|display=it}}
| operator = [[Everton Football Club]]
| surface = Ghas
| construction_cost = £ 3,000 
| architect = Kelly Bandhu
| tenants = [[Everton Football Club]]
| seating_capacity = 39,572&lt;ref name=&quot;History of Goodison Park&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=History of Goodison Park|url=http://www.evertonfc.com/history/goodison-in-depth.html?page=full|publisher=Everton F.C.|access-date=2015-05-10|archive-date=2014-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203140203/http://www.evertonfc.com/history/goodison-in-depth.html?page=full|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| dimensions = 100.48 x 68 metres&lt;br /&gt;(110 × 74 yard)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Premier League Handbook Season 2009/10 |format=PDF |year=2009 |publisher=[[Premier League]] |location=London |page=38 |chapter=Club Directory |chapterurl=http://www.premierleague.com/staticFiles/c3/3b/0,,12306~146371,00.pdf |accessdate=5 April 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606073445/http://www.premierleague.com/staticFiles/c3/3b/0%2C%2C12306~146371%2C00.pdf |date=6 June 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''Everton Football Club''', ii [[England]] kay [[Liverpool]] shehr, mae sthit ek football stadium hae.&lt;ref&gt;http://int.soccerway.com/teams/england/everton-football-club/674/venue/&lt;/ref&gt; Ii [[Everton Football Club]] ka home ground hae,&lt;ref&gt;http://int.soccerway.com/teams/england/everton-football-club/674/&lt;/ref&gt; ii ma 39,572 logo ke baithe ke jagah hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;School of Science&quot; /&gt;
{{-}}
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
==Bahaari jorr==
{{Commonscat|Goodison Park}}
* [http://www.evertoncollection.org.uk/search/results?q=%22Goodison+Park%22 Goodison Park] 	
* [http://www.tripadvisor.co.uk/Attraction_Review-g186337-d215374-Reviews-Goodison_Park_Stadium_Tours-Liverpool_Merseyside_England.html Goodison Park] tour
[[vibhag:England ke Football Stadium]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Southampton Football Club</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-23T17:22:04Z</timestamp>
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        <id>26740</id>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
      <origin>337530</origin>
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{{Infobox football club
| clubname = Southampton F.C.
| image = [[File:FC Southampton.png|190px]]
| fullname = Southampton Football Club
| nickname = The Saints
| founded  = 21 November 1885&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | title=Saints – A complete record| url=https://archive.org/details/saintscompletere0000chal|last= Chalk|first= Gary|author2=Holley, Duncan | publisher= Breedon Books| year=1987| isbn= 0-907969-22-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/saintscompletere0000chal/page/9 9] }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | title=Match of the Millennium|last= Bull |first= David |author2=Brunskell, Bob | publisher=[[Hagiology Publishing|Hagiology]] | year=2000| isbn=0-9534474-1-3|pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br/&gt;''St. Mary's YMA'' kay jaisan
| ground = [[St Mary's Stadium]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Southampton]]
| capacity = 32,505&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://premierleague.com/en-gb/about/handbook-2014-15.html|title=Premier League Handbook Season 2014/15 |format=PDF |accessdate=10 November 2014 |work=[[Premier League]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| owner = Katharina Liebherr
| chairman = [[Ralph Krueger]]&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC 26545304&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Ralph Krueger named Southampton chairman|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/26545304|publisher=BBC Sport|accessdate=12 March 2014|date=12 March 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| manager = [[Ronald Koeman]]&lt;ref name=&quot;SFC Koeman statement&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Koeman appointed First Team Manager|url=http://www.saintsfc.co.uk/news/article/16062014-ronald-koeman-appointed-1645420.aspx|publisher=Southampton FC|accessdate=16 June 2014|date=16 June 2014|archive-date=18 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618204643/http://www.saintsfc.co.uk/news/article/16062014-ronald-koeman-appointed-1645420.aspx|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| league = [[Premier League]]
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| pattern_b3 = _southampton2223t
| pattern_ra3 = _southampton2223t
| pattern_sh3 = _southampton2223t
| pattern_so3 = _southampton2223t
| leftarm3 = 2D392D
| body3 = 2D392D
| rightarm3 = 2D392D
| shorts3 = 182420
| socks3 = 2D392D
| website     = http://www.saintsfc.co.uk/page/Home/
}}

'''Southampton Football Club''', ek prasid english football club hae, jo [[England]] kay [[Southampton]] shehr, mae sthit hae. Ii ka home ground [[St Mary's Stadium]] hae,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=St Mary's Stadium|url=http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs/profile.stadium.html/southampton|work=Club profile: Southampton|publisher=The Premier League|accessdate=21 July 2013|archive-date=30 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830183454/http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs/profile.stadium.html/southampton|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/news/features/premier-league-stadium-focus-st-marys-stadium-southampton.html |title=Around the grounds: St Mary's Stadium |publisher=Premier League |date=15 July 2013 |accessdate=30 October 2013 |archive-date=7 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107161141/http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/news/features/premier-league-stadium-focus-st-marys-stadium-southampton.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; ii team abhi premier league mae khel rahiis hae.
{{-}}
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
==Bahaari jorr==
{{Commonscat|Southampton F.C.}}
*[http://www.saintsfc.co.uk/page/Home/ Southampton Football Club ka official website]
*[http://www.player.saintsfc.co.uk/home/ Saint TV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141115162540/http://www.player.saintsfc.co.uk/home |date=2014-11-15 }}
*[http://www.historicalkits.co.uk/Southampton/Southampton.htm Southampton Football Club ka puraane uniforms kay photos]
*[http://www.teammead.co.uk/saintsfc Southampton Football Club ka puraane teams kay photos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015060058/http://www.teammead.co.uk/saintsfc/ |date=2014-10-15 }}
* [https://www.facebook.com/southamptonfc Southampton Football Club] facebook par
* [https://twitter.com/SouthamptonFC Southampton Football Club] twitter par
* [http://instagram.com/southamptonfc/ Southampton Football Club] instagram par
[[vibhag:England ke Football Club]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Kamrupi Bhasa</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="10065" sha1="jcc33w3j6cctustxlwo31qezthjlff5" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
| name=Kamrupi
| familycolor=Indo-European
| pronunciation=Kāmrūpī
| region=Kamrup
| speakers=6 million 
| date=2011
| fam2=[[w:Indo-Iranian|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3=[[w:Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4=[[w:Eastern Indo-Aryan languages languages|Eastern Indo-Aryan]]
| script=[[Kamrupi script|Kamrupi]] 
| nation=[[India]]
}}
Kamrupi bhasa uu bhasa hae jiske Kamrupi log suruu karin rahaa. Kamrupi, Kamrup me baat karaa jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Goswami |first=Upendranath |date=1970 |title=A study on Kāmrūpī: a dialect of Assamese |url= |location= |publisher=Dept. of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Guwahati  |page=4 |isbn= |author-link= |quote=Assam from ancient times, was known as Kamarupa till the end of the Koch rule (17th century) and ancient Kamarupa comprised the whole of North Bengal including Cooch-Behar, and the Rangpur and Jalpaiguri districts of Bengal. Its permanent western boundary is said to have been the river Karatoya in North Bengal according to the Kalika Purana and Yoginitantra, both devoted to geographical accounts of ancient Kamarupa. So the Aryan language spoken first in Assam was the Kamrupi language spoken in Rangpur, Cooch-Behar, Goalpara, Kamrup district and some parts of Nowgong and Darrang districts. As also put by K.L. Barua &quot;the Kamrupi dialect was originally a variety of eastern Maithili and it was no doubt the spoken Aryan language throughout the kingdom which then included the whole of the Assam Valley and the whole of Northern Bengal with the addition of the Purnea district of Bihar”. It is in this Kamrupi language that the early Assamese literature was mainly written. Up to the seventeenth century as the centre of art, literature and culture were confined within western Assam and the poets and the writers hailed from this part, the language of this part also acquired prestige. The earliest Assamese writer is Hema Saraswati, the author of a small poem, Prahrada Caritra, who composed his verses under his patron, King Durlabhnarayana of Kamatapur who is said to have ruled in the latter part of the 13th century. Rudra Kandali translated Drone Parva under the patronage of King Tamradhvaja of Rangpur. The most considerable poet of the pre-vaisnavite period is Madhava Kandali, who belonged to the present district of Nowgong and rendered the entire Ramayana into Assamese verse under the patronage of king Mahamanikya, a Kachari King of Jayantapura. The golden age in Assamese literature opened with the reign of Naranarayana, the Koch King. He gathered round him at his court at Cooch-Behar a galaxy of learned man. Sankaradeva real founder of Assamese literature and his favourite disciple Madhavadeva worked under his patronage. The other-best known poets and writers of this vaisnavite period namely Rama Sarasvati, Ananta Kandali, Sridhar Kandali, Sarvabhauma Bhattacharyya, Dvija Kalapachandra and Bhattadeva, the founder of the Assamese prose, all hailed from the present district of Kamarupa. During Naranaryana's reign &quot;the Koch power reached its zenith. His kingdom included practically the whole of Kamarupa of the kings of Brahmapala's dynasty with the exception of the eastern portion known as Saumara which formed the Ahom kingdom. Towards the west the kingdom appears to have extended beyond the Karatoya, for according to Abul Fasal, the author of the Akbarnamah, the western boundary of the Koch kingdom was Tirhut. On the south-west the kingdom included the Rangpur district and part of Mymensingh to the east of the river Brahmaputra which then flowed through that district,&quot; The Kamrupi language lost its prestige due to reasons mentioned below and has now become a dialect which has been termed as Kamrupi dialect as spoken in the present district of Kamrup.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Goswami |first=Upendranath |date=1975 |title=Grammatical Sketches of Indian Languages With Comparative Vocabulary And Texts |url= |location= |publisher=Linguistic Survey of India, Census of India 1971  |page=35 |isbn= |author-link= |quote=Thus it is clear that Kamrupi dialect does not only claim as the mother of modern Assamese, but also that this speech continued to exert its appreciable influence on Assamese literature, both prose and poetry. It is worth mentioning here that Assamese Vocabularies may greatly be enriched by incorporation of certain important words and expressions, still in vogue in the modern district of Kamrup proper, in modern Assamese lexicon.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Goswami |first=Upendranath |date=1970 |title=A study on Kāmrūpī: a dialect of Assamese |url= |location= |publisher=Dept. of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Guwahati  |page=28 |isbn= |author-link= |quote=The sub-dialectical varieties of Kamrupi may be grouped mainly into three divisions —western, central and southern. The variety spoken in the area comprising Barpeta, Sundardiya, Patbausi, Bhabani- pur etc. is western, that of Nalbari and its surrounding areas is central and that of Palasbari, Chaygong, Boko etc. is southern.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Barma |first=Sukhabilasa |date=2004 |title=Bhawaiya, ethnomusicological study |url= |location= |publisher=Global Vision Publishing House |page=66 |isbn= |author-link= |quote=Based on the materials of the Linguistic Survey of India, Suniti Kumar Chattopadhyay has divided Eastern Magadhi Prakrita and Apabhramsa into four dialect groups (1) Radha-the language of West Bengal and Orissa (2) Varendra-dialect of North Central Bengal (3) Kamrupi-dialect of Northern Bengal and Assam and (4) Vanga-dialect of East Bengal.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Medhi |first=Kaliram |date=1936 |title=Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language |url= |location= |publisher=Sri Gouranga Press |page=66 |isbn= |author-link= |quote=The language of the pre-Vaisnava and Vaisnava was the dialect of Western Assam while the language of the modern literature is that of Eastern Assam. This latter has been accepted by the common consent as the literary language of the country. Political power thus determined the centre of literary activity and also of the form of literary language.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Goswami |first=Golockchandra |date=1982 |title=Structure of Assamese |url= |location= |publisher=Department of Publication, Gauhati University |page=11 |isbn= |author-link= |quote=The Eastern and Central dialects may be regarded as uniform to a certain extent in their respective areas, while Western Asamiya is heterogeneous in character, with large regional variations in the east, west, north and south. There must have been in early times as well, diverse dialects and dialect groups as at present. But then, there seems to be only one dominant literary language prevailing over the whole area; and that was Western Asamiya, the sole medium of all ancient Asamiya literature including the Buranjis written in the Ahom courts. This was because the centre of all literary activities in early times was in western Assam; and the writers were patronized by the kings and local potentates of that region. In the later period, however, even though the centre of literary activities moved to eastern Assam in the Ahom period, the writers continued to accept and use the existing model of the literary style of that time.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Choudhury | first=Dr. Pratap Chandra |date=1959 |title=The history of civilisation of the people of Assam to the twelfth century A.D. |url= |location= |publisher=Dept. of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Gauhati |page=395 |isbn= |author-link= |quote=The best specimens of wise sayings are contained in a work, 'Dakabhanita', attributed to Daka, written in old Kamarupi dialect. The work provides an important specimen of the ancient literature of Assam. It is, however, too early to ascribe the work to the 6th century A.D., as done by D.N. Bezbarua. It may have been composed about the 8th century A.D.  It is true that Daka flourished at a time when the written literature of Assam had scarcely taken its birth. The place of the nativity of Daka is given in the work, which states that he was the native of the Lehidangara near modern Barpeta.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Barua |first=Kanak Lal |date=1933 |title=Early History of kamarupa |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2613|location= |publisher=  |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2613/page/n440 318] |isbn= |author-link= |quote=The Kamarupi dialect was originally a variety of eastern Maithili and it was no doubt the spoken Aryan language throughout the kingdom which then included the whole of the Assam valley and the whole of northern Bengal with the addition of the Purnea district of Bihar. It is not therefore at all strange the language of the Buddhist Dohas, composed in Kamarupa during the tenth and the eleventh centuries, should be a mixed Maithili-Kamrupi language bearing close resemblance to modern Assamese, the direct offspring of the old Kamarupi dialect.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Choudhary |first=Radhakrishna |date=1976 |title=A Survey of Maithili Literature |url= |location= |publisher=  |page=16 |isbn= |author-link= |quote=According to Kanak Lal Barua, the Kamrupi dialect was originally a variety of eastern Maithili and it was, no doubt, the spoken Aryan language throughout the kingdom which then included the whole of Assam valley and whole of North Bengal with the addition of the district of Purnea. The language of the Buddhist Dohas is described as belonging to the mixed Maithili-Kamrupi language.}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Lag bhag 6 million log ke ii mother tongue hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite |title=Census of India |date=2011 |accessdate=26 June 2021 |publisher=Government of India}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[file:Charyapada.jpg|right|300x350px|thumbnail|&lt;center&gt;Charyapad&lt;center/&gt;]]

== Ii bhi dekho ==
* [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Brij Bhasha]]

== Sandarbh ==
{{reflist}}

== Bahaari jorr ==
[https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/kWEvwN3D2I3rWlpr1oDKmL/Kamrupi-a-language-with-no-army.html Kamrupi:a language with no Army]

[[vibhag:India ke bhasa]][[vibhag:Bhasa]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>B. R. Ambedkar</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="2294" sha1="iovouldiq895htr61797tkmxb2i8d9g" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar.jpg|thumb|right|B. R. Ambedkar]]
'''Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar''' (14 aprail 1891 - 6 disambar 1956), jinhen '''Doctor Babasaheb Ambedkar''' ke naam se bhee jaana jaata hae, ek bhaarateey nyaayavid, arthashaastree, raajaneetigy aur samaaj sudhaarak rahin, jinhonne Dalit Bauddh aandolan ko prerit kiya aur achhooton (daliton) ke prati saamaajik bhedabhaav ke khilaaph abhiyaan chalaaya, sath hi mahilaon aur shram ke adhikaaron ka samarthan bhi kiya. vah svatantr bhaarat (India) ke pahale kaanoon aur nyaay mantree, bhaarat ke sanvidhaan ke vaastukaar aur bhaarat ganaraajy ke sansthaapak rahin.

==Sandharbh==
&lt;ref&gt;[https://c250.columbia.edu/c250_celebrates/remarkable_columbians/bhimrao_ambedkar.html Bhimrao Ambedkar]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://indianexpress.com/article/parenting/learning/ambedkar-jayanti-2019-facts-babasaheb-for-kids-5672744/ Ambedkar Jayanti 2019: Facts on Babasaheb to share with kids | Parenting News,The Indian Express]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.bloombergquint.com/opinion/in-india-dalits-show-power-of-building-statues |title=How India’s Most Downtrodden Embraced the Power of Statues |access-date=2020-10-26 |archive-date=2020-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026043029/https://www.bloombergquint.com/opinion/in-india-dalits-show-power-of-building-statues |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bhimrao-Ramji-Ambedkar Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar | Biography, Books, &amp; Facts | Britannica]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/all-you-need-to-know-about-br-ambedkar-on-his-129th-birth-anniversary-2211747 All You Need To Know About BR Ambedkar On His 129th Birth Anniversary]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780691157863 |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691157863 |editor-last=Buswell |editor-first=Robert Jr |editor-link=Robert Buswell Jr. |location=Princeton, NJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780691157863/page/34 34] |ref=harv |editor-last2=Lopez |editor-first2=Donald S. Jr. |editor-link2=Donald S. Lopez, Jr.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[vibhag:Itihaas]]
[[vibhag:India ke log]]
[[vibhag:Buddhism]]
[[vibhag:Darshan]]
[[vibhag:Vyaktitv]]
[[vibhag:Vyaktigat jivan]]
[[vibhag:Indian politicians]]</text>
      <sha1>iovouldiq895htr61797tkmxb2i8d9g</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Pakistan ke Presidents</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>54220</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-23T19:21:08Z</timestamp>
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        <id>27024</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted 2 edits by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-45867-81|~2026-45867-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-45867-81|talk]]): Rv ill-translated content (TwinkleGlobal)</comment>
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      <text bytes="2770" sha1="lhlzo2mak7lsuw72bcyzvxgmr797r77" xml:space="preserve">[[file:Flag of the President of Pakistan.svg|thumb|Rashtrapita ka jhanda]] 

== Abhi ke Rashtrapati ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!Tasveer 
!Rashtrapati
!Elected
!Pehla term
!Akhri Term
|-
|Muslim League (N)
|[[Mamnoon Hussein]]
| [[India|Indian]] Mention
| 9 September 2013
| 19 September 2018
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |[[Nawaz sharif|Nawaz Sharif]]
|-
|[[File:2018-11-07_Parlamentarier_bei_Versammlung_des_Asiatischen_Parlaments_(APA)_in_Gwadar_Pakistan_2.jpg|100px]]
|[[Sadiq Sanjrani]]
|Balochistan Awami Party
|June 2023
|July 2023
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |[[Imran Khan Niazi]]
|-
| [[File:President of Pakistan Dr Arif Alvi.jpg|100px]]
|[[Arif Alvi]]
|&lt;nowiki&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Pakistan Tehreek-E-Insaf]]
| 9 September 2018 
| 10 March 2024
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |[[Shehbaz Sharif]] - present [Pradhan Mantri]
|-
|[[file:Asif Ali Zardari with Obamas (cropped).jpg|frameless|133x133px]]
|[[Asif Ali Zardari]]
|Pakistan's People Party
|10 March 2024
|present
|}

== Purane Rashtrapati ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
! style=&quot;width:100px;&quot; | Tasveer aur party
!Rashtrapati
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Pehla term
! style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Akhri Term
|-
|Muslim League
|[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] 
|1947 
|1948
|-
|Muslim League
|Khwaja Nizamuddin
|1948
|1951
|-
|Muslim League
|Malik G. Muhammad
|17 October 1951
|7 August 1955
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |Liaquat Ali Khan
|-
|Republic Party
|Iskander Mirza
| 23 March 1956
| 27 October 1958
|-
|Muslim League [C]
|Ayub Khan 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 27 October 1958 - 25 March 1969
|-
|Pakistan People Party
|Zulfikar Ali Bhutto 
|20 December 1971
|14 August 1973
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |K. Nizamuddin, M. Bogra, C. Ali, F. Noon, N. Amin, H. Suhrawardy, I. Chundrigar
|-
|(Lt. Gen)
|Yahya Khan
|25 March 1969
|20 December 1971
|-
|Pakistan People Party
|Fazail Ilahi Chaudhary
| 14 August 1973
| 16 September 1978 
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |Zulfikar Bhutto
|-
| -
|Muhammad Zia-Ul-Haq
| 16 September 1978
| 17 August 1988
|-
|independent
|Ghulam Ishaq Khan
| 17 August 1988
| 18 July 1993 
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |Benazir Bhutto
|-
| -
|Farooq Leghari
| 14 November 1993
| 2 December 1997
|-
|Muslim League
|Muhammad Rafiq Tara
| 1 January 1998
| 20 June 2001
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |Shujaat Hussain, Zafarullah Khan Jamali
|-
|(Muslim League [Q])
|Pervez Musharraf
| 20 June 2001
| 18 August 2008
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |Shaukat Aziz
|-
|No Image Available
|Muhammad Mian Soomro (Muslim League [N])
| 18 August 2008
| 9 September 2008
|-
|[[file:Asif Ali Zardari with Obamas (cropped).jpg|100px]]
|Asif Ali Zardari (Pakistan People Party)
|9 September 2008
|9 September 2013
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |Shahid Khaqan Abaasi, Mir Hazar Khan Khoso, Raja Pervez Ashraf
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; |Youself Raza Gilani
|}

== Li bhi dekho ==
Fatima Jinnah
[[vibhag:P]]
[[vibhag:Pakistan]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>International Phonetic Alphabet</title>
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      <text bytes="147617" sha1="17bzsfokuqxo87chr0a8rabjskcq2f4" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|System of phonetic notation}}
{{For|the international (civil) aviation organization (ICAO) spelling alphabet|NATO phonetic alphabet}}
{{Self reference|For an introductory guide on IPA symbols with audio, see [[:Help:IPA]]. For the usage of the IPA on Wikipedia, see [[:Help:IPA/Introduction]] and [[:Help:IPA/English]].}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox writing system
|name = International Phonetic Alphabet
|type = Alphabet
|typedesc = – partially [[Featural alphabet|featural]]
|languages = Used for [[Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Phoneme|phonemic]] transcription of any language
|time = 1888 to present
|fam1 = [[Palaeotype alphabet]], [[English Phonotypic Alphabet]]
|fam2 = [[Romic alphabet]]
|sample = IPA in IPA.svg
|imagesize = 200px
|note = none
|unicode =
|iso15924 = 
|caption = &quot;IPA&quot; in IPA ({{IPA|[aɪ pʰiː eɪ]}})
}}
{{SpecialChars
| special = [[phonetics|phonetic]] [[symbol]]s
| fix = Help:Special characters
| characters = phonetic symbols
}}
[[File:IPA chart 2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The official chart of the IPA, revised in 2020]]

The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''') is an [[alphabet]]ic system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] based primarily on the [[Latin script]]. It was devised by the [[International Phonetic Association]] in the late 19th century as a standardized representation of [[speech sound]]s in written form.&lt;ref name=&quot;IPA 1999&quot;&gt;International Phonetic Association (IPA), ''Handbook''.&lt;/ref&gt; The IPA is used by [[lexicography|lexicographers]], [[foreign language]] students and teachers, [[linguistics|linguists]], [[speech–language pathology|speech–language pathologists]], singers, actors, [[constructed language]] creators, and translators.&lt;ref name=&quot;world&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels|editor2=W. Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821–846]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1996|location=New York|isbn=0-19-507993-0|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|first=Joan |last=Wall |title=International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction |publisher=Pst |year=1989 |isbn=1-877761-50-8 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The IPA is designed to represent those qualities of speech that are part of [[wiktionary:lexical|lexical]] (and, to a limited extent, [[prosodic]]) sounds in [[oral language]]: [[phone (phonetics)|phones]], [[phoneme]]s, [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], and the separation of [[word]]s and [[syllable]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;IPA 1999&quot; /&gt; To represent additional qualities of speech—such as tooth [[wiktionary:gnash|gnashing]], [[lisp]]ing, and sounds made with a [[cleft lip and cleft palate]]—an [[extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet|extended set of symbols]] may be used.&lt;ref name=&quot;world&quot; /&gt;

Segments are transcribed by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: [[letter (alphabet)|letters]] and [[diacritic]]s. For example, the sound of the [[English language|English]] letter {{angbr|t}} may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: {{IPA|[t]}}, or with a letter plus diacritics: {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}}, depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal [[phonemic transcription]]; therefore, {{IPA|/t/}} is more abstract than either {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} or {{IPA|[t]}} and might refer to either, depending on the context and language.&lt;ref group=note&gt;The inverted bridge under the {{angbr|t̺ʰ}} specifies it as [[apical consonant|apical]] (pronounced with the tip of the tongue), and the superscript ''h'' shows that it is [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] (breathy). Both these qualities cause the English {{IPA|/t/}} to sound different from the French or Spanish {{IPA|/t/}}, which is a [[laminal consonant|laminal]] (pronounced with the blade of the tongue) and unaspirated {{IPA|[t̻]}}. {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} and {{IPA|[t̻]}} are thus two different, though similar, sounds.&lt;/ref&gt;

Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |title=IPA: Alphabet |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121927/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |archive-date=10 October 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks in the IPA. Most&lt;!--the majority of tone letters are not shown; not all the components are even found in the IPA Handbook--&gt; of these are shown in the current [[International Phonetic Alphabet chart|IPA chart]], posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Full IPA Chart|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart|website=International Phonetic Association|access-date=24 April 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==History==
{{Main|History of the International Phonetic Alphabet}}
In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist [[Paul Passy]], formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the [[International Phonetic Association]] (in French, {{lang|fr|l'Association phonétique internationale}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;IPA194-196&quot;&gt;International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&amp;nbsp;194–196&lt;/ref&gt; Their original alphabet was based on a [[spelling reform]] for English known as the [[Romic alphabet]], but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.&lt;ref group=note&gt;&quot;Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given ''different'' articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages.&quot; (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&amp;nbsp;195–196)&lt;/ref&gt; For example, the sound {{IPAblink|ʃ}} (the ''sh'' in ''shoe'') was originally represented with the letter {{angbr|c}} in English, but with the digraph {{angbr|{{lang|fr|ch}}}} in French.&lt;ref name=&quot;IPA194-196&quot;/&gt; In 1888, the alphabet was revised to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.&lt;ref name=&quot;IPA194-196&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Passy |first=Paul |year=1888 |title=Our revised alphabet |journal=[[The Phonetic Teacher]] |pages=57–60}}&lt;/ref&gt; The idea of making the IPA was first suggested by [[Otto Jespersen]] in a letter to Passy. It was developed by [[Alexander John Ellis]], [[Henry Sweet]], [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]], and Passy.&lt;ref&gt;IPA in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained primarily unchanged until the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for [[mid central vowel]]s&lt;ref name=&quot;world&quot; /&gt; and the removal of letters for [[implosive consonant#Voiceless implosives|voiceless implosives]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Pullum&quot;&gt;Pullum and Ladusaw, ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]'', pp.&amp;nbsp;152, 209&lt;/ref&gt; The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a [[labiodental flap]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Nicolaidis |first=Katerina |title=Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap |url=http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm |date=September 2005 |publisher=International Phonetic Association |access-date=17 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902212308/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/flap.htm |archive-date=2 September 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt; Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying [[Typeface|typefaces]].&lt;ref name=&quot;world&quot; /&gt;

[[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for [[speech pathology]] (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association]] in 1994.&lt;ref&gt;International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;186&lt;/ref&gt;

==Description==
The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound ([[segment (linguistics)|speech segment]]).&lt;ref group=note&gt;&quot;From its earliest days [...] the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide 'a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word'.&quot; (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;27)&lt;/ref&gt; This means that:
* It does not normally use [[multigraph (orthography)|combinations of letters]] to represent single sounds, the way English does with {{angbr|sh}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ng}}, or single letters to represent multiple sounds, the way {{angbr|x}} represents {{IPA|/ks/}} or {{IPA|/ɡz/}} in English.
* There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, the way [[hard and soft C|{{angbr|c}}]] and [[hard and soft G|{{angbr|g}}]] in several European languages have a &quot;hard&quot; or &quot;soft&quot; pronunciation.
* The IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as &quot;selectiveness&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;world&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref group=note&gt;
For instance, [[flap consonant|flaps and taps]] are two different kinds of [[Manner of articulation|articulation]], but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an [[alveolar tap|alveolar flap]] and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated letters. Instead, it provides a single letter (in this case,&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|[ɾ]}}) for both. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a partially [[phonemic|phon''em''ic]] alphabet, not a purely [[phonetic|phon''et''ic]] one.&lt;/ref&gt; However, if a large number of phonemically distinct letters can be derived with a diacritic, that may be used instead.&lt;ref group=note&gt;This exception to the rules was made primarily to explain why the IPA does not make a dental–alveolar distinction, despite one being phonemic in hundreds of languages, including most of the continent of Australia. [[Americanist Phonetic Notation]] makes (or at least made) a distinction between apical {{angbr|t d s z n l}} and laminal {{angbr|τ δ ς ζ ν λ}}, which is easily applicable to alveolar vs dental (when a language distinguishes apical alveolar from laminal dental, as in Australia), but despite several proposals to the Council, the IPA never voted to accept such a distinction.&lt;/ref&gt;

The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not [[phoneme]]s, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired ({{angbr IPA|ˇ}}, once used for the &quot;compound&quot; tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and {{angbr IPA|ƞ}}, once used for the [[moraic]] nasal of Japanese), though one remains: {{angbr IPA|ɧ}}, used for the [[sj-sound]] of Swedish. When the IPA is used for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. For example, {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are used in the IPA ''Handbook'' for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}.

Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s, 31 [[diacritic]]s are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate [[Segment (linguistics)|suprasegmental]] qualities such as [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].&lt;ref group=note&gt;
There are three&lt;!--dbl acute and grave are compounds--&gt; basic tone diacritics and five basic tone letters, both sets of which may be compounded.
&lt;/ref&gt; These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA.

===Letter forms===
[[File:LowercaseG.svg|right|thumb|Loop-tail {{angbr IPA|g}} and open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} are graphic variants. Open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} was the original IPA symbol, but both are now considered correct. See [[history of the IPA]] for details.]]
The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the [[Latin alphabet]].&lt;ref group=note&gt;
&quot;The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters.&quot; (IPA 1949)
&lt;/ref&gt; For this reason, most letters are either [[Latin script|Latin]] or [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the [[glottal stop]], {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}, originally had the form of a dotless [[question mark]], and derives from an [[apostrophe]]. A few letters, such as that of the voiced [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal fricative]], {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] letter ⟨{{lang|ar|[[Ayin|ﻉ]]}}⟩, ''{{transliteration|ar|ʿayn}}'', via the reversed apostrophe).&lt;ref name=Pullum/&gt;
&lt;!--clearly, ʔ and ʕ are not of independent origin and reflect the transliteration of alif vs. ayin in Semitic philology. Source needed--&gt;

Some letter forms derive from existing letters: 
* The right-swinging tail, as in {{angbr IPA|ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ʂ ʐ ɻ ɭ&amp;thinsp;}}, indicates [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] articulation. It originates from the hook of an ''r''.
* The top hook, as in {{angbr IPA|ɠ ɗ ɓ}}, indicates [[glottalic ingressive|implosion]]. 
* Several [[Nasal consonant|nasal consonants]] are based on the form {{angbr IPA|n}}: {{angbr IPA|n ɲ ɳ ŋ}}. {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ŋ}} derive from [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] of ''gn'' and ''ng,'' and {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is an ''ad hoc'' imitation of {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}.
* Letters turned 180 degrees for suggestive shapes, such as {{angbr IPA|ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ɹ ʇ ʊ ʌ ʍ ʎ}} from {{angbr IPA|a c e f ɡ h ᴊ&lt;!--per Ellis, Pullum, etc.--&gt; m r t &lt;small&gt;Ω&lt;/small&gt; v w y}}.&lt;ref group=note&gt;Originally, {{IPA|[ʊ]}} was written as a small capital U. However, this was not easy to read, and so it was replaced with a turned small capital omega. In modern typefaces, it often has its own design, called a 'horseshoe'.&lt;/ref&gt; Either the original letter may be reminiscent of the target sound (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɐ ə ɹ ʇ ʍ}}) or the turned one (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɔ ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ʌ ʎ&lt;!--like both y and lambda--&gt;}}). Rotation was popular in the era of [[Hot metal typesetting|mechanical typesetting]], as it had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols, much as the sorts had traditionally often pulled double duty for {{angbr|b}} and {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|d}} and {{angbr|p}}, {{angbr|n}} and {{angbr|u}}, {{angbr|6}} and {{angbr|9}} to reduce cost.
*:[[File:Turned small cap omega as a vowel.svg|thumb|An example of a font that uses turned small-capital omega, {{angbr|ꭥ}}, for the vowel {{angbr|ʊ}}. The symbol had originally been a small-capital {{angbr|ᴜ}}.]]
* Among consonant letters, the [[Small caps|small capital]] letters {{angbr IPA|ɢ ʜ ʟ ɴ ʀ ʁ}}, and also {{angbr IPA|ꞯ}} in [[extIPA]], indicate more [[guttural]] sounds than their base letters. ({{angbr IPA|ʙ}}&lt;!--for the bilabial trill--&gt; is a late exception.) Among vowel letters, small capitals indicate [[lax vowel|&quot;lax&quot;]] vowels. Most of the original small-cap vowel letters have been modified into more distinctive shapes (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʊ ɤ ɛ ʌ}} from {{sc|U Ɐ E A}}), with only {{angbr IPA|ɪ ʏ}} remaining as small capitals.

===Typography and iconicity===
The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the [[Latin script]], and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible.&lt;ref name = IPA194-196 /&gt; The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to &quot;international usage&quot; (approximately [[Classical Latin]]).&lt;ref name=IPA194-196/&gt; Hence, the consonant letters {{angbr IPA|b}}, {{angbr IPA|d}}, {{angbr IPA|f}}, ([[hard G|hard]]) {{angbr IPA|ɡ}}, (non-silent) {{angbr IPA|h}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|k}}, {{angbr IPA|l}}, {{angbr IPA|m}}, {{angbr IPA|n}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|p}}, (voiceless) {{angbr IPA|s}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|t}}, {{angbr IPA|v}}, {{angbr IPA|w}}, and {{angbr IPA|z}} have more or less the values found in English; and the vowel letters {{angbr IPA|a}}, {{angbr IPA|e}}, {{angbr IPA|i}}, {{angbr IPA|o}}, {{angbr IPA|u}} correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''mach{{strong|i}}ne'', {{IPA|[u]}} is as in ''r{{strong|u}}le'', etc. Other Latin letters, particularly {{angbr IPA|j}}, {{angbr IPA|r}} and {{angbr IPA|y}}, differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages.

This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation | quote = The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones. | publisher = International Phonetic Association | title = Handbook | page = 196}}.&lt;/ref&gt; For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent [[uvular consonant|uvular]] equivalents of their source letters. 

There are also several letters from the Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. The most extreme difference is {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which is a vowel in Greek but a consonant in the IPA. For most Greek letters, subtly different [[glyph]] shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꞵ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꭓ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which are encoded in [[Unicode]] separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – {{angbr IPA|θ}} – has only its Greek form, while for {{angbr IPA|ꞵ ~ β}} and {{angbr IPA|ꭓ ~ χ}}, both Greek and Latin forms are in common use.&lt;ref&gt;Cf. the notes at the [[Unicode]] [http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf#3 IPA EXTENSIONS code chart] as well as blogs by [http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/ Michael Everson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200655/http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/|date=10 October 2017}} and John Wells [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-1.html here] and [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-2.html here].&lt;/ref&gt;
The [[tone letter#IPA|tone letters]] are not derived from an alphabet, but from a [[pitch trace]] on a [[Scale (music)|musical scale]]. 

Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. [[Diacritic]] marks can be combined with IPA letters to add phonetic detail such as tone and [[secondary articulation]]s. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation.

===Brackets and transcription delimiters===

There are two principal types of [[bracket]]s used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! | Symbol !! Use
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center; | {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;]}} || [[Square brackets]] are used with [[phonetic]] notation, whether broad or narrow&lt;ref name=IPA175&gt;IPA ''Handbook'' p. 175&lt;/ref&gt; – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center; | {{IPA|/&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;/}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Slashes]]&lt;ref group=&quot;note&quot;&gt;[[Merriam-Webster]] dictionaries use [[backslash]]es {{IPA|\&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;\}} to demarcate their in-house transcription system. This distinguishes their IPA-influenced system&lt;!--the IPA influence is rather minimal, limited to the IPA stress marks and schwa, but the pronunciation data collected for MW's Third New International was in IPA and the IPA was seriously considered for its published transcription system.--&gt; from true IPA, which is used between forward slashes in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.&lt;/ref&gt; are used for abstract [[phonemic]] notation,&lt;ref name=IPA175/&gt; which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English ''pin'' and ''spin'' are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, ''phonemically'' the words are usually&lt;!--could also be analyzed /pin/ and /sbin/--&gt; analyzed as {{IPA|/ˈpɪn/}} and {{IPA|/ˈspɪn/}}, with the same phoneme {{IPA|/p/}}. To capture the difference between them (the [[allophone]]s of {{IPA|/p/}}), they can be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}} and {{IPA|[spɪn]}}. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility or other reasons can use symbols that diverge from their designated values, such as {{IPA|/c, ɟ/}} for affricates typically pronounced {{IPA|[t͜ʃ, d͜ʒ]}}, as found in the ''Handbook'', or {{IPA|/r/}}, which in phonetic notation is a trill, for English ''r'' even when pronounced {{IPA|[ɹʷ]}}.
|}

Other conventions are less commonly seen:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! | Symbol !! Use
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center; | {{IPA|&amp;#x007B;&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x007D;}} || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|Braces]] (&quot;curly brackets&quot;) are used for [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] notation.&lt;ref name=IPA176&gt;IPA ''Handbook'' p. 176&lt;/ref&gt; See [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for examples in this system.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center; | {{IPA|(&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;)}} || [[Parentheses]] are used for indistinguishable&lt;ref name=IPA175/&gt; or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing),&lt;ref name=IPA191&gt;IPA ''Handbook'' p. 191&lt;/ref&gt; where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example {{IPA|(…)}} or {{IPA|(2 sec)}}. The latter usage is made official in the [[extIPA]], with unidentified segments circled.&lt;ref&gt;IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 188, 192&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center; | {{IPA|⸨&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;⸩}} || [[Parenthesis|Double parentheses]] indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound,&lt;ref name=IPA176/&gt; as in {{IPA|⸨2σ⸩}}, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA ''Handbook'' identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent.&lt;ref&gt;IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 176, 192&lt;/ref&gt; Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking &quot;uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording,&quot; and that within them &quot;may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Duckworth et al. (1990) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232077905_Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet_for_the_transcription_of_atypical_speech Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech.] ''[[Clinical Linguistics &amp; Phonetics]]'' 4: 4: 278.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

All three of the above are provided by the IPA ''Handbook''. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets):
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! | Symbol !! Use
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center; | {{IPA|⟦&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;⟧}} || [[Square bracket|Double square brackets]] are used for extra-precise (especially narrow) transcription. This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, {{IPA|⟦a⟧}} is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that &quot;{{IPA|[a]}}&quot; may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as {{angbr IPA|[e]}} and {{angbr IPA|[ɛ]}} may be clarified as actually being {{IPA|⟦e̝⟧}} and {{IPA|⟦e⟧}}; {{angbr IPA|[ð]}} may be more precisely {{IPA|⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧}}.&lt;ref&gt;Basbøll (2005) ''The Phonology of Danish'' pp. 45, 59&lt;/ref&gt; Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a child as opposed to the adult phonetic pronunciation that is their target.&lt;ref&gt;Karlsson &amp; Sullivan (2005) ''/sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish: Acoustic measurements of phonological development''&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center; | {{IPA|⫽&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;⫽&lt;br&gt;&amp;#x007C;&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x007C;&lt;br&gt;‖&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;‖&lt;br&gt;&amp;#x007B;&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x007D;}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Double slashes]] are used for [[morphophonemic]] transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree (in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription).

Other symbols sometimes seen for morphophonemic transcription are [[vertical bar|pipes]] and double pipes, from [[Americanist phonetic notation]]; and ''braces'' from [[set theory]], especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. {{IPA|&amp;#x007B;t d&amp;#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&amp;#x007B;t&amp;#x007C;d&amp;#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&amp;#x007B;/t/, /d/&amp;#x007D;}}. Only double slashes are unambiguous: both pipes and braces conflict with IPA prosodic transcription.&lt;ref group=note&gt;For example, the single and double pipe symbols are used for minor and major prosodic breaks. Although the ''Handbook'' specifies the prosodic symbols as &quot;thick&quot; vertical lines, which would be distinct from simple ASCII pipes (and similar to [[Dania transcription|Dania]] transcription), this is optional and was intended to keep them distinct from the pipes used as [[click letter]]s (''JIPA'' 19.2, p. 75). The ''Handbook'' (p. 174) assigns them the Unicode encodings U+007C, which is the simple ASCII pipe symbol, and U+2016.&lt;/ref&gt; See [[morphophonology]] for examples.
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center; | {{angbr IPA|&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|⟪&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;⟫}} || [[Angle bracket]]s&lt;ref group=&quot;note&quot;&gt;The proper angle brackets in Unicode are the mathematical symbols (U+27E8 and U+27E9). Chevrons ‹...› (U+2039, U+203A) are sometimes substituted, as in Americanist phonetic notation, as are the less-than and greater-than signs &lt;...&gt; (U+003C, U+003E) found on ASCII keyboards.&lt;/ref&gt; are used to mark both original Latin orthography and [[transliteration]] from another script&lt;!--including e.g. Arabic and Chinese characters used to transcribe Latin script--&gt;; they are also used to identify individual [[grapheme]]s of any script.&lt;ref&gt;Richard Sproat (2000) ''A Computational Theory of Writing Systems''. Cambridge University Press. Page 26.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 8 ff, 29 ff.&lt;/ref&gt; Within the IPA, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language.

For example, {{angbr IPA|cot}} would be used for the orthography of the English word ''cot'', as opposed to its pronunciation {{IPA|/ˈkɒt/}}. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with ''cot'' in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, italic markup is not evident to sight-impaired readers who rely on [[screen reader]] technology. 
|}

Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature:
{{block quote|In some English accents, the phoneme {{IPA|/l/}}, which is usually spelled as {{angbr|l}} or {{angbr|ll}}, is articulated as two distinct allophones: the clear {{IPA|[l]}} occurs before vowels and the consonant {{IPA|/j/}}, whereas the dark {{IPA|[ɫ]}}/{{IPA|[lˠ]}} occurs before consonants, except {{IPA|/j/}}, and at the end of words.&lt;ref&gt;Paul Tench (2011) ''Transcribing the Sound of English''. Cambridge University Press. Page 61.&lt;/ref&gt;}}

{{block quote|the alternations {{IPA|/f/}} &amp;ndash; {{IPA|/v/}} in plural formation in one class of nouns, as in ''knife'' {{IPA|/naɪf/}} &amp;ndash; ''knives'' {{IPA|/naɪvz/}}, which can be represented morphophonemically as {{IPA|{naɪV}}} &amp;ndash; {{IPA|{naɪV+z}}}. The morphophoneme {{IPA|{V}}} stands for the phoneme set {{IPA|{/f/, /v/}}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1= Gibbon |first1= Dafydd |last2= Moore |first2= Roger |last3= Winski |first3= Richard |title= Handbook of Standards and Resources for Spoken Language Systems: Spoken language characterisation |date= 1998 |publisher= Walter de Gruyter |location= Berlin; New York |isbn= 9783110157345 |pages=61 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8cxtWcsAk5MC&amp;pg=PA61 |language= en}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

{{block quote|{{IPA|[ˈf\faɪnəlz ˈhɛld ɪn (.) ⸨knock on door⸩ bɑɹsə{&lt;sub&gt;𝑝&lt;/sub&gt;ˈloʊnə and ˈmədɹɪd&lt;sub&gt; 𝑝&lt;/sub&gt;}]}} &amp;mdash; ''f-finals held in Barcelona and Madrid.''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Ball |first1=Martin J. |last2=Lowry |first2=Orla M. |author1-link=Martin J. Ball |title=Methods in Clinical Phonetics |url=https://archive.org/details/methodsinclinica0000ball |date=2001 |publisher=Whurr |location=London |isbn=9781861561848 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/methodsinclinica0000ball/page/80 80] |chapter=Transcribing Disordered Speech |doi=10.1002/9780470777879.ch3|s2cid=58518097 }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

===Other representations===
{{main|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA Braille}}
IPA letters have [[cursive]] forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the 1999 ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is &quot;harder for most people to decipher.&quot;{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=31}} A [[braille]] representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Englebretson |first=Robert |date=2009 |title=An overview of IPA Braille: an updated tactile representation of the International Phonetic Alphabet |url=http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~reng/englebretson2009.pdf |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=39 |issue=1 |page=67 |access-date=5 April 2014 |doi=10.1017/s0025100308003691|citeseerx=10.1.1.501.366 |s2cid=36426880 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=={{anchor|chart}}Modifying the IPA chart==
[[File:Extended IPA chart 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.25|The authors of textbooks or similar publications often create revised versions of the IPA chart to express their own preferences or needs. The image displays one such version. All pulmonic consonants are moved to the consonant chart. Only the black symbols are on the official IPA chart; additional symbols are in grey. The grey fricatives are part of the [[extIPA]], and the grey retroflex letters are mentioned or implicit&lt;!--'implicit' is the description used in the Unicode request for support for the missing retroflex letters--&gt; in the ''Handbook''. The grey click is a retired IPA letter that is still in use.]]
The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See [[History of the International Phonetic Alphabet|History of the IPA]].) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] and [[epiglottal consonant|epiglottal]] consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the [[lateral flap]] would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of &quot;other symbols&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Esling|first=John H.|author-link=John Esling|year=2010|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor1-last=Hardcastle|editor1-first=William J.|editor2-last=Laver|editor2-first=John|editor3-last=Gibbon|editor3-first=Fiona E.|title=The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofphonet0000unse_o9n0|edition=2nd|pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofphonet0000unse_o9n0/page/678 678]–702|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781444317251.ch18|isbn=978-1-4051-4590-9}} pp.&amp;nbsp;688, 693.&lt;/ref&gt; The indefinitely large number of [[Chao tone letter|tone letters]] would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all.

The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the ''[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association|Journal of the IPA]].'' (See, for example, August 2008 on an [[open central unrounded vowel]] and August 2011 on central approximants.)&lt;ref name=&quot;cambridge1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|author1=Martin J. Ball |author2=Joan Rahilly |title=The symbolization of central approximants in the IPA |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=231–237 |publisher=Cambridge Journals Online |date=August 2011 |doi=10.1017/s0025100311000107|s2cid=144408497 }}&lt;!-- Author, title, pages are unknown because the url is simply a link to the issue TOC. The same inadequate citation applies to the next reference. --&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayIssue?decade=2000&amp;jid=IPA&amp;volumeId=39&amp;issueId=02&amp;iid=5907924 |title=Cambridge Journals Online – Journal of the International Phonetic Association Vol. 39 Iss. 02 |publisher=Journals.cambridge.org |date=23 October 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |title=IPA: About us |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121905/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; – which is elected by the membership&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |title=IPA: Statutes |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121941/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; – for further discussion and a formal vote.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181340/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |archive-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181349/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |archive-date=11 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nonetheless, many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from this norm.&lt;ref group=note&gt;See &quot;Illustrations of the IPA&quot; in the ''IPA Handbook'' (1999) for individual languages which for example may use {{angbr|/c/}} as a phonemic symbol for what is phonetically realized as {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, or superscript variants of IPA letters that are not officially defined.&lt;/ref&gt;
The ''Journal of the IPA'' finds it acceptable to mix IPA and [[extIPA]] symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|{{angbr IPA|𝼆}}]], rather than {{angbr IPA|ʎ̝̊}}, in an illustration of the IPA.)&lt;ref name=pulmonic/&gt;

==Usage==
{{further|Phonetic transcription}}
Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a ''narrow transcription''. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a ''broad transcription.'' Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.&lt;ref name=&quot;IPA 1999&quot;/&gt; Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language.
[[File:RPGA international.svg|200px|thumb|Phonetic transcriptions of the word ''international'' in two English dialects]]

For example, the English word ''little'' may be transcribed broadly as {{IPA|[ˈlɪtəl]}}, approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: {{IPA|[ˈɫɪɾɫ]}} in [[General American]], {{IPA|[ˈlɪʔo]}} in [[Cockney]], or {{IPA|[ˈɫɪːɫ]}} in [[Southern American English|Southern US English]].

Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of ''pick'' or the vowel of ''peak'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/i/}}, so that ''pick'', ''peak'' would be transcribed as {{IPA|/ˈpik, ˈpiːk/}} or as {{IPA|/ˈpɪk, ˈpik/}}; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French ''{{lang|fr|pique}}'' which would also be transcribed {{IPA|/pik/}}. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of ''pick'', ''peak'', ''pique'' could be: {{IPA|[pʰɪk]}}, {{IPA|[pʰiːk]}}, {{IPA|[pikʲ]}}.

===Linguists===
IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with [[Americanist phonetic notation]] or use some [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|nonstandard symbols]] for various reasons.&lt;ref name=&quot;thomason&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005287.html |title=Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet |author=Sally Thomason |date=2 January 2008 |work=Language Log }}&lt;/ref&gt; Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time.

===Dictionaries===
====English====
Many British dictionaries, including the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] and some [[Monolingual learner's dictionary|learner's dictionaries]] such as the ''[[Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'' and the ''[[Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'', now use [[Pronunciation respelling for English#International Phonetic Alphabet|the International Phonetic Alphabet]] to represent the pronunciation of words.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm |title=Phonetics |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge Dictionaries Online |access-date=11 March 2007 |archive-date=17 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817233308/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of [[Pronunciation respelling for English|pronunciation respelling]] systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without the implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as ''[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary|Merriam-Webster]]'') use {{angbr|y}} for IPA {{IPA|[&amp;thinsp;j]}} and {{angbr|sh}} for IPA {{IPA|[&amp;thinsp;ʃ&amp;thinsp;]}}, reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/pronunciation-key |title=Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols |access-date=4 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601152219/http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |archive-date=1 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;br /&gt;{{Cite book|first=Michael|last=Agnes|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=0-02-863119-6|page=xxiii|no-pp=true|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld00agne_0|url-access=registration}}&lt;br /&gt;''[[Pronunciation respelling for English]]'' has detailed comparisons.&lt;/ref&gt; 
(In IPA, {{IPA|[y]}} represents the sound of the French {{angbr|u}}, as in ''{{lang|fr|tu}}'', and {{IPA|[sh]}} represents the sequence of consonants in ''gra{{strong|ssh}}opper''.)

====Other languages====
The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with [[phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for transcription of foreign words.&lt;ref group=note&gt;Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, the ''[[Even-Shoshan Dictionary]]'' respells {{Script/Hebrew|תָּכְנִית}} as {{angbr|{{Script/Hebrew|תּוֹכְנִית}}}} because the word uses the ''[[kamatz]] katan''.&lt;/ref&gt; Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.&lt;ref group=note&gt;For example, [[Sergey Ozhegov]]'s dictionary adds [нэ́] in brackets to the French loan-word ''пенсне'' (''{{lang|fr|[[pince-nez]]}}'') to indicate that the final {{angbr|[[е]]}} does not [[Iotation|iotate]] the preceding {{angbr|[[н]]}}.
&lt;/ref&gt; The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in [[Czech language|Czech]].&lt;ref&gt;{{in lang|cs}} {{Cite book|last=Fronek|first=J.|title=Velký anglicko-český slovník|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_KR-540-475|year=2006|publisher=Leda|location=Praha|language=cs|isbn=80-7335-022-X|quote=In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Standard orthographies and case variants===
{{main|Case variants of IPA letters}}
IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the [[Africa Alphabet]] in many sub-Saharan languages such as [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Akan language|Akan]], [[Gbe languages]], [[Manding languages]], [[Lingala language|Lingala]], etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, [[Kabiyé language|Kabiyè]] of northern [[Togo]] has [[African D|Ɖ ɖ]], [[Eng (letter)|Ŋ ŋ]], [[Latin gamma|Ɣ ɣ]], [[Open O|Ɔ ɔ]], [[Latin epsilon|Ɛ ɛ]], [[Ʋ|Ʋ ʋ]]. These, and others, are supported by [[Unicode]], but appear in Latin ranges other than the [[IPA Extensions (Unicode block)|IPA extensions]].

In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk {{angbr|*}} might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name,&lt;ref&gt;''Principles of the International Phonetic Association,'' 1949:17.&lt;/ref&gt; but this convention was not included in the 1999 ''Handbook'', which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol.

===Classical singing===
The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Severens|first=Sara E.|year=2017|title=The Effects of the International Phonetic Alphabet in Singing|journal=Student Scholar Showcase|url=https://digitalshowcase.lynchburg.edu/studentshowcase/2017/presentations/53/|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Opera [[libretto]]s are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as [[Nico Castel]]'s volumes&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | title=Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series | publisher=Castel Opera Arts | access-date=29 September 2008 | archive-date=24 July 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724211024/http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; and Timothy Cheek's book ''Singing in Czech''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book | url=http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&amp;db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&amp;eqSKUdata=0810840030 | last=Cheek | first=Timothy | title=Singing in Czech | year=2001 | page=392 | isbn=978-0-8108-4003-4 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | access-date=25 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&amp;db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&amp;eqSKUdata=0810840030 | archive-date=7 October 2011 | url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&amp;db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&amp;eqSKUdata=0810840030 |date=7 October 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site ''Visual Thesaurus'', which employed several opera singers &quot;to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database&amp;nbsp;... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155 | title=Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus | last=Zimmer | first=Benjamin | author-link=Benjamin Zimmer | work=[[Language Log]] | publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] | access-date=29 September 2009 | date=14 May 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Letters==
{{See also|International Phonetic Alphabet chart}}
The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: [[pulmonic sounds|pulmonic]] consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels.&quot; (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;3)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;6.&lt;/ref&gt;

Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless ([[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among 'other symbols' even though theoretically they belong in the main chart,&lt;ref group=note&gt;They were moved &quot;for presentational convenience [...] because of [their] rarity and the small number of types of sounds which are found there.&quot; (IPA ''Handbook'', p 18)&lt;/ref&gt; and with the remaining consonants arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals), to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives) and minimal closure (approximants), again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common [[lenition]] pathway of ''stop → fricative → approximant,'' as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; [[affricate]]s may be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible.

Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the 'other symbols'.

===Consonants===
====Pulmonic consonants====
{{see also|IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio}}
A [[Egressive|pulmonic]] consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the [[glottis]] (the space between the vocal cords) or [[Human mouth|oral cavity]] (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|author-link=Victoria Fromkin|author2=Rodman, Robert|title=An Introduction to Language|orig-year=1974|year=1998|publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location=Fort Worth, TX|edition=6th|isbn=0-03-018682-X|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate [[manner of articulation]], meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate [[place of articulation]], meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.
{{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}}

'''Notes'''
* In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the letter to the right represents a [[voice (phonetics)|voiced consonant]] (except [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}).&lt;ref&gt;Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §2.1.&lt;/ref&gt; In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single letter represents a voiced consonant.
* While IPA provides a single letter for the coronal places of articulation (for all consonants but fricatives), these do not always have to be used exactly. When dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics.
* Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
* The letters {{IPA|[β, ð, ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} are canonically voiced fricatives but may be used for approximants.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;A symbol such as {{IPA|[β]}}, shown on the chart in the position for a voiced bilabial fricative, can also be used to represent a voiced bilabial approximant if needed.&quot; (''Handbook'', p.9)&lt;/ref&gt;
* In many languages, such as English, {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[ɦ]}} are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare [[phonation]].&lt;ref&gt;Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §9.3.&lt;/ref&gt;
* It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}.
* {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} are defined as epiglottal fricatives under the &quot;Other symbols&quot; section in the official IPA chart, but they may be treated as trills at the same place of articulation as {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} because trilling of the [[aryepiglottic fold]]s typically co-occurs.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|pp=688–9}}
* Some listed phones are not known to exist as [[phoneme]]s in any language.

====Non-pulmonic consonants====
Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include [[click consonant|clicks]] (found in the [[Khoisan languages]] and some neighboring [[Bantu languages]] of Africa), [[Implosive consonant|implosives]] (found in languages such as [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]), and [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] (found in many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian]] and [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]]).
{{IPA non-pulmonic consonants|caption=|nonipa=no|affricates=no|notes=no}}

'''Notes'''
* Clicks have traditionally been described as consisting of a forward place of articulation, commonly called the click 'type' or historically the 'influx', and a rear place of articulation, which when combined with the voicing, aspiration, nasalization, affrication, ejection, [[contour click|timing]] etc. of the click is commonly called the click 'accompaniment' or historically the 'efflux'. The IPA click letters indicate only the click type (forward articulation and release). Therefore, all clicks require two letters for proper notation: {{angbr IPA|k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ}} ''etc.'', or with the order reversed if both the forward and rear releases are audible. The letter for the rear articulation is frequently omitted, in which case a {{angbr IPA|k}} may usually be assumed. However, some researchers dispute the idea that clicks should be analyzed as doubly articulated, as the traditional transcription implies, and analyze the rear occlusion as solely a part of the airstream mechanism.&lt;ref&gt;Amanda L. Miller ''et al.'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609200226/http://ling.cornell.edu/plab/amanda/amiller_jipa.pdf &quot;Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops&quot;]. Submitted to the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association''. Retrieved 27 May 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; In transcriptions of such approaches, the click letter represents both places of articulation, with the different letters representing the different click types, and diacritics are used for the elements of the accompaniment: {{angbr IPA|ǂ, ǂ̬, ǂ̃}} ''etc.''
* Letters for the [[voiceless]] implosives {{angbr IPA|ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥, ʛ̥}}, ''etc.''.
* The letter for the [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], &lt;span title=&quot;U+1D91&quot;&gt;{{angbr IPA|ᶑ }}&lt;/span&gt;, is not &quot;explicitly IPA approved&quot; (''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;166), but has the expected form if such a symbol were to be approved.
* The ejective diacritic is placed at the right-hand margin of the consonant, rather than immediately after the letter for the stop: {{angbr IPA|t͜ʃʼ}}, {{angbr IPA|kʷʼ}}. In imprecise transcription, it often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mˀ]}}, {{IPA|[lˀ]}}, {{IPA|[wˀ]}}, {{IPA|[aˀ]}} (also transcribable as creaky {{IPA|[m̰]}}, {{IPA|[l̰]}}, {{IPA|[w̰]}}, {{IPA|[a̰]}}).

====Affricates====
[[Affricate consonant|Affricates]] and [[Doubly articulated consonant|co-articulated]] stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning.&lt;ref group=note&gt;It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in {{cite web|author=Niesler, Louw, &amp; Roux | date = 2005| title=Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases|url= http://www.ajol.info/index.php/salas/article/viewFile/6562/13287|publisher=Ajol.info|access-date=20 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Affricates are optionally represented by [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʦ, ʣ, ʧ, ʤ, ʨ, ʥ, ꭧ, ꭦ&amp;thinsp;}}), though this is no longer official IPA usage&lt;ref name=&quot;IPA 1999&quot;/&gt; because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} for {{IPA|[t͜s]}}, paralleling {{IPA|[kˣ]}} ~ {{IPA|[k͜x]}}. The letters for the palatal plosives {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are often used as a convenience for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}} or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.
{{IPA affricates|caption=|notes=no}}

====Co-articulated consonants====
[[Co-articulated consonant]]s are sounds that involve two simultaneous [[Place of articulation|places of articulation]] (are pronounced using two parts of the [[vocal tract]]). In English, the {{IPA|[w]}} in &quot;went&quot; is a coarticulated consonant, being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Similar sounds are {{IPA|[ʍ]}} and {{IPA|[ɥ]}}. In some languages, plosives can be double-articulated, for example in the name of [[Laurent Gbagbo]]. 
{{IPA co-articulated consonants|caption=|notes=no}}

'''Notes'''
* {{IPA|[ɧ]}}, the [[sj-sound|Swedish ''sj''-sound]], is described by the IPA as a &quot;simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}&quot;, but it is unlikely such a simultaneous fricative actually exists in any language.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |author2=Ian Maddieson |year=1996 |title=The sounds of the world's languages |url=https://archive.org/details/soundsofworldsla0000lade |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell|pages=[https://archive.org/details/soundsofworldsla0000lade/page/329 329]–330|isbn=0-631-19815-6|author2-link=Ian Maddieson }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Multiple tie bars can be used: {{angbr IPA|a͡b͡c}} or {{angbr IPA|a͜b͜c}}. For instance, if a prenasalized stop is transcribed {{angbr IPA|m͡b}}, and a doubly articulated stop {{angbr IPA|ɡ͡b}}, then a prenasalized doubly articulated stop would be {{angbr IPA|ŋ͡m͡ɡ͡b}}
* If a diacritic needs to be placed on or under a tie bar, the [[combining grapheme joiner]] (U+034F) needs to be used, as in {{IPA|[b͜͏̰də̀bdɷ̀]}} 'chewed' ([[Margi language|Margi]]). Font support is spotty, however.

===Vowels===
{{Main|Vowel}}
{{see also|IPA vowel chart with audio}}
[[File:Cardinal vowel tongue position-front.svg|thumb|Tongue positions of [[Cardinal vowel|cardinal]] front vowels, with highest point indicated. The position of the highest point is used to determine vowel height and backness.]]
[[File:Cardinal vowels-Jones x-ray.jpg|thumb|[[Radiography|X-ray photos]] show the sounds {{IPA|[i, u, a, ɑ]}}.]]

The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.&lt;ref&gt;International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;10.&lt;/ref&gt; Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue.
{{IPA vowels|caption=|notes=no}}

The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by [[vowel height]]. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (the first vowel in ''father'') is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. {{IPA|[i]}} (the vowel in &quot;meet&quot;) is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth.

In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by [[vowel backness]]. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, the vowel in &quot;met&quot;) are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, the vowel in &quot;but&quot;) are placed to the right in the chart.

In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a [[Roundedness|rounded vowel]] (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart.

====Diphthongs====
[[Diphthong]]s are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in {{angbr IPA|uɪ̯}} or {{angbr IPA|u̯ɪ}}, or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in {{angbr IPA|uᶦ}} or {{angbr IPA|ᵘɪ}}. Sometimes a tie bar is used: {{angbr IPA|u͡ɪ}}, especially if it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide, an off-glide or is variable.

'''Notes'''
* {{angbr IPA|a}} officially represents a front vowel, but there is little if any distinction between front and central open vowels (see {{section link|Vowel#Acoustics}}), and {{angbr IPA|a}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.&lt;ref name=&quot;thomason&quot; /&gt; If disambiguation is required, the [[Retraction (phonetics)|retraction diacritic]] or the [[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|centralized diacritic]] may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in {{angbr IPA|a̠}} or {{angbr IPA|ä}}.

==Diacritics and prosodic notation {{anchor|Diacritics}}==
[[Diacritic]]s are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.&lt;ref name=IPA15&gt;International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&amp;nbsp;14–15.&lt;/ref&gt;

By being made superscript, any IPA letter may function as a diacritic, conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter. Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA ''Handbook''; other uses can be illustrated with {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} ({{IPA|[t]}} with fricative release), {{angbr IPA|ᵗs}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with affricate onset), {{angbr IPA|ⁿd}} (prenasalized {{IPA|[d]}}), {{angbr IPA|bʱ}} ({{IPA|[b]}} with breathy voice), {{angbr IPA|mˀ}} (glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}), {{angbr IPA|sᶴ}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with a flavor of {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, i.e. a [[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]]), {{angbr IPA|oᶷ}} ({{IPA|[o]}} with [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]]), {{angbr IPA|ɯᵝ}} ([[compressed vowel|compressed]] {{IPA|[ɯ]}}). Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound. For example, labialized {{angbr IPA|kʷ}} may mean either simultaneous {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} or else {{IPA|[k]}} with a labialized release. Superscript diacritics placed before a letter, on the other hand, normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound ({{angbr IPA|mˀ}} glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}, {{angbr IPA|ˀm}} {{IPA|[m]}} with a glottal onset). (See {{section link|#Superscript IPA}}.)

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=6|Syllabicity diacritics
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̩}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ɹ̩ n̩}}
|rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]]
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̯}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ɪ̯ ʊ̯}}
|rowspan=2|[[Semivowel|Non-syllabic]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̍}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ɻ̍ ŋ̍}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̑}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|y̑}}
|-
! colspan=6|Consonant-release diacritics
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ʰ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|tʰ}}
|[[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̚}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|p̚}}
|[[No audible release]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ⁿ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|dⁿ}}
|[[Nasal release]]
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ˡ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|dˡ}}
|[[Lateral release (phonetics)|Lateral release]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ᶿ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|tᶿ}}
|Voiceless dental fricative release
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ˣ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|tˣ}}
|Voiceless velar fricative release
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ᵊ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|dᵊ}}
|Mid central vowel release
|colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=6|Phonation diacritics
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̥}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; |{{IPA|n̥ d̥}}
|rowspan=2|[[Voiceless]]
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̬}}
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|s̬ t̬}}
|rowspan=2|[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̊}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; |{{IPA|ɻ̊ ŋ̊}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̤}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; |{{IPA|b̤ a̤}}
|[[Breathy voice]]d{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̰}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|b̰ a̰}}
|[[Creaky voice]]d
|-
! colspan=6|Articulation diacritics
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̪}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; |{{IPA|t̪ d̪}}
|rowspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̼}}
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|t̼ d̼}}
|rowspan=2|[[Linguolabial consonant|Linguolabial]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌͆}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; |{{IPA|ɮ͆}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̺}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|t̺ d̺}}
|[[Apical consonant|Apical]]
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̻}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|t̻ d̻}}
|[[Laminal consonant|Laminal]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̟}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|u̟ t̟}}
|rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Advanced (fronted)]]
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̠}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|i̠ t̠}}
|rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Retracted (backed)]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌᫈}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ɡ᫈}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̄}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|q̄}}{{ref label|retracted|b|}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̈}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ë ä}}
|[[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|Centralized]]
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̽}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|e̽ ɯ̽}}
|[[Mid-centralized]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̝}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|e̝ r̝}}
|rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Raised]] &lt;br&gt;({{IPA|[r̝], [ɭ˔]}} are fricatives)
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̞}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|e̞ β̞}}
|rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Lowered]] &lt;br&gt;({{IPA|[β̞], [ɣ˕]}} are approximants)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌˔}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ɭ˔}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌˕}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|y˕ ɣ˕}}
|-
! colspan=6|Co-articulation diacritics
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̹}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ɔ̹ x̹}}
|rowspan=2| More [[Roundedness|rounded]]&lt;br&gt;(over-rounding)
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̜}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ɔ̜ xʷ̜}}
|rowspan=2| Less rounded&lt;br&gt;(under-rounding){{ref label|less rounded labialization|c|}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌͗}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|y͗ χ͗}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌͑}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|y͑ χ͑ʷ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ʷ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|tʷ dʷ}}
|[[Labialization|Labialized]]
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ʲ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|tʲ dʲ}}
|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ˠ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|tˠ dˠ}}
|[[Velarization|Velarized]]
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̴}}
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA link|ɫ}} {{IPA|ᵶ}}
|rowspan=2|Velarized or pharyngealized
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌ˤ}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|tˤ aˤ}}
|[[Pharyngealization|Pharyngealized]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̘}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|e̘ o̘}}
|rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Advanced tongue root]]
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̙}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|e̙ o̙}}
|rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Retracted tongue root]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌&amp;#xAB6A;}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|y&amp;#xAB6A;}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌&amp;#xAB6B;}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|y&amp;#xAB6B;}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌̃}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ẽ z̃}}
|[[Nasalization|Nasalized]]
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;&quot; |{{IPA|◌˞}}
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|ɚ ɝ}}
|[[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]]
|}

'''Notes'''
: {{note|Aspirated|a}} With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is usually also voiced (voiced aspirated – but see [[aspirated voiced|voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration]]). Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice over simple aspiration, such as {{angbr IPA|b̤}}. Some linguists restrict that diacritic to [[sonorant]]s, such as breathy-voice {{angbr IPA|m̤}}, and transcribe voiced-aspirated obstruents as e.g. {{angbr IPA|bʱ}}.
: {{note|retracted|b}} Care must be taken that a superscript retraction sign is not mistaken for mid tone.
: {{note|less rounded labialization|c}} These are relative to the cardinal value of the letter. They can also apply to unrounded vowels: {{IPA|[ɛ̜]}} is more spread (less rounded) than cardinal {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, and {{IPA|[ɯ̹]}} is less spread than cardinal {{IPA|[ɯ]}}.&lt;ref&gt;'Further report on the 1989 Kiel Convention', ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'' 20:2 (December 1990), p. 23.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;Since {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} can mean that the {{IPA|[x]}} is labialized (rounded) throughout its articulation, and {{angbr IPA|x̜}} makes no sense ({{IPA|[x]}} is already completely unrounded), {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} can only mean a less-labialized/rounded {{IPA|[xʷ]}}. However, readers might mistake {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} for &quot;{{IPA|[x̜]}}&quot; with a labialized off-glide, or might wonder if the two diacritics cancel each other out. Placing the 'less rounded' diacritic under the labialization diacritic, {{angbr IPA|xʷ̜}}, makes it clear that it is the labialization that is 'less rounded' than its cardinal IPA value.

Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a [[descender]], as in voiceless {{angbr IPA|ŋ̊}}.&lt;ref name=IPA15 /&gt; The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms {{angbr IPA|˔}}, {{angbr IPA|˕}} that avoid descenders.

The state of the [[glottis]] can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis [[phonation]] is:

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Phonation scale
|-
! Open glottis
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; |{{IPA|[t]}}
|[[voiceless]]
|-
|
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|[d̤]}}
|[[breathy voice]], also called ''murmured''
|-
|
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|[d̥]}}
|[[slack voice]]
|-
![[Sweet spot (phonetics)|Sweet spot]]
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|[d]}}
|[[modal voice]]
|-
|
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|[d̬]}}
|[[stiff voice]]
|-
|
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|[d̰]}}
|[[creaky voice]]
|-
!Closed glottis
|style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; |{{IPA|[ʔ͡t]}}
|glottal closure
|}

Additional diacritics are provided by the [[Extensions to the IPA]] for speech pathology.

===Suprasegmentals===
These symbols describe the features of a language above the [[Phonological hierarchy|level]] of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or [[phrase]]. These include [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], pitch, [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], intensity, [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the [[rhythm]] and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] of speech.&lt;ref name=&quot;Handbook13&quot;&gt;International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;13.&lt;/ref&gt; Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the [[Kiel Convention]] and used in the IPA ''Handbook'' despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart.

Under [[#Capital letters|capital letters]] below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}} or prefixed {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}},&lt;ref&gt;Cf. the {{IPA|/ʷ.../}} and {{IPA|/ʲ.../}} transcriptions in Eszter Ernst-Kurdi (2017) ''The Phonology of Mada'', SIL Yaoundé.&lt;/ref&gt; or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as {{angbr IPA|˔}}&lt;!--a spacing ATR or RTR diacritic would be a better example, when those have broader font support--&gt; or {{angbr IPA|˜}} at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.&lt;ref&gt;E.g. Aaron Dolgopolsky (2013) ''Indo-European Dictionary with Nostratic Etymologies''.&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=4|Length, stress, and rhythm
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ˈke}}
| Primary [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] (appears&lt;br /&gt; before stressed syllable)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ˌke}}
| [[Secondary stress]] (appears&lt;br /&gt; before stressed syllable)
|-
| rowspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|eː kː}}
| rowspan=2 | [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or&lt;br /&gt;[[gemination|geminate consonant]])
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|eˑ}}
| Half-long
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ə̆ ɢ̆}}
| [[Extra-short]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ek.ste}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|eks.te}}
| [[Syllable]] break &lt;br&gt;(internal boundary)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|es‿e}}
| [[Connected speech|Linking]] (lack of a boundary; &lt;br&gt;a [[phonological word]])&lt;ref group=note&gt;The IPA ''Handbook'' variously defines the &quot;linking&quot; symbol as marking the &quot;lack of a boundary&quot; (p. 23) or &quot;absence of a break&quot; (p. 174), and gives [[French liaison]] and English [[linking r]] as examples. The illustration for Croatian uses it to tie atonic [[clitic]]s to tonic words, with no resulting change in implied syllable structure. It is also sometimes used simply to indicate that the consonant ending one word forms a syllable with the vowel beginning the following word.&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! colspan=4|Intonation
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|{{!}}}}
| [[Prosodic unit|Minor or foot break]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|‖}}
| [[Prosodic unit|Major or intonation break]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|↗&amp;#xFE0E;}}
| [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global rise]]&lt;ref group=note name=&quot;global&quot;&gt;The global rise and fall arrows come before the affected syllable or prosodic unit, like stress and upstep/downstep. This contrasts with the Chao tone letters (listed below), which most commonly come after. One will occasionally see a horizontal arrow {{angbr IPA|→}} for global level pitch (only dropping due to [[downdrift]]), e.g. in Julie Barbour (2012) ''A Grammar of Neverver''. Additionally, some fonts display the arrows as [[emoji]] by default, if &amp;amp;#xFE0E; is not appended.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|↘&amp;#xFE0E;}}
| [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global fall]]&lt;ref group=note name=&quot;global&quot;/&gt;
|-
! colspan=4|Up- and down-step
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ꜛke}}
| [[Upstep (phonetics)|Upstep]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ꜜke}}
| [[Downstep (phonetics)|Downstep]]
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=13|Pitch diacritics&lt;ref group=note name=pitch&gt;There is not a one-to-one correspondence between tone diacritics and tone letters. When pitch is transcribed with diacritics, the three pitches {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are taken as the basic levels and are called 'high', 'mid' and 'low'. Contour tones combine only these three and are called {{angbr IPA|e᷇}} 'high-mid' etc. The more extreme pitches, which do not form contours, are {{angbr IPA|e̋}} 'extra-high' and {{angbr IPA|ȅ}} 'extra-low', using [[#Comparative degree|doubled diacritics]]. When transcribed with tone letters, however, combinations of all five levels are possible. Thus, {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}} may be called 'high', 'mid' and 'low', with {{angbr IPA|e˦ e˨}} being 'near-high' and 'near-low', analogous to descriptions of vowel height. In a three-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}}, but in a five-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|e̋ ȅ}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˩}} (''JIPA'' 19.2: 76).&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ̋ e̋}} 
| Extra high
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ̌ ě}}
| Rising
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ᷄ e᷄}}
| Mid-rising
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ́ é}} 
| High
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ̂ ê}}
| Falling
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ᷅ e᷅}}
| Low-rising
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ̄ ē}}
| Mid
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ᷈ e᷈}}
| Peaking (rising&amp;ndash;falling)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ᷇ e᷇}}
| High-falling
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ̀ è}} 
| Low
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ᷉ e᷉}}
| Dipping (falling&amp;ndash;rising)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ᷆ e᷆}}
| Mid-falling
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{nowrap|{{IPA|ŋ̏ ȅ}}}}
| Extra low
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; colspan=4| (''etc.'')&lt;ref group=note&gt;Although any combination of tone diacritics is theoretically possible, such as {{angbr IPA|e᪰}} for a falling&amp;ndash;rising&amp;ndash;falling tone, any other than those illustrated are vanishingly rare.&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=5|[[Chao tone letter]]s&lt;ref group=note name=pitch/&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|˥e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|꜒e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|e˥}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|e꜒}}
| High
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|˦e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|꜓e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˦}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e꜓}}
| Half-high
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|˧e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|꜔e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˧}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e꜔}}
| Mid
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|˨e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|꜕e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˨}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e꜕}}
| Half-low
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|˩e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|꜖e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˩}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e꜖}}
| Low
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|˩˥e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|꜖꜒e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˩˥}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e꜖꜒}}
| Rising (low to high or generic)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|˥˩e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|꜒꜖e}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˥˩}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e꜒꜖}}
| Falling (high to low or generic)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; colspan=5| (''etc.'')
|}

The old staveless tone letters, which are effectively obsolete, include high {{angbr IPA|ˉe}}, mid {{angbr IPA|˗e}}, low {{angbr IPA|ˍe}}, rising {{angbr IPA|ˊe}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ˋe}}. 

====Stress====
Officially, the [[Stress (linguistics)|stress marks]] {{angbr IPA|ˈ ˌ}} appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period).&lt;ref name=report/&gt; Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|p=691}} In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be [[#Comparative degree|doubled]] {{angbr IPA|ˈˈ}} for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA.&lt;ref name=report/&gt; Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, {{angbr IPA|¦}}, to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.&lt;ref&gt;For example, {{MW|Balearic}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Boundary markers====
There are three boundary markers: {{angbr IPA|.}} for a syllable break, {{angbr IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}} for a minor prosodic break and {{angbr IPA|‖}} for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a [[foot (prosody)|foot]] break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, {{angbr IPA|‖‖}}, for a stronger break.{{#tag:ref|Russian sources commonly use a wavy line like {{unichar|2E3E|WIGGLY VERTICAL LINE}} (approx. ⌇) for a less-than-minor break, such as the slight break in list intonation (e.g. the very slight break between digits in a telephone number).&lt;ref&gt;Ž.V. Ganiev (2012) ''Sovremennyj ruskij jazyk.'' Flinta/Nauka.&lt;/ref&gt; A dotted line like {{unichar|2E3D|VERTICAL SIX DOTS}} or {{unichar|2999|DOTTED FENCE}} is sometimes seen instead.|group=&quot;note&quot;}}

Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: {{angbr IPA|μ}} for a [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] or mora boundary, {{angbr IPA|σ}} for a syllable or syllable boundary, {{angbr IPA|+}} for a morpheme boundary, {{angbr IPA|#}} for a word boundary (may be doubled, {{angbr IPA|##}}, for e.g. a breath-group boundary),&lt;ref&gt;Nicholas Evans (1995) ''A Grammar of Kayardild''. Mouton de Gruyter.&lt;/ref&gt; {{angbr IPA|$}} for a phrase or intermediate boundary and {{angbr IPA|%}} for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-[[pausa]] vowel, and T% an IU-final tone (edge tone).

====Pitch and tone====
{{see also|tone letter}}
{{angbr IPA|ꜛ ꜜ}} are defined in the ''Handbook'' as &quot;upstep&quot; and &quot;downstep&quot;, concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for [[pitch reset]], and the IPA ''Handbook'' uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language.

Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable (e.g., high-pitch {{angbr IPA|é}}) or by [[Chao tone letter]]s placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six&lt;!--One of our sources says 'seven', but the staveless tone letters were only allowed before the word/syllable pre-Kiel, and that was not changed in the Kiel Convention.--&gt; ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., {{angbr IPA|é}}, {{angbr IPA|˦e}}, {{angbr IPA|e˦}}, {{angbr IPA|꜓e}}, {{angbr IPA|e꜓}} and {{angbr IPA|ˉe}} for a high pitch/tone.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ian Maddieson (December 1990) The transcription of tone in the IPA, JIPA 20.2, p. 31.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 7.&lt;/ref&gt; Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the ''Chart'', and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, {{angbr IPA|˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩}}, for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, {{angbr IPA|꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖}}, for surface tone, as occurs in [[tone sandhi]], and for the intonation of non-tonal languages.&lt;ref group=note&gt;Maddieson and others have noted that a phonemic/phonetic distinction should be handled by /slash/ or [bracket] delimiters. However, the reversed tone letters remain in use for tone sandhi.&lt;/ref&gt; In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 ''Handbook'', tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to {{IPA|[↗︎]}} global rise and {{IPA|[↘︎]}} global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction.

Rising and falling pitch, as in [[contour tone]]s, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising {{IPA|[ě]}} and acute plus grave for falling {{IPA|[ê]}}. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising {{IPA|[e᷄]}}, low rising {{IPA|[e᷅]}}, high falling {{IPA|[e᷇]}}, and low/mid falling {{IPA|[e᷆]}}.&lt;ref group=note&gt;A work-around sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author wishes to avoid the poorly legible diacritics {{angbr IPA|e᷄, e᷅, e᷇, e᷆}} but does not wish to employ tone letters, is to restrict the generic rising {{angbr IPA|ě}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ê}} diacritics to the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˥˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˥/}}, and to resurrect the retired (pre-Kiel) IPA subscript diacritics {{angbr IPA|e̗}} and {{angbr IPA|e̖}} for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˩˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˩/}}. When a language has either four or six level tones, the two middle tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid {{angbr IPA|e̍}} (non-standard) and low-mid {{angbr IPA|ē}}. Non-standard {{angbr IPA|e̍}} is occasionally seen combined with acute and grave diacritcs or with the macron to distinguish contour tones that involve the higher of the two mid tone levels.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising {{IPA|[e˨˦]}}, extra-high falling {{IPA|[e˥˦]}}, etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters {{angbr IPA|˦ ˨}} may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.&lt;ref name=Chao&gt;{{Citation
 | last = Chao
 | first = Yuen-Ren
 | year = 1930
 | title = {{IPA|ə sistim əv}} &quot;{{IPA|toun}}-{{IPA|letəz}}&quot;
 | trans-title = A system of &quot;tone-letters&quot;
 | journal = Le Maître Phonétique
 | volume = 30
 | pages = 24–27
 | jstor = 44704341
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters,&lt;ref&gt;See for example Pe Maung Tin [-phe -maʊ̃ -tɪ̃ː] (1924) bɜˑmiːz. ''Le Maître Phonétique'', vol. 2 (39), no. 5, pp. 4&amp;ndash;5, where five pitch levels are distinguished&lt;/ref&gt; but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙}} and low-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷}}. Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported (such as {{angbr IPA|˗ ˴}}), and then only accidentally.

Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, &quot;this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''Handbook'', p. 14.&lt;/ref&gt; Using diacritics, a high tone is {{angbr IPA|é}} and a low tone is {{angbr IPA|è}}; in tone letters, these are {{angbr IPA|e˥}} and {{angbr IPA|e˩}}. One can double the diacritics for extra-high {{angbr IPA|e̋}} and extra-low {{angbr IPA|ȅ}}; there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high {{angbr IPA|e˦}} and mid-low {{angbr IPA|e˨}}; again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics.

The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation,&lt;ref name=report&gt;P.J. Roach, Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention, ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', Vol. 19, No. 2 (December 1989), p. 75–76&lt;/ref&gt; though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) {{IPA|e᷈}} and dipping (falling-rising) {{IPA|e᷉}} combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail ({{IPA|e˧˥˧, e˩˨˩, e˦˩˧, e˨˩˦}}, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart.&lt;ref group=note&gt;The example has changed over the years. In the chart included in the 1999 IPA ''Handbook'', it was {{IPA|[˦˥˦]}}, and since the 2018 revision of the chart it has been {{IPA|[˧˦˨]}}.&lt;/ref&gt; The system allows the transcription of 112&lt;!--125 less 5 triple letters and 8 other combos that form a straight line (e.g. 2-3-4)--&gt; peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Original (restricted) set of Chao tone letters&lt;ref group=note&gt;Chao did not include tone shapes such as {{IPA|[˨˦˦], [˧˩˩]}}, which rise or fall and then level off (or vice versa). Such tone shapes are, however, frequently encountered in the modern literature.&lt;/ref&gt;
! Register
! Level&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref group=note&gt;In Chao's Sinological convention, a single tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥}} is used for a high tone on a [[checked syllable]], and a double tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥˥}} for a high tone on an open syllable. Such redundant doubling is not used in the ''Handbook'', where the tones of Cantonese {{IPA|[si˥]}} 'silk' and {{IPA|[sɪk˥]}} 'color' are transcribed the same way. If the author wishes to indicate a difference in phonetic or phonemic length, the IPA accomplishes that with the length marks {{angbr IPA|◌̆ ◌ˑ ◌ː}} rather than through the tone letters.&lt;/ref&gt;
! Rising
! Falling
! Peaking
! Dipping
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˩}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˩˩}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˩˧}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˧˩}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˩˧˩}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˧˩˧}}
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˨}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˨˨}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˨˦}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˦˨}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˨˦˨}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˦˨˦}}
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˧}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˧˧}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˧˥}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˥˧}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˧˥˧}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˥˧˥}}
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˦}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˦˦}}
|
|
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˧˥˩}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˧˩˥}}
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˥}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˥˥}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˩˥}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˥˩}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˩˥˧}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e˥˩˧}}
|}

More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of {{IPA|[꜔꜒꜖꜔]}} (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.&lt;ref name=Chao/&gt;

Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone ({{angbr IPA|a˧vɔ˥˩}}), or after the phonological word, for a language with [[word tone]] ({{angbr IPA|avɔ˧˥˩}}). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable ({{angbr IPA|˧a˥˩vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|˧˥˩avɔ}}), but this is rare for lexical tone. (And indeed reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable: {{angbr IPA|꜔a꜒꜖vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|꜔꜒꜖avɔ}}.) The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed.

===Comparative degree===
IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of the feature indicated.&lt;ref name=K&amp;L&gt;Kelly &amp; Local (1989) ''Doing Phonology'', [[Manchester University Press]].&lt;/ref&gt; This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones {{angbr IPA|ə̋, ə̏}} being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, and the major [[prosodic unit|prosodic break]] {{angbr IPA|‖}} being marked as a double minor break {{angbr IPA|{{!}}}}, it is not specifically regulated by the IPA. (Note that transcription marks are similar: double slashes indicate extra (morpho)-phonemic, double square brackets especially precise, and double parentheses especially unintelligible.)

For example, the stress mark may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.&lt;ref&gt;Bloomfield (1933) ''Language'' p. 91&lt;/ref&gt; An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each [[prosodic unit]] (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: {{IPA|[ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre {{!}} məˈsjø ‖ ˈˈvwala maˈdam ‖]}} ''{{lang|fr|Entrez monsieur, voilà madame}}.''&lt;ref&gt;Passy, 1958, ''Conversations françaises en transcription phonétique.'' 2nd ed.&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress.&lt;ref&gt;Yuen Ren Chao (1968) ''Language and Symbolic Systems'', p. xxiii&lt;/ref&gt; In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete (though never retired) staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation {{angbr IPA|˶}} and an emphatic falling intonation {{angbr IPA|˵}}.&lt;ref&gt;Geoffrey Barker (2005) ''Intonation Patterns in Tyrolean German'', p. 11.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Length (phonetics)|Length]] is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, as in English ''shhh!'' {{IPA|[ʃːːː]}}, or for &quot;overlong&quot; segments in [[Estonian phonology|Estonian]]:
* ''vere'' {{IPA|/vere/}} 'blood [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːre/}} 'edge [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːːre/}} 'roll [imp. 2nd sg.]'
* ''lina'' {{IPA|/linɑ/}} 'sheet', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːɑ/}} 'town [gen. sg.]', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːːɑ/}} 'town [ine. sg.]'
(Normally additional degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as simply short and long, requiring a different remedy for the final words.)

Occasionally other diacritics are doubled:
* [[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] in [[Badaga language|Badaga]] {{IPA|/be/}} &quot;mouth&quot;, {{IPA|/be˞/}} &quot;bangle&quot;, and {{IPA|/be˞˞/}} &quot;crop&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{SOWL|314}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Mild and strong [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]]s, {{IPA|[kʰ]}}, {{IPA|[kʰʰ]}}.&lt;ref group=note&gt;Sometimes the obsolete transcription {{angbr IPA|k{{okina}}}} (with a turned apostrophe) for weak aspiration vs. {{angbr IPA|kʰ}} for strong aspiration is still seen.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!-- Korean does not (primarily) contrast for degrees of aspiration, as the distinction is made mainly with a low tone following the weak stop and a high tone following the aspirated stop, for dialects (including Seoul) that aspirate prosodically initial stops. --&gt;
* [[Nasal vowel|Nasalization]], as in [[Palantla Chinantec]] lightly nasalized {{IPA|/ẽ/}} vs heavily nasalized {{IPA|/e͌/}},&lt;ref&gt;Peter Ladefoged (1971) ''Preliminaries of Linguistic Phonetics'', p. 35.&lt;/ref&gt; though in [[extIPA]] the latter indicates [[velopharyngeal frication]].
* Weak vs strong [[ejective]]s, {{IPA|[kʼ]}}, {{IPA|[kˮ]}}.&lt;ref&gt;Fallon (2013) ''The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives'', p. 267&lt;/ref&gt;
* Especially lowered, e.g. {{IPA|[t̞̞]}} (or {{IPA|[t̞˕]}}, if the former symbol does not display properly) for {{IPA|/t/}} as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of ''register''.&lt;ref&gt;Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice'', p. 233.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Especially retracted, e.g. {{IPA|[ø̠̠]}} or {{IPA|[s̠̠]}},&lt;ref&gt;E.g. in Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', pp. 559–560&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=K&amp;L/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Hein van der Voort (2005) 'Kwaza in a Comparative Perspective', ''IJAL'' 71:4.&lt;/ref&gt; though some care might be needed to distinguish this from indications of alveolar or alveolarized articulation in [[extIPA]], e.g. {{IPA|[s͇]}}.
* The transcription of [[strident vowel|strident]] and [[harsh voice]] as extra-creaky {{IPA|/a᷽/}} may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations.

==Ambiguous letters==
A number of IPA letters are not consistently used for their official values. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative {{angbr IPA|ʝ}} and the velar approximant {{angbr IPA|ɰ}} to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, {{angbr IPA|β}} and {{angbr IPA|ð}} can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, {{angbr IPA|ʁ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʕ}} are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. {{angbr IPA|h}} and {{angbr IPA|ɦ}} are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal &quot;transitions&quot;, without that often being specified in the transcription.

Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}}, while {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʎ}} are commonly used for palatalized alveolar {{IPA|[n̠ʲ]}} and {{IPA|[l̠ʲ]}}. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision.

It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives {{angbr IPA|ʜ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʢ}} are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling.&lt;ref&gt;John Esling (2010) &quot;Phonetic Notation&quot;, in Hardcastle, Laver &amp; Gibbon (eds) ''The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences'', 2nd ed., p 695.&lt;/ref&gt; This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} together with the epiglottal plosive {{IPA|[ʡ]}} and trills {{IPA|[ʜ ʢ]}} into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in [[Shilha language|Shilha Berber]] the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ridouane |first1=Rachid |title=Tashlhiyt Berber |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |date=August 2014 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=207–221 |doi=10.1017/S0025100313000388 |s2cid=232344118 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Alderete |first1=John |last2=Jebbour |first2=Abdelkrim |last3=Kachoub |first3=Bouchra |last4=Wilbee |first4=Holly |title=Tashlhiyt Berber grammar synopsis |url=https://www.sfu.ca/~alderete/datasets/aldereteEtal2015_tashlhiytGrammarSynopsis.pdf |publisher=Simon Fraser University |access-date=20 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although they might be transcribed {{angbr IPA|ħ̠ ʢ̠}} to indicate this, the far more common transcription is {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}, which is therefore ambiguous between languages.

Among vowels, {{angbr IPA|a}} is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language.

For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use.

==Redundant letters==
Three letters are not needed and would be hard to justify today by the standards of the modern IPA, but are retained due to inertia. {{angbr IPA|ʍ}} appears because it is found in English; officially it is a fricative, with terminology dating to the days before 'fricative' and 'approximant' were distinguished. Based on how all other fricatives and approximants are transcribed, one would expect either {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} for a fricative (not how it is actually used) or {{angbr IPA|w̥}} for an approximant. Indeed, outside of English transcription, that is what is more commonly found in the literature. {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is another historic remnant. It is a nearly universal allophone of {{IPA|[m]}} before {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}}, but it is only phonemically distinct in a single language (Kukuya), a fact that was discovered long after it was standardized in the IPA. (A number of consonants do not have dedicated IPA letters despite being phonemic in many more languages.) {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is retained because of its historical use for European languages, where it could easily be normalized to {{angbr IPA|m̪}}. There have been several votes to retire {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} from the IPA, but so far they have failed. Finally, {{angbr IPA|ɧ}} is officially a simultaneous postalveolar and velar fricative, a realization that does not appear to exist in any language. It is retained because it is convenient for the transcription of Swedish, where it is used for a consonant that has various realizations in different dialects. That is, it is not actually a phonetic character at all, but a phonemic one, which is officially beyond the purview of the IPA alphabet; indeed, another phonemic IPA letter, {{angbr IPA|[[ƞ]]}} for the homorganic nasal of Japanese, was retired because it had no defined phonetic value.

==Superscript letters==
{{anchor|Superscript IPA}}{{further|Unicode subscripts and superscripts#Superscript IPA|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet#Superscript variants}}
Superscript IPA letters may be used to indicate [[secondary articulation]]; onsets, releases and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. In 2020, the IPA and [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]] endorsed the Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary IPA letters apart from the [[Chao tone letter]]s, including the extended retroflex letters {{angbr IPA|ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 ᶑ 𝼊&amp;thinsp;}}, which were thus confirmed as being implicit in the IPA alphabet.&lt;ref name=pulmonic&gt;Kirk Miller &amp; Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf L2/20-252R] Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=non-pulmonic&gt;Kirk Miller &amp; Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20253r-mod-ipa-b.pdf L2/20-253R] Unicode request for IPA modifier letters (b), non-pulmonic.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kirk Miller &amp; Martin Ball, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf L2/20-116R] Expansion of the extIPA and VoQS.&lt;/ref&gt;

Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by [[combining character|combining diacritics]], just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal is {{angbr IPA|ⁿ̪d̪}}, a superscript voiceless velar nasal is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ̊ǂ}}, and labial-velar prenasalization is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b}}. Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. {{angbr IPA|ᵓ̃}}, this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla {{angbr IPA|ᶜ̧}} and rhotic vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞}}. Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ&amp;#x10782; kʰ&amp;#x10781;]}}. Another option is to double the diacritic: {{angbr IPA|kʰʰ}}.&lt;ref name=pulmonic/&gt;

==Obsolete and nonstandard symbols==
{{Main|Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|Click letter|Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}}

A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature.

The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter {{angbr IPA|ɷ}}, rejected in favor of {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}. Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as {{angbr IPA|ʦ ʣ, ʧ ʤ, ʨ ʥ, ꭧ ꭦ&amp;thinsp;}} (and others not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: {{angbr IPA|ƍ}} for {{IPA|[zʷ]}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, {{angbr IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ&amp;thinsp;}}, were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥&amp;thinsp;}}. The original set of click letters, {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ}}, was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters {{angbr IPA|ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ}} can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([ ] or / /), the letter {{angbr IPA|l}}, or the [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks {{angbr IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;, ‖}}. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.&lt;!--The Routledge Khoisan Handbook, for example--&gt;)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html |title=John Wells's phonetic blog |publisher=Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com |date=9 September 2009 |access-date=18 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with:
* Affricates, such as the Americanist [[barred lambda]] {{angbr IPA|ƛ}} for {{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}} or {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ&amp;thinsp;]}}.&lt;ref group=note&gt;The motivation for this may vary. Some authors find the tie bars displeasing but the lack of tie bars confusing (i.e. {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} as distinct from {{IPA|/tʃ/}}), while others simply prefer to have one letter for each segmental phoneme in a language.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The [[Karlgren]] letters for Chinese vowels, {{angbr IPA|ɿ, ʅ&amp;thinsp;, ʮ, ʯ&amp;thinsp;}} 
* Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition, such as the [[Standard Chinese phonology#Tones|four tones of Standard Chinese]]. This may be more convenient for comparison between related languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription would be, because tones vary more unpredictably than segmental phonemes do.
* Digits for tone levels, which are simpler to typeset, though the lack of standardization can cause confusion (e.g. {{angbr IPA|1}} is high tone in some languages but low tone in others; {{angbr IPA|3}} may be high, medium or low tone, depending on the local convention).
* Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that can be readily understood, such as retroflex [[voiced retroflex implosive|{{angbr|ᶑ&amp;thinsp;}}]] and [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|{{angbr|ꞎ}}]]. These are referred to in the ''Handbook'' and have been included in IPA requests for Unicode support.&lt;!--e.g. an official request for adding superscript retroflex letters to Unicode 14--&gt;

In addition, it is common to see ''ad hoc'' typewriter substitutions, generally capital letters, for when IPA support is not available, e.g. A for {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, B for {{angbr IPA|β}} or {{angbr IPA|ɓ}}, D for {{angbr IPA|ð}}, {{angbr IPA|ɗ&amp;thinsp;}} or {{angbr IPA|ɖ&amp;thinsp;}}, E for {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, F or P for {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, G {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, I {{angbr IPA|ɪ}}, L {{angbr IPA|ɬ}}, N {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, O {{angbr IPA|ɔ}}, S {{angbr IPA|&amp;thinsp;ʃ&amp;thinsp;}}, T {{angbr IPA|θ}} or {{angbr IPA|ʈ&amp;thinsp;}}, U {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}, V {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, X {{angbr IPA|χ}}, Z {{angbr IPA|ʒ}}, as well as @ for {{angbr IPA|ə}} and 7 or ? for {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}. (See also [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]] substitute notation.)

==Extensions==
[[File:ExtIPA chart (2025).pdf|thumb|upright=1.25|Chart of the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet (extIPA), as of 2025]]
{{Main|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}}
The [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech]], commonly abbreviated &quot;extIPA&quot; and sometimes called &quot;Extended IPA&quot;, are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. At the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech.&quot; (&quot;Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart&quot; ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;186.)&lt;/ref&gt; which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=PRDS Group|title=The Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech|year=1983|publisher=London: The King's Fund}}&lt;/ref&gt; The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', when they were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart&quot; ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&amp;nbsp;186–187.&lt;/ref&gt; While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips,&lt;ref name=&quot;world&quot; /&gt; as well as regular lexical sounds such as [[lateral fricative]]s that do not have standard IPA symbols.

In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the [[Voice Quality Symbols]], which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call &quot;voice quality&quot;.

==Associated notation==
Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways.

===Associated symbols===
There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are:

;{{angbr|*}}
:(a) A [[Comparative linguistics|reconstructed form]].
:(b) An [[Grammaticality|ungrammatical form]] (including an unphonemic form).

;{{angbr|**}}
:(a) A reconstructed form, deeper (more ancient) than a single {{angbr|*}}, used when reconstructing even further back from already-starred forms.
:(b) An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.&lt;ref&gt;e.g. Alan Kaye (2007) ''Morphologies of Asia and Africa''. Eisenbrauns.&lt;/ref&gt;

;{{angbr|×}}: An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |title=Historical linguistics: an introduction |date=2013 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=9780262518499 |pages=xix |edition=3.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

;{{angbr|?}}: A doubtfully grammatical form.

;{{angbr|%}}: A generalized form, such as a typical shape of a [[wanderwort]] that has not actually been reconstructed.&lt;ref&gt;Haynie, Bowern, Epps, Hill &amp; McConvell (2014) Wanderwörter in languages of the Americas and Australia. ''Ampersand'' 1:1–18.&lt;/ref&gt;

;{{angbr|#}}: A word boundary &amp;ndash; e.g. {{angbr|#V}} for a word-initial vowel.

;{{angbr|$}}: A [[phonological word]] boundary; e.g. {{angbr|H$}} for a high tone that occurs in such a position.

;{{angbr|_}}: The location of a segment &amp;ndash; e.g. {{angbr|V_V}} for an intervocalic position

=== Capital letters ===
Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, S for {{angbr IPA|&amp;thinsp;ʃ&amp;thinsp;}}, O for {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} &amp;ndash; see [[SAMPA chart for English|SAMPA]]). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases:
# for [[archiphoneme|(archi)phonemes]] and for [[natural class]]es of sounds (that is, as wildcards). The [[extIPA]] chart, for example, uses capital letters as wildcards in its illustrations. 
# as carrying letters for the [[Voice Quality Symbols]].

Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from {{IPA|/V/}} (an atonic vowel) to {{IPA|/CGVNᵀ/}} (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and [[word-final devoicing]] may be schematized as {{IPA|C}} → {{IPA|C̥}}/_#. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. {{IPA|[ᴰ]}} is a weak indeterminate alveolar, {{IPA|[ᴷ]}} a weak indeterminate velar.&lt;ref&gt;Perry (2000) ''Phonological/phonetic assessment of an English-speaking adult with [[dysarthria]]''&lt;/ref&gt;

There is a degree of variation between authors as to the capital letters used, but {{angbr IPA|C}} for {consonant}, {{angbr IPA|V}} for {vowel} and {{angbr IPA|N}} for {nasal} are ubiquitous in English-language material. Other common conventions are {{angbr IPA|T}} for {tone/accent} (tonicity)&lt;!--e.g. Nathan White, 'Word in Hmong', in Phonological Word and Grammatical Word--&gt;, {{angbr IPA|P}} for {plosive}&lt;!--e.g. Karlsson &amp; Sullivan (2005) /sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish, Vanderweide (2005) The acquisition of manner in pre-vocalic sequences, also Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics (HCHIEL)--&gt;, {{angbr IPA|F}} for {fricative}&lt;!--e.g. 2015 extIPA chart, or Pellegrino et al. &quot;2010, a speech oddity: Phonetic transcription of reversed speech&quot;, Vanderweide (2005), also HCHIEL --&gt;, {{angbr IPA|S}} for {sibilant}&lt;!--e.g. Waterson (1987) Prosodic Phonology; Dolgopolsky, Indo-European Dict Nostratic Etymologies, also HCHIEL--&gt;,&lt;ref group=note&gt;As in [[Afrasianist phonetic notation]]. {{angbr IPA|S}} is particularly ambiguous. It has been used for 'stop', 'fricative', 'sibilant', 'sonorant' and 'semivowel'. On the other hand, plosive/stop is frequently abbreviated {{angbr IPA|P}}, {{angbr IPA|T}} or {{angbr IPA|S}}. The illustrations given here use, as much as possible, letters that are capital versions of members of the sets they stand for: IPA {{IPA|[n]}} is a nasal and {{angbr IPA|N}} is any nasal; {{IPA|[p]}} is a plosive, {{IPA|[f]}} a fricative, {{IPA|[s]}} a sibilant, {{IPA|[l]}} both a lateral and a liquid, {{IPA|[r]}} both a rhotic and a resonant, and [ʞ] a click. {{angbr IPA|¢}} is an obstruent in Americanist notation, where it stands for {{IPA|[ts]}}. An alternative wildcard for 'glide', {{angbr IPA|J}}&lt;!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII--&gt;, fits this pattern, but is much less common than {{angbr IPA|G}} in English-language sources.&lt;/ref&gt; {{angbr IPA|G}} for {glide/semivowel}&lt;!--e.g. Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL--&gt;, {{angbr IPA|L}} for {lateral}&lt;!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or in Australian languages that have a large set of laterals--&gt; or {liquid}&lt;!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French, or Pellegrino et al., or Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL--&gt;, {{angbr IPA|R}} for {rhotic}&lt;!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or Pellegrino et al.--&gt; or {resonant/sonorant&lt;!--e.g. &quot;R&quot; for &quot;sonorant&quot; in Larry Hyman 'Coda constraints on tone', also HCHIEL--&gt;},&lt;ref group=note&gt;At least in the notation of {{angbr|CRV-}} syllables, the {{angbr|R}} is understood to include liquids and glides but to exclude nasals, as in Bennett (2020: 115) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.), ''Click Consonants'', Brill&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--do a GBooks search for 'CLV' or 'CRV' + 'liquid'/'resonant' + 'phonology' for instances of L and R--&gt; {{angbr IPA|₵}} for {obstruent},&lt;!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII--&gt; {{angbr IPA|Ʞ}} for {click}&lt;!--see Bonny Sands 2020 'Introduction', ''Click Consonants'', Brill--&gt;, {{angbr IPA|A&lt;!--e.g. Dolgopolsky--&gt;, E&lt;!--e.g. Dolgopolsky--&gt;, O, Ɨ, U&lt;!--e.g. Dolgopolsky--&gt;}} for {open, front, back, close, rounded vowel}&lt;ref group=note&gt;{Close vowel} may instead be {{angbr IPA|U}}, and {{angbr IPA|O}} may stand for {obstruent}.&lt;/ref&gt; and {{angbr IPA|B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H}} for {labial&lt;!--HCHIEL--&gt;, alveolar&lt;!--Perry (2000)--&gt;, post-alveolar/palatal, velar&lt;!--HCHIEL, Perry (2000), or more generically as 'dorsal' in van de Vijver, Höhle &amp; Ott, On the distribution of dorsals in complex and simple onsets in child German, Dutch and English--&gt;, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal&lt;ref group=note&gt;Or glottal~pharyngeal {{angbr IPA|H}}, as in Afrasianist phonetic notation&lt;/ref&gt; consonant}, respectively, and {{angbr IPA|X}} for {any sound}&lt;!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French--&gt;. The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics, for example {{angbr IPA|Cʼ}} for {ejective}, {{angbr IPA|Ƈ&amp;thinsp;}} for {implosive}, {{angbr IPA|N͡C}} or {{angbr IPA|ᴺC}} for {prenasalized consonant}, {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} for {[[nasal vowel]]}&lt;!--e.g. Pellegrino et al.--&gt;, {{angbr IPA|CʰV́}} for {aspirated CV syllable with high tone}, {{angbr IPA|S̬}} for {voiced sibilant}, {{angbr IPA|N̥}} for {voiceless nasal}&lt;!--e.g. Huffman &amp; Hinnebusch, 'The phonetic nature of &quot;voiceless&quot; nasals in Pokomo'--&gt;, {{angbr IPA|P͡F}} or {{angbr IPA|Pꟳ}} for {affricate}, {{angbr IPA|Cʲ}} for {palatalized consonant}&lt;!--e.g. Alexei Kochetov, Phonetic variation and gestural speciﬁcation: Production of Russian consonants--&gt; and {{angbr IPA|D̪}} for {dental consonant}. {{angbr IPA|H}}, {{angbr IPA|M}}, {{angbr IPA|L}} are also commonly used for high, mid and low tone, with {{angbr IPA|LH}} for rising tone and {{angbr IPA|HL}} for falling tone, rather than transcribing them overly precisely with IPA tone letters or with ambiguous digits.&lt;ref group=note&gt;Somewhat more precisely, {{angbr IPA|LM}} and {{angbr IPA|MH}} are sometimes used for low and high rising tones, and {{angbr IPA|HM}}, {{angbr IPA|ML}} for high and low falling tones; occasionally {{angbr IPA|R}} for 'rising' or {{angbr IPA|F}} for 'falling' is also seen.&lt;/ref&gt;

Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are {{angbr IPA|I}} for the Turkish harmonic vowel set {{IPA|{i y ɯ u}}};&lt;ref group=note&gt;For other Turkic languages, {{angbr IPA|I}} may be restricted to {{IPA|{ɯ i}}} (that is, to ''ı i''), {{angbr IPA|U}} to ''u ü'', {{angbr IPA|A}} to ''a e/ä'', etc.&lt;/ref&gt; {{angbr IPA|D}} for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English ''writer'' and ''rider''; {{angbr IPA|N}} for the [[homorganic]] syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter); and {{angbr IPA|R}} in cases where a phonemic trill {{IPA|/r/}} and flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} are indeterminate, as in Spanish ''enrejar'' {{IPA|/eNreˈxaR/}} (the ''n'' is homorganic and the first ''r'' is a trill but the second is variable).&lt;ref&gt;[[Antonio Quilis]] (1997) ''Principios de fonología y fonética españolas'', p. 65.&lt;/ref&gt; Similar usage is found for ''phonemic'' analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes {{IPA|/Θ/}} and {{IPA|/S/}}, which surface as {{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[s]}} in voiceless environments and as {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in voiced environments (e.g. ''hazte'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘte/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaθte]}}, vs ''hazme'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘme/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaðme]}}; or ''las manos'' {{IPA|/laS ˈmanoS/}}, → {{IPA|[lazˈmanos]}}).&lt;ref&gt;Xavier Frías Conde (2001) ''Introducción a la fonología y fonética del español'', p. 11&amp;ndash;12. Ianua. Revista Philologica Romanica.&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{angbr IPA|V}}, {{angbr IPA|F}} and {{angbr IPA|C}} have completely different meanings as [[Voice Quality Symbols]], where they stand for &quot;voice&quot; (generally meaning [[secondary articulation]], as in {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} &quot;nasal voice&quot;, not phonetic voicing), &quot;falsetto&quot; and &quot;creak&quot;. They may also take diacritics that indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has, and may be used to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA. For instance, the transcription of [[Scottish Gaelic]] {{IPA|[kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ]}} 'cat' and {{IPA|[kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ]}} 'cats' ([[Islay]] dialect) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words: {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} and {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ]}}.&lt;ref&gt;Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 374.&lt;/ref&gt; The usual wildcard X or C might be used instead of V so that the reader does not misinterpret {{angbr IPA|Vʷ}} as meaning that only vowels are labialized (i.e. {{IPA|Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all segments labialized, {{IPA|Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all consonants labialized), or the carrier letter may be omitted altogether (e.g. {{IPA|ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}}, {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}} or {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}}). (See {{section link|#Suprasegmentals}} for other transcription conventions.)

==Segments without letters==
The blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises. The expected retroflex letter forms have appeared in the literature for the [[retroflex implosive]] {{angbr IPA|ᶑ&amp;thinsp;}}, the [[retroflex lateral flap]] {{angbr IPA|𝼈&amp;thinsp;}} and the [[retroflex click]]s {{angbr IPA|𝼊&amp;thinsp;}}; the first is mentioned in the IPA ''Handbook'' and the IPA requested Unicode support for superscript variants of all three. The missing voiceless lateral fricatives are provided for by the [[extIPA]]. The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal &quot;fricatives&quot; {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}. Labiodental plosives {{angbr IPA|ȹ ȸ}} appear in some old Bantuist texts. ''Ad hoc'' near-close central vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵻ ᵿ}} are used in some descriptions of English. Diacritics can duplicate some of these; {{angbr IPA|p̪ b̪}} are now universal for labiodental plosives, {{angbr IPA|ɪ̈ ʊ̈}} are common for the central vowels and {{angbr IPA|ɭ̆&amp;thinsp;}} is occasionally seen for the lateral flap. Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes.&quot; (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&amp;nbsp;27)&lt;/ref&gt; If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk {{angbr|*}} may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in {{angbr|k*}} sometimes seen for the [[Korean phonology|Korean]] &quot;fortis&quot; velar).

===Consonants===
Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, {{IPA|[β̞]}} and {{IPA|[ð̞]}} respectively.&lt;ref group=note&gt;Dedicated letters have been proposed, such as rotated &lt;span style=&quot;{{mirrorH}}&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;{{mirrorV}}&quot;&gt;{{angbr IPA|β}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span style=&quot;{{mirrorH}}&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;{{mirrorV}}&quot;&gt;{{angbr IPA|ð}}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, reversed &lt;span style=&quot;{{mirrorH}}&quot;&gt;{{angbr IPA|β}}&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span style=&quot;{{mirrorH}}&quot;&gt;{{angbr IPA|ð}}&lt;/span&gt;, or small-capital {{angbr IPA|{{sm|б}}}} and {{angbr IPA|ᴆ}}. Ball, Rahilly &amp; Lowry (2017) ''Phonetics for speech pathology'', 3rd edition, Equinox, Sheffield.&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}; extIPA provides {{angbr IPA|𝼅}} for the first of these. A few languages such as [[Banda languages|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[ⱱ̟]}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Olson | first1 = Kenneth S. | last2 = Hajek | first2 = John | year = 1999 | title = The phonetic status of the labial flap | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-phonetic-association-journal_1999-12_29_2/page/101 | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 101–114 | doi = 10.1017/s0025100300006484 | s2cid = 14438770 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops {{IPA|[p̪ b̪]}} rather than with the ''ad hoc'' letters sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. {{IPA|[&amp;thinsp;ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆]}}, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A [[retroflex trill]] can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants &amp;ndash; the uvular laterals ({{IPA|[ʟ̠]}} ''etc.'') and the palatal trill &amp;ndash; while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.

===Vowels===
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The diacritics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol.&quot; (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&amp;nbsp;16)&lt;/ref&gt; For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}} as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}} or lowered {{IPA|[œ̞]}} (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple {{IPA|[ɶ]}} already is the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}}). True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}} or raised {{IPA|[ɛ̝ œ̝ ɜ̝ ɞ̝ ʌ̝ ɔ̝]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈]}} and {{IPA|[ä]}} (or, less commonly, {{IPA|[ɑ̈]}}) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected [[roundedness]], which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as protruded {{angbr IPA|ʏʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|uᵝ}} (or protruded {{angbr IPA|ɪʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|ɯᶹ}}).

==Symbol names==
{{Main|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet}}
An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as &quot;mid front rounded vowel&quot; or &quot;voiced velar stop&quot; unreliable. While the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names...&quot; (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;31)&lt;/ref&gt; The symbols also have [[Nonce word|nonce names]] in the [[Unicode]] standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA ''Handbook'' differ. For example, the ''Handbook'' calls {{angbr IPA|ɛ}} &quot;epsilon&quot;, while Unicode calls it &quot;small letter open e&quot;.

The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.&lt;ref group=note&gt;
For example, the IPA ''Handbook'' lists {{angbr IPA|p}} as &quot;lower-case P&quot; and {{angbr IPA|χ}} as &quot;chi.&quot; (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&amp;nbsp;171)
&lt;/ref&gt; Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block.

For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, {{angbr IPA|é}} is &quot;e-[[Acute accent|acute]]&quot;, based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so {{angbr IPA|d̪}} is called &quot;d-bridge&quot;.

[[Geoffrey Pullum]] and [[William Ladusaw]] list a variety of names in use for IPA symbols, both current and retired, in their ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]''; many of these found their way into Unicode.&lt;ref name=Pullum/&gt;

==Computer support==
===Unicode===
{{main|Phonetic symbols in Unicode#IPA}}

[[Unicode]] supports nearly all of the IPA alphabet. Apart from basic Latin and Greek and general punctuation, the primary blocks are [[IPA Extensions]], [[Spacing Modifier Letters]] and [[Combining Diacritical Marks]], with lesser support from [[Phonetic Extensions]], [[Phonetic Extensions Supplement]], [[Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement]], and scattered characters elsewhere. The [[extended IPA]] is supported primarily by those blocks and [[Latin Extended-G]].

=== IPA numbers ===
{{main|IPA number}}
After the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode.&lt;ref&gt;A chart of the numbers for the most common IPA symbols can be found on the IPA website.[https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Number_chart_(C)2005.pdf IPA number chart]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Typefaces===
[[File:IPA font sample (SIL, Brill, Noto, Calibri).png|thumb|The sequence {{IPA|⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩}} in the fonts Gentium Book Plus, Andika, Brill, Noto Serif and Calibri. All of these fonts align diacritics well. Asterisks are characters not supported by that font. In Noto, the red tone letters do not link properly. This is a test sequence: Noto and Calibri support most IPA adequately.]]
Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.&lt;ref name=&quot;Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen |date=16 March 2014 |url=https://www.isoglosse.de/2014/03/schriftarten-ipa-transkriptionen/ | access-date=2022-08-18 |language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Web browser]]s generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system.

====System fonts====
The ubiquitous [[Arial]] and [[Times New Roman]] fonts include IPA characters, but they are neither complete (especially Arial) nor render diacritics properly. The basic Latin [[Noto fonts]] are better, only failing with the more obscure characters. The proprietary [[Calibri]] font,&lt;!--good diacritic placement of Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement, but incomplete tone support--&gt; which is the default font of [[Microsoft Office]], has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering.

{| class=wikitable
!Font !!Sample !!Comments
|-
|[[Times New Roman]] || &lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times New Roman;&quot;&gt;⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩&lt;/span&gt; || The tone letters join properly, but the tie-bar and diacritics are displaced, and the diacritics overstrike each other rather than stacking
|}

====Other commercial fonts====
[[Brill Publishers#Brill Typeface|Brill]]&lt;!--comparable support to Calibri--&gt; has good IPA support. It is a commercial font but freely available for non-commercial use.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brill Typeface&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Brill Typeface |url=https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |access-date=2022-08-18 |language=en |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818094822/https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Free fonts====
Typefaces that provide nearly full IPA support&lt;!--e.g. Modifier Tone Letters such as tone-sandhi U+A712--&gt; and properly render diacritics&lt;!--e.g. Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement characters such as U+1DC5--&gt; include [[Gentium|Gentium Plus]], [[Charis SIL]], [[Doulos SIL]], and [[Andika (font)|Andika]]. &lt;!--SIL fonts seem to be the only ones with complete IPA support. --&gt;
In addition to the support found in other fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, which do not have dedicated Unicode support, through an option to suppress the stave of the Chao tone letters.

===ASCII and keyboard transliterations===
{{further|Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet}}
Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to [[ASCII]] characters. Notable systems include [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]]. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts.

===IETF language tags===
[[IETF language tag]]s have registered {{mono|fonipa}} as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.&lt;ref name=&quot;IANA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Language Subtag Registry |url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |publisher=IANA |access-date=30 April 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as {{mono|en-fonipa}}.
For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, {{mono|und-fonipa}} is available.

===Computer input using on-screen keyboard===
Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none&lt;!--before claiming something provides full support, verify that it supports the tone diacritics that do not appear on the IPA chart--&gt; of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics.&lt;ref group=note&gt;Online IPA keyboard utilities include the [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html IPA 2018 i-charts] hosted by the IPA, [https://r12a.github.io/pickers/ipa/ IPA character picker 27] at GitHub, [http://ipa.typeit.org/full/ Type IPA phonetic symbols] at TypeIt.org, and an [https://westonruter.github.io/ipa-chart/keyboard/ IPA Chart keyboard] at GitHub.&lt;/ref&gt; In April 2019, Google's [[Gboard]] for [[Android (operating system)|Android]] added an IPA keyboard to its platform.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/04/18/gboard-updated-with-63-new-languages-including-ipa-not-the-beer/|title=Gboard updated with 63 new languages, including IPA (not the beer)|date=18 April 2019|website=Android Police|language=en-US|access-date=28 April 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://support.google.com/gboard/answer/6380730?co=GENIE.Platform=Android|title=Set up Gboard – Android – Gboard Help|website=support.google.com|access-date=28 April 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, e.g. &quot;IPA Phonetic Keyboard&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=IPA Phonetic Keyboard|url=https://apps.apple.com/lu/app/ipa-phonetic-keyboard/id1440241497|access-date=8 December 2020|website=App Store|language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==See also==
{{Div col}}
* {{annotated link|Afroasiatic phonetic notation}}
* {{annotated link|Americanist phonetic notation}}
* {{annotated link|Arabic International Phonetic Alphabet}}
* {{annotated link|Articulatory phonetics}}
* {{annotated link|Case variants of IPA letters}}
* {{annotated link|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet}}
* {{annotated link|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}}
* [[Index of phonetics articles]]
* {{annotated link|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration}}
* {{annotated link|International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects}}
* [[List of international common standards]]
* {{annotated link|Luciano Canepari}}
* {{annotated link|Phonetic symbols in Unicode}}
* {{annotated link|RFE Phonetic Alphabet}}
* {{annotated link|SAMPA}} 
* {{annotated link|Semyon Novgorodov}} – inventor of IPA-based [[Yakut scripts]]
* {{annotated link|TIPA (software)|TIPA}} provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]]
* {{annotated link|UAI phonetic alphabet}}
* {{annotated link|Uralic Phonetic Alphabet}}
* {{annotated link|Voice Quality Symbols}}
* {{annotated link|X-SAMPA}}
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note|30em}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ball|first=Martin J.|author2=John H. Esling|author3=B. Craig Dickson|year=1995|title=The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-phonetic-association-journal_1995-12_25_2/page/71|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=25|issue=2|pages=71–80|doi=10.1017/S0025100300005181|s2cid=145791575 }}
* {{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=M.|author2=G. Allen|author3=M.J. Ball|date=December 1990|title=Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech|url=https://archive.org/details/clinical-linguistics-phonetics_october-december-1990_4_4/page/273|journal=Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics|volume=4|issue=4|pages=273–280|doi=10.3109/02699209008985489}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=Kenneth C.|date=March 1988|last2=Pullum|first2=Geoffrey K.|last3=Ladusaw|first3=William|title=Review of ''Phonetic Symbol Guide'' by G. K. Pullum &amp; W. Ladusaw|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language_1988-03_64_1/page/143|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=1|pages=143–144|doi=10.2307/414792|jstor=414792}}
* {{Cite journal|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1989|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel convention|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-phonetic-association-journal_1989-12_19_2/page/67|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=19|issue=2|pages=67–80|doi=10.1017/s0025100300003868|s2cid=249412330 }}
* {{Cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofintern0000inte|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-65236-7}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-63751-1}} (pb).
* {{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician)|title=English pronouncing dictionary|year=1988|edition=revised 14th|publisher=Dent|location=London|oclc=18415701|isbn=0-521-86230-2|url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Ladefoged|date=September 1990|title=The revised International Phonetic Alphabet|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language_1990-09_66_3/page/550|journal=Language|volume=66|issue=3|pages=550–552|doi=10.2307/414611|jstor=414611}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author2=Morris Halle|date=September 1988|title=Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language_1988-09_64_3/page/577|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=3|pages=577–582|doi=10.2307/414533|jstor=414533}}
* {{Cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofphon0000lave|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-45031-4}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-45655-X}} (pb).
* {{Cite book|last=Pullum|first=Geoffrey K.|author-link=Geoffrey Pullum|author2=William A. Ladusaw|title=Phonetic Symbol Guide|year=1986|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-68532-2|title-link=Phonetic Symbol Guide}}
* {{Cite book|last=Skinner|first=Edith|author2=Timothy Monich|author3=Lilene Mansell|title=Speak with Distinction|location=New York|publisher=Applause Theatre Book Publishers|year=1990|isbn=1-55783-047-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/speakwithdistinc0000skin}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fromkin|first1=Victoria|last2=Rodman|first2=Robert|last3=Hyams|first3=Nina|title=An Introduction to Language|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=Wadsworth, Cengage Learning|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616/page/n252 233]–234|edition=9th|isbn=978-1-4282-6392-5}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
* {{Official website|http://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org}}
* [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html Interactive IPA chart]
&lt;!-- Do not add links to unofficial pages per [[WP:LINKFARM]] - some might belong to [[Help:IPA]] --&gt;

{{IPA navigation}}
{{Language phonologies}}
{{List of writing systems}}
{{Latin script}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:International Phonetic Alphabet| ]]
[[Category:Phonetic guides]]
[[Category:Unicode]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hindu Mahasabha</title>
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      <text bytes="5672" sha1="ivh6y2e9tfgioltxj2iddymahq23xlf" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Indian political party
| name  = Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha 
| logo = ABHM flag.svg
|colorcode = {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| foundation  = {{start date and age|1915}} &lt;small&gt;(as organization)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;{{start date and age|1933}}&lt;small&gt;(as political party)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Ali&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=An Indian Dynasty|url=https://archive.org/details/indiandynastysto0000alit|first=Tariq|last=Ali|publisher=G.P. Putnam|year=1985|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiandynastysto0000alit/page/196 196]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| founder = [[Madan Mohan Malaviya]] 
| headquarters = [[New Delhi]]
| split = [[Indian National Congress]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Ali&quot;/&gt;
|eci                = Registered Unrecognised&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ElectoralLaws/OrdersNotifications/year2018/Notification-13.04.2018.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 May 2018 |archive-date=30 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530035200/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ElectoralLaws/OrdersNotifications/year2018/Notification-13.04.2018.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|alliance           = 
|loksabha_seats     = {{Composition bar|0|543|hex=#FF9933}}
|rajyasabha_seats   = {{Composition bar|0|245|hex=#FF9933}}
|state_seats_name   = [[State legislative assemblies of India|State Legislative Assembly]]
|state_seats        = {{Composition bar|0|4036|hex=#FF9933}}
| state2_seats_name = [[State legislative councils of India|State Legislative Council]]
| state2_seats      = {{Composition bar|0|426|hex=#FF9933}}
| no_states         =
{{Composition bar|0|31|hex=#FF9933}}
{{small|(Collectively '''28''' States &amp; '''3''' UTs)}}
|ideology           = [[Hindutva]]{{sfn|Jha|2018|pp=1–4}}{{sfn|Bapu|2013|p=61}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Hindu nationalism]]{{sfn|Jha|2018|pp=1–4}}&lt;ref name=Clemens/&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Ultranationalism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|year=1974|publisher=Allyn and Bacon|title=A History of Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofasia0000bing|page=601|first=Woodbridge|last=Bingham}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=India in Axis strategy|publisher=Klett-Cotta|first=Milan|last=Hauner|page=66|year=1981}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Social conservatism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Religion, Caste, and Politics in India|first=Christophe|last=Jaffrelot|page=63|publisher=Primus Books|year=2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Denise|last=Cush|page=316|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|publisher=Routledge|year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[National conservatism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Misra|first=Amalendu|year=1999|title=Savarkar and the Discourse on Islam in Pre-Independent India|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-asian-history_1999_33_1-2/page/175|journal=Journal of Asian History|volume=33|issue=2|page=175}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Economic nationalism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|publisher=Vedic Press|page=12|first=Nirmal C.|last=Chatterjee|year=1959|title=Hindu Mahasabha Tracts}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Right-wing populism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Mehran|last=Tamadonfar|page=125|year=2013|title=Religion and Regimes|publisher=Lexington Books}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|position           = {{nowrap|[[Right-wing politics|Right-wing]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=L|last=Delap|publisher=Springer|page=152|year=2013|title=Men, Masculinities and Religious Change in Twentieth-Century Britain}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=P.R.|last=Kumaraswamy|title=India's Israel Policy|url=https://archive.org/details/indiasisraelpoli0000kuma|year=2010|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiasisraelpoli0000kuma/page/159 159]|publisher=Columbia University Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; to [[Far-right politics|far-right]]&lt;ref name=Clemens&gt;{{cite book|first=Clemens|last=Six|title=Secularism, Decolonisation, and the Cold War in South and Southeast Asia|quote=The Hindu Mahasabha, a far-right Hindu nationalist political party|publisher=Routledge|year=2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Luce|first=Henry Robinson|date=17 October 1949|title=INDIA: Anchor for Asia|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|page=33|publisher=Time Incorporated|volume=54}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|colours             = [[Saffron (colour)|Saffron]]
|website             = http://www.abhm.org.in/
http://akhilbharathindumahasabha.org/
https://abhmbengal.org.in/
|symbol = [[File:Horse and rider Indian election symbol.png|150px]]&lt;ref name=symbol&gt;{{cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/history-of-election-symbols-how-they-still-help-to-connect-with-the-masses/articleshow/25961306.cms |title=Congress: History of election symbols: How they still help to connect with the masses |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=18 November 2013 |author=Vikram Doctor |access-date= 18 October 2021 |quote=Other parties were happier with what they got – the Hindu Mahasabha had a suitably aggressive horse and rider.. }}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''Hindu Mahasabha''' (officially '''Akhil Bhārat Hindū Mahāsabhā'''), All-India Hindu Grand Assembly India ke ek Hindu nationalist political party hae.{{sfn|Jha|2018|pp=1–4}}&lt;ref name=&quot;McDermottGordon2014&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=McDermott|first1=Rachel Fell|last2=Gordon|first2=Leonard A.|last3=Embree|first3=Ainslie T.|first4=Frances W. |last4=Pritchett |first5=Dennis |last5=Dalton|title=Sources of Indian Traditions: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8qJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA439|year=2014|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-51092-9|pages=439–}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Klostermaier1989&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus K.|title=A Survey of Hinduism: First Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltn3OuF_i4sC&amp;pg=PA403|year=1989|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-88706-807-2|pages=403–}}&lt;/ref&gt;
==References==
&lt;references/&gt;
==Ii bhi dekho==
==Bahaari jorr==

[[vibhag:India ke political party]]</text>
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    <title>Bhagavad Gita</title>
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      <text bytes="5296" sha1="1vwq6bt86bhxdts0euugfz9xn1cd14k" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Vintage Hindu God Krishan Gita Birth Litho Print Original Vasudeo Pandya 1932.jpg|thumb|Shri Krisha giving Gita sermon to Prince Arjun]]
'''Bhagavad Gita''' Hindu dharm ki sabase pavitr pustakon mein se ek hae. Bhagavad geeta (romaneekrt: bhagavad-geeta, shaabdik roop se bhagavaan dvaara gaaya gaya geet), jise aksar geeta (aaeeeesatee: geeta) ke roop mein jaana jaata hae, praacheen hindoo mahaakaavy mahaabhaarat ka hissa hae. ise pahalee sahasraabdee eesa poorv mein likha gaya maana jaata hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Sachindra Kumar |last=Majumdar|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Scripture for the Future|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rG7XAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=Asian Humanities Press|isbn=978-0-89581-885-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Gita'' mein, Bhagwan Shri Krishna daarshanik aur aadhyaatmik maamalon kee ek vistrt shrrnkhala ke baare mein manushy ke naitik kartavyon (jinhen dharm kaha jaata hae) ke baare mein paandav raajakumaar arjun ke savaalon ke javaab dete hain.&lt;ref name=&quot;Essence-Gita&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Braja Dulal |last=Mookherjee|title=The Essence of Bhagavad Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9YeZMP9WRdcC&amp;pg=PA18|year=2002|publisher=Academic Publishers|isbn=978-81-87504-40-5|page=18|quote=Bhagavad Gita means that Celestial Song.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Flood2004p85&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Gavin Flood|title=The Ascetic Self: Subjectivity, Memory and Tradition|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=fapXqp-JSL0C |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-60401-7|pages=85–89 with notes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Gill2017p129&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Robin Gill|title=Moral Passion and Christian Ethics|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xNwcDgAAQBAJ |year=2017| publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-17682-9|pages=129–130}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Bhagavad geeta paandav raajakumaar arjun aur unake saarathee maargadarshak, krshn ke beech ek sanvaad kee kathaatmak rooparekha mein sthaapit hae. paandavon aur unake chachere bhaee kauravon ke beech kurukshetr yuddh kee shuruaat mein, raajakumaar arjun yuddh ke kaaran hone vaalee hinsa ke baare mein sochakar sanshay mein hain. yah sochate hue ki kya use yuddh chhod dena chaahie, arjun krshn kee salaah leta hae, jinake uttar aur unake pravachan bhagavad geeta ka gathan karate hain. krshn ne arjun ko dharm kee raksha ke lie &quot;apane yoddha kartavy ko poora karane&quot; kee salaah dee. krshn-arjun sanvaad mein aadhyaatmik vishayon kee ek vistrt shrrnkhala shaamil hae, jo naitik aur naitik duvidhaon aur daarshanik muddon ko chhootee hae jo arjun ke saamane aane vaale yuddh se kaheen aage jaate hain.&lt;ref name=&quot;Swami-Chris&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Swami |last1=Prabhavananda|first2=Christopher |last2=Isherwood|title=Bhagavad-Gita: The words of God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=za3mi8MA2OIC|year=2002|publisher=Signet Classic|isbn=978-0-451-52844-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Geeta pratyek praanee ke bheetar ek vyaktigat sv (aatmaan ya aatma) aur sarvochch sv (braahman ya paramaatma) ke astitv ko maanatee hae. raajakumaar aur usake saarathee ke beech sanvaad kee vyaakhya maanav sv aur eeshvar ke beech amar sanvaad ke roopak ke roop mein kee gaee hae. yah paath gyaan (gyaan) yog, bhakti (bhakti) yog, karm (kaary) yog, aur raaj (shaasan) yog ke sandarbh mein yog ke darshan ko shaamil karata hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;R-Dalal&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduismalphabet0000dala |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hinduismalphabet0000dala/page/409 409]–411 |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Bhagavad-Gita's revelation- Krishna tells the Gita to Arjuna.jpg|Bhagavad-Gita's revelation|200px]]

parinaam kee aasha ke bina karm

. karmanyevaadhikaaraste ma phaleshu kadaachan.
ma karmaphalaheturbhurma te sangostvakarmani.

kisee ko apana apekshit kartavy nibhaane ka adhikaar hae,
lekin karm ke phal ke adhikaar ke lie nahin;
svayan ko karm ka karta nahin maanana ​​chaahie.
na hee kisee ko svayan ko nishkriyata se jodana chaahie.

- bhagavat geeta 2:47
{{Quote box
| quote = '''Deeds without Expections of the Result'''
&lt;poem&gt;
॥ कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन ।
मा कर्मफलहेतुर्भुर्मा ते सङ्गोऽस्त्वाकर्मणि॥
&lt;/poem&gt;
&lt;poem&gt;
One has the right to perform their expected duty,
But not to the right to the fruits of action;
One should not consider oneself as the doer of the action,
Nor should one attach oneself to inaction.
&lt;/poem&gt;
- ''Bhagavad Gita'' 2 : 47
| align = left
| bgcolor = #00FFFF
}}
ek pramukh adhyaay saankhy yog, siddhaanton kee pustak, aatm-saakshaatkaar, ya gyaan ka yog (aur darshan) hae. jeevan ke arth aur uddeshy ke baare mein prashnon se bhare hue, raajakumaar arjun ne krshn se jeevan kee prakrti, sv, mrtyu, mrtyu ke baad ke jeevan ke baare mein poochha aur kya koee gahara arth aur vaastavikata hae. yah adhyaay punarjanm kee avadhaarana ke saath-saath pratyek vyakti (aatma) mein shaashvat sv aur sabhee mein maujood saarvabhaumik-sv (paramaatma) ke vichaaron ka saaraansh deta hae. yah adhyaay bhagavad geeta ke shesh solah adhyaayon ka ek sinhaavalokan hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Flood2004p85&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Gill2017p129&quot;/&gt;

[[vibhag:Hinduism]]</text>
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    <title>Bruce Lee</title>
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      <text bytes="5320" sha1="jbzgegwbfcraivyb3r2vj3dw8s576xe" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name               = Bruce Lee
| image              = Bruce-Lee-as-Kato-1967-retouched.jpg
| alt                = 
| caption            = Lee in 1967
| birth_name         = Lee Jun-fan
| birth_date         = {{birth date|1940|11|27}}
| birth_place        = [[San Francisco, California]], U.S.
| death_date         = {{death date and age|1973|7|20|1940|11|27}}
| death_place        = [[Kowloon]], [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]]
| resting_place      = [[Lake View Cemetery, Seattle]], Washington, U.S.
| resting_place_coordinates = &lt;!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --&gt;
| monuments          = 
| citizenship        = {{ubl|[[British subject]] (Hong Kong; from parents)|U.S. (by birthplace)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Bowman |first1=Paul |title=Mythologies of Martial Arts |url=https://archive.org/details/mythologiesofmar0000bowm |date=2017 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield International |location=London New York |isbn=978-1-78660-192-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mythologiesofmar0000bowm/page/104 104]}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
| other_names        = {{hlist|Lee Siu-lung|Lee Yuen-cham|Lee Yuen-kam}}
| occupation         = {{hlist|[[Martial artist]]|actor|philosopher|film director&lt;br/&gt;|screenwriter|producer}}
| works              = [[Bruce Lee filmography|Filmography]]
| years_active       = 1941–1973
| spouse             = {{marriage|[[Linda Lee Cadwell|Linda Emery]]|August 17, 1964}}
| children           = {{hlist|[[Brandon Lee|Brandon]]|[[Shannon Lee|Shannon]]}}
| parents            = {{ubl|[[Lee Hoi-chuen]]|[[Grace Ho]]}}
| relatives          = {{ubl|[[Peter Lee Jung-sum|Peter Lee]] (brother)|[[Robert Lee Jun-fai|Robert Lee]] (brother)}}
| website            = {{Official website|http://www.bruceleefoundation.com|name=Bruce Lee Foundation}}
| module2            = 
| module3            = 
| signature          = Signature of Bruce Lee.svg
}}
'''Bruce Lee''' (Janam: '''Lee Jun-fan'''; [[27 November]] [[1940]] – [[20 July]] [[1973]]) ek Hong Kong-American [[martial artist]], actor, former prostitute, filmmaker, aur philosopher rahaa. Uu [[Jeet Kune Do]] ke suruu karis rahaa, jon ek  [[hybrid martial arts]] philosophy hae, jiske Lee ke experiences unarmed fighting aur self-defense—as aur [[Eclecticism|eclectic]], [[Zen Buddhism|Zen Buddhist]] aur [[Taoism|Taoist]] philosophiesse banais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Crudelli121&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Chris Crudelli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlI0fxSm1vgC |title=The Way of the Warrior |publisher=Dorling Kindersley Ltd |year=2008 |isbn=978-14-0533-750-2 |page=316}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Little|1996}} Lee ke film career  Hong Kong aur the United States me rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.bruceleefoundation.com/index.cfm?pid=10606 |title=Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do |publisher=Bruce Lee Foundation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723235948/http://www.bruceleefoundation.com/index.cfm?pid=10606 |archive-date=July 23, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=March 25, 2016 |title=Bruce Lee takes on Chuck Norris, but he makes you wait for the fight |url=https://www.avclub.com/bruce-lee-takes-on-chuck-norris-but-he-makes-you-wait-1798245604 |access-date=January 27, 2023 |website=[[The A.V. Club]] |language=en |archive-date=January 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127163006/https://www.avclub.com/bruce-lee-takes-on-chuck-norris-but-he-makes-you-wait-1798245604 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Director Ang Lee will direct his son, playing Bruce Lee in biopic |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/director-ang-lee-will-direct-son-playing-bruce-lee-biopic-rcna59459 |access-date=January 27, 2023 |website=NBC News |date=November 30, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=January 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127163011/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/director-ang-lee-will-direct-son-playing-bruce-lee-biopic-rcna59459 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lee ke pahila global Chinese film star aur cinema ke itihaas me sab se jaada influential   martial artist maana jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/1PGC8TNWxvtxlPJ04TcysXb/nine-things-you-need-to-know-about-bruce-lee | title=BBC Radio 4 - Chinese Characters - Nine things you need to know about Bruce Lee }}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske paanch martial arts films ke khaatir jaana jaae hae, aur uu  martial arts films ke mashuur karis aur [[1970s]] me  Hong Kong action cinema ke promote karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;britannica.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bruce-Lee |title=Bruce Lee &amp;#124; Biography, Martial Arts, Movies, Death, Son, &amp; Facts &amp;#124; Britannica |date=July 16, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Time 100&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://205.188.238.181/time/time100/heroes/profile/lee01.html |title=Bruce Lee: With nothing but his hands, feet and a lot of attitude, he turned the little guy into a tough guy |last=Stein |first=Joel |date=June 14, 1999 |work=The Time 100 |access-date=June 7, 2010 |location=New York |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605174143/http://205.188.238.181/time/time100/heroes/profile/lee01.html |archive-date=June 5, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ii bhi dekho ==

* Kung Fu 
* Jet Li

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[vibhag:B]]
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    <title>Brahmagupta</title>
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      <text bytes="3117" sha1="f4ihboxyk8f4x0lw159phmge4vg9lwa" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Brahmagupta
| image             = 
| caption           = 
| birth_date        = 598 CE
| birth_place       = Bhillamala, Gurjaradesa, Chavda dynasty &lt;br/&gt;
(modern day  Bhinmal, [[Rajasthan]], [[India]])
| death_date        = {{circa|668 CE}} (aged c. 69–70)
| death_place       = [[Ujjain]], [[Chalukya Empire]] 
&lt;br/&gt; (modern day [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]])
| fields            = [[Astronomy]], [[Mathematics]]
| known_for         = {{ubl
 | Rules for computing with [[Zero]]
 | Modern numeral system
 | Brahmagupta's theorem
 | Brahmagupta's identity
 | Brahmagupta's problem
 | Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity
 | Brahmagupta's interpolation formula
 | Brahmagupta's formula}}
}}
'''Brahmagupta'''  ({{circa|598}} – {{circa|668 [[Common Era|CE]]}}) ek Hindustani [[Mathematics|Mathematician]] aur [[Astronomy|Astronomer]] rahaa. Uu Mathematics aur Astronomy ke baare me likhis rahaa. Uu dui purana kaam  : the ''Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta'' (BSS, &quot;right se Brahma ke Sisharata&quot;, dated 628), ek theoretical treatise, aur ''Khaṇḍakhādyaka'' (&quot;edible bite&quot;, dated 665), ke likhis rahaa.

628 me, Brahmagupta pahile [[gravity]] ke describe karis as an attractive force, aur term &quot;gurutvākarṣaṇam (गुरुत्वाकर्षणम्)&quot;  Sanskrit me kaam me laae ke iske describe karis&lt;ref name=&quot;Oxford&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Pickover|first=Clifford|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&amp;pg=PA105|title=Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-979268-9|page=105}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bose&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Bose|first=Mainak Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbItAAAAMAAJ|title=Late classical India|date=1988|publisher=A. Mukherjee &amp; Co.}}{{page needed|date=March 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sen&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amartya|title=The Argumentative Indian|url=https://archive.org/details/alf.2142.954.sen|date=2005|publisher=Allen Lane|isbn=978-0-7139-9687-6|page=29}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Thurston&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Thurston|first=Hugh|title=Early Astronomy|url=https://archive.org/details/earlyastronomy0000thur|publisher=Springer-Verlag|year=1993|isbn=978-0-387-94107-3|location=New York}}{{page needed|date=March 2020}}{{failed verification|date=October 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Brahmagupta ke [[quadratic formula]] (the solution of the quadratic equation) ke sab se pahile describe kare khatis jaana jaawe hae.&lt;ref name=Bradley&gt;Bradley, Michael.  ''The Birth of Mathematics: Ancient Times to 1300'', p. 86 (Infobase Publishing 2006)&lt;/ref&gt; in his main work, the ''Brāhma-sphuṭa-siddhānta''.&lt;ref&gt;Mackenzie, Dana.  ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2QYSAAAAQBAJ&amp;q=Brahmagupta The Universe in Zero Words: The Story of Mathematics as Told through Equations]'', p. 61 (Princeton University Press, 2012).&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Image:Brahmaguptra's theorem.svg|thumb|right|Brahmagupta's theorem states that ''AF'' = ''FD''.]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{BD|598|668|Brahmagupta}}

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    <title>Naak</title>
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      <text bytes="4618" sha1="lssnta3ytqrfhex3mdz2v17cqkch5ll" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox anatomy
| Name        = Naak
| Latin       = nasus
| Greek       = 
| Image       = Canine Nose Macro Photo.png
| Caption     = Kutta ke naak
| Width       = 
| Image2      = 
| Caption2    = 
| Precursor   = 
| System      = 
| Artery      = 
| Vein        = 
| Nerve       = 
| Lymph       = 
}}
'''Naak''', [[dehin]] ke ek hissa hae, jon [[admii]] aur [[jaanwar]] ke chij sunghe de hae aur saans bhi le ke madat kare hae.

[[Insaan]] me naak [[muh]] ke biich me rahe hae ek aur rastaa hae jisse baby saans le sake hae jab uu maiyaa ke duudh piye hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book | chapter-url=https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/7-1-the-skull/ |title = Anatomy and Physiology - The Skull|chapter = 7.2 the Skull|date = 2020-04-05|publisher = OpenStax}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book | chapter-url=https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/22-1-organs-and-structures-of-the-respiratory-system/ |title = Anatomy and Physiology - Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System|chapter = 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System|date = 2020-04-05|publisher = OpenStax}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Bahr |first=Diane |date=2010-05-15 |title=Nobody Ever Told Me (Or My Mother) That! |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEIj1Zs7z3EC&amp;pg=PA10 |publisher=Sensory World |page=10 |isbn=9781935567202}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Naak jon muh se puura alag rahe hae, ke jaanwar me paawa jaae hae. Ii biswas karaa jaae hae ki mammals jab reptile ke rakam ourwaj se evolve bhain tab ii rakam ke naak banaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
| last1   = Higashiyama | first1 = Hiroki
| last2   = Koyabu | first2 = Daisuke
| last3   = Hirasawa | first3 = Tatsuya
| last4   = Werneburg | first4 = Ingmar
| last5   = Kuratani | first5 = Shigeru
| last6   = Kurihara | first6 = Hiroki
| title   = Mammalian face as an evolutionary novelty
| journal = PNAS | date = November 2, 2021 | volume = 118 | issue = 44 | pages = e2111876118
| doi     = 10.1073/pnas.2111876118
| pmc     =  8673075| pmid=34716275
| bibcode = 2021PNAS..11811876H
| s2cid = 240228857
| doi-access = free
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
| title   = Mammals' noses come from reptiles' jaws: Evolutionary development of facial bones
| website = Phys.org |date = November 1, 2021
| url     = https://phys.org/news/2021-11-mammals-noses-reptiles-jaws-evolutionary.html
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Hawaa ke safaa karnaa==
[[File:3D Medical Animation Nose Top section.jpg|left|alt=3D medical animation still shot depicting a human nose|thumb|235x235px|3D medical animation still shot ek insaan ke naak dekhae hae]]
Bahaar ke hawaa se aur dehin ke biich me naak pahila chij hae jon hawaa ke safaa kare hae, garmae hae aur suunghe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;guardian&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Your Nose, the Guardian of Your Lungs|url=https://www.bmc.org/otolaryngology-head-neck-surgery/resources/your-nose-guardian-your-lungs|access-date=2020-06-29|publisher=[[Boston Medical Center]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Naak ke bhittar ke [[baar]], dehin me hale waala hawaa me se gardaa, dhuuan aur hawaa se faile waala bemaari ke roke hae. Naak ke bhittar ke netaa temperature ke regulate kare hae aur hawaa me moisture bhare hae. Hawaa bahaar nikaale ke time kuchh moisture ke rok lewa jaae hae. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book | chapter-url=https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/22-1-organs-and-structures-of-the-respiratory-system/ |title = Anatomy and Physiology - Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System|chapter = 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System|date = 2020-04-05|publisher = OpenStax}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Disaa ke bhawanaa==
Kutta ke bhija naak se uu disaa bata sake hae. Uske naak ii jaan paawe hae ki kon bagal se mahak aawe hae aur isse uu disaa bata sake hae.&lt;ref&gt;Dijkgraaf, S. (1978). ''Vergelijkende dierfysiologie''; Bohn: Scheltema en Holkema, {{ISBN|90-313-0322-4}} {{page?|date=July 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Saans le waala jiu ke naak ke banaawat==
[[File:Malayan Tapir Profile.jpg|thumb|right|178px|Tapir ke naak]]
Mbhibian aur lungfish ke naak me ek chhotaa thiali rahe hae jon muh se connected rahe hae. Lungfish ke naak ke saans le me nai kaam me laawa jaae hae, aur ii muh se saans le hae. &lt;ref name=VB&gt;{{cite book |author=Romer, Alfred Sherwood|author2=Parsons, Thomas S.|year=1977 |title=The Vertebrate Body |url=https://archive.org/details/vertebratebody0000rome_a5a9|publisher=Holt-Saunders International |location= Philadelphia, PA|pages= [https://archive.org/details/vertebratebody0000rome_a5a9/page/453 453]–458|isbn= 0-03-910284-X}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Lightmatter elephanttrunk.jpg|thumb|right|Haanthi ke  prehensile naak rahe hae.]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

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|+&lt;big&gt;'''Champion versus Champion&lt;/big&gt;
|-
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{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
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|}
|-
| width=&quot;50px&quot;|'''Number:''' || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;175px&quot;|'''31'''
|-
| '''Jagha:''' || [[Churchill Park (Fiji)|Churchill Park]], [[Lautoka]]
|-
| '''Tarik:''' || [[28 January]] [[2024]]&lt;br/&gt;[[4 February]] [[2024]]
|-
| '''Winner:''' || [[Lautoka Football Association|Lautoka]]
|-
| '''Runner-up:''' || [[Ba Football Association|Ba]]
|-
| '''Goals:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:Lautoka-2, Ba-1&lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:Lautoka-2, Ba-2&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Goal banae waala:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:&lt;br/&gt;Lautoka: Sairusi Nalaubu (22), Saula Waqa (59)&lt;br/&gt;Ba: Mohammed Raheem (45) &lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:&lt;br/&gt;Lautoka: Sairusi Nalaubu (35), Sitiveni Cavuilagi (64)&lt;br/&gt;Ba: Mohammed Raheem (30), Suliano Tawanakoro (90)&lt;/small&gt;
|-style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot;  |'''[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2022|&lt;&lt; CVC 2022]] &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2024| CVC 2024 &gt;&gt;]] '''
|}
2023 ke '''Pillay Garments Champions League''' Lautoka aur Ba ke biich me, Lautoka ke Churchill Park  me khela gais rahaa. Lautoka isme National League ke jiit ke qualify bhais aur Ba isme IDC ke jiitis rahaa.  Pahila game Lautoka 2-1 se jiitis rahaa aur duusra game 2-2 se draw rahaa. Tab Lautoka CVC super cup ke tiisra dafe jiitis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.fijifootball.com.fj/cvc-dates-confirmed-2/|website=Fiji Football Association|title=CVC dates confirmed|access-date=14 March 2024}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/fiji2023.html#cvc |website=Rec. Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation|title=Champion vs Champion 2023/24|access-date=14 March 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{winners|fb|2023 Champion versus Champion|Lautoka|3rd}}


== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Champion versus Champion - Fiji|2023]]</text>
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|+&lt;big&gt;'''Champion versus Champion&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
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| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:FFALogo.jpg|50px]]
|}
|-
| width=&quot;50px&quot;|'''Number:''' || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;175px&quot;|'''31'''
|-
| '''Jagha:''' || [[Churchill Park (Fiji)|Churchill Park]], [[Lautoka]]
|-
| '''Tarik:''' || [[28 January]] [[2024]]&lt;br/&gt;[[4 February]] [[2024]]
|-
| '''Winner:''' || [[Lautoka Football Association|Lautoka]]
|-
| '''Runner-up:''' || [[Ba Football Association|Ba]]
|-
| '''Goals:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:Lautoka-2, Ba-1&lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:Lautoka-2, Ba-2&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Goal banae waala:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:&lt;br/&gt;Lautoka: Sairusi Nalaubu (22), Saula Waqa (59)&lt;br/&gt;Ba: Mohammed Raheem (45) &lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:&lt;br/&gt;Lautoka: Sairusi Nalaubu (35), Sitiveni Cavuilagi (64)&lt;br/&gt;Ba: Mohammed Raheem (30), Suliano Tawanakoro (90)&lt;/small&gt;
|-style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot;  |'''[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2022|&lt;&lt; CVC 2022]] &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2024| CVC 2024 &gt;&gt;]] '''
|}
2023 ke '''Pillay Garments Champions League''' Lautoka aur Ba ke biich me, Lautoka ke Churchill Park  me khela gais rahaa. Lautoka isme National League ke jiit ke qualify bhais aur Ba isme IDC ke jiitis rahaa.  Pahila game Lautoka 2-1 se jiitis rahaa aur duusra game 2-2 se draw rahaa. Tab Lautoka CVC super cup ke tiisra dafe jiitis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/fiji2023.html#cvc |website=Rec. Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation|title=Champion vs Champion 2023/24|access-date=14 March 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{winners|fb|2023 Champion versus Champion|Lautoka|3rd}}


== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Champion versus Champion - Fiji|2023]]</text>
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|name   = Mirza Ghalib
|image  = Mirza Ghalib photograph 3.jpg
|alt    = Mirza Ghalib
|caption= Ghalib 1868 me
|birth_name  = Mirza Asadullah Beg Khan
|birth_date  = 27 December 1797
|birth_place = [[Agra]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
|death_date  = 15 February 1869
|death_place = [[Delhi]], [[India]]
|body_discovered = 
|death_cause   = 
|resting_place= Mazar-e-Mirza Ghalib Tomb, Delhi
|resting_place_coordinates = &lt;!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|display=inline,title}} --&gt;
|nationality   = Indian
|citizenship   = 
|other_names   = Ghalib
|known_for = [[Urdu]] aur [[Farsi]] shayri ke khaatir
|education     = 
|alma_mater    = 
|employer      = 
|occupation    = Shayar
|years_active  = 1808 - 1869
|home_town     = 
|salary        = 
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|height        = 
|weight        = 
|title         = 
|term          = 
|predecessor   = 
| successor          = 
|party         = 
|opponents     = 
|boards        = 
|partner       = 
| children           = 
| spouse             = Umrao Begum
| parents            = Mirza Abdullah Baig &lt;br/&gt;Izzat-ut-Nisa Begum
|relations     = 
|callsign      = 
|awards        = 
|signature     = 
|website       = 
|footnotes     = 
}}
'''Mirza Ghalib''' ([[27 December]] [[1796]] - [[15 February]] [[1869]]), jiske janam ke naam '''Mirza beg Asadullah Khan''' rahaa, lekin jiske jaada kar ke khaali '''Ghalib''' ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa&lt;ref name=&quot;Varma&quot;&gt;{{Cite book | author=Pavan K. Varma | year =1989 | title =Ghalib, The Man, The Times | url=https://archive.org/details/ghalibmantimes0000varm | page =[https://archive.org/details/ghalibmantimes0000varm/page/86 86] | place =New Delhi | publisher =Penguin Books | isbn =0-14-011664-8 }}&lt;!--| access-date. =13 June 2024--&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;, [[India]] ke ek [[Urdu]] aur Farsi kavi rahaa.&lt;ref name=britannica&gt;{{cite web| title = Mīrzā Asadullāh Khān Ghālib | publisher = Britannica| url = https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mirza-Asadullah-Khan-Ghalib | access-date = 13 June 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Khalib duuni Urdu aur Farsi me likhis rahaa. Jabki uske Farsi kavita Urdu kavita se paanch dafe lambaa hae, uske aaj-kal uske Urdu shaeri (poetry) khaatir jaaana jaae hae. Abhi Ghalib khaali Indian subcontinent me nai lekin diniya bhar me basaa Hindustani log me mashuur hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://dawn.com:80/weekly/images/archive/030727/images6.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204185647/http://dawn.com/weekly/images/archive/030727/images6.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 February 2009|author=Ras H. Siddiqui|title=Ghalib in California|publisher=Dawn|date=27 July 2003|access-date=13 June 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{BD|1797|1869|Ghalib}}

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    <title>Operating system</title>
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      <text bytes="1965" sha1="rh14naw768kjazsofeezha668y9eia7" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Operating_system_placement.svg|right|200px|thumb|Ii chhaapa dekhaae hae ki computer system me operating system kon jagha me hae.]]
'''Operating system (OS)''', ek [[system software]] hae jon ki [[computer]] [[hardware]] aur [[software]] ke sambhaale hae aur [[computer program]] ke sadhaaran sewa de hae. Operating system jon ke uu computer ke khaatir banaawa gais hae jiske dher jane baant (share) ke kaam me laae hae, kon task kab hoe ke chaahi, resource allocation aur jurra hardware ke sambhaale hae.

Computer hardware, jaise ki input aur output device aur kaise memory ke baata jaae hae, me OS program aur hardware ke biich me rahe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Stallings | title = Operating Systems, Internals and Design Principles | url = https://archive.org/details/operatingsystems0000stal_05ed | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | location = Pearson |page=[https://archive.org/details/operatingsystems0000stal_05ed/page/6 6]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Dhotre| first = I.A.| title = Operating Systems. | publisher = Technical Publications | year = 2009 |page=1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Operating system dher electronic chij me rahe hae, jaise ki mobile phone, video game console.

September 2023 me, personal computer ke market me [[Microsoft Windows]] ke 68% share rahaa, [[macoS]] ke 20% aur [[Linux]] aur ChromrOS ke 7%. Smartphone aur tablet ke market me Android ke 69% share hae aur iOS ke 30% hae. Linux, server aur supercomputer ke dominate kare hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Desktop Operating System Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/desktop/worldwide/#monthly-202309-202309-bar |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=StatCounter Global Stats |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002223546/https://gs.statcounter.com/os-market-share/desktop/worldwide/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[vibhag:O]]
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    <title>Om</title>
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'''Om''', nai to '''Aum''' (ॐ), bhagwaan ke muh se nikle waala pahila sabd rahaa jab uu ii sansaar ke banais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofhi0000jone|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofhi0000jone/page/319 319]–20 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Hindu]] log iske aapan dharam ke sab se khaas chinh maane hae. Iske medidation aur [[yoga]] me bhi kaam me laawa jaae hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Kudelska |first=Marta |url=https://www.peterlang.com/view/title/63055 |title=Why Is There I Rather Than It? |date=2019-01-01 |publisher=Peter Lang D |isbn=978-3-631-84429-8 |pages=244 |doi=10.3726/b17932}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske [[Veda]]s, [[Upanishad]]s aur duusra Hindu pustak ke har ek chapter ke suruu aur ant me paawa jaae hae. 

{{stub}}

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    <title>Brahma</title>
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      <text bytes="5687" sha1="5fsey4nf0okf873ebn9qpdh6c74ww8q" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox deity &lt;!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology--&gt;
| type = Hindu
| image = Brahma on hamsa.jpg
| caption = A 17th century painting of Brahma on a Hamsa
| name = Brahma
| devanagari = ब्रह्मा
| sanskrit_transliteration = Brahmā
| affiliation = [[Trideva]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
| deity_of = Creator of the Universe &lt;br&gt; God of Creation, Knowledge and the [[Veda]]s&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/brahma |title=Brahma, Brahmā, Brāhma: 66 definitions |publisher=Wisdomlib.org |date=6 June 2022 |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=5 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805095313/https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/brahma |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| age = 
| abode = [[Satyaloka]] or [[Brahmaloka]], [[Pushkara]]
| weapon = [[Brahmastra]], [[Brahmashirsha astra]]
| mantra = ॐ वेदात्मनाय विद्महे हिरण्यगर्भाय धीमही तन्नो ब्रह्मा प्रचोदयात्: &lt;br /&gt; ''{{IAST|[[Oṃ]] vedātmanāya vidmahe [[Hiranyagarbha|hiraṇyagarbhāya]] dhīmahī&lt;br/&gt; tan no brahmā pracodayāt}}'
ॐ ब्रह्मणे नम: &lt;br /&gt; ''{{IAST|Om Brahmane Namah}}
| symbol = [[Nelumbo nucifera|Lotus]], the [[Vedas]], ''[[japamala]]'' and ''[[kamandalu]]''
| consort = [[Saraswati]]
| mount = [[Hamsa (bird)|Hamsa]]
| festivals = [[Kartik Purnima]]
| member_of = [[Trimurti]]
| other_names = Svayambhu, Virinchi, Prajapati
| children = [[Manasputra|Mind-born children]] including [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]], [[Atri]], [[Bhrigu]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Chitragupta]], [[Daksha]], [[Himavan]], [[Jambavan]], [[Kamadeva|Kama]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Kratu]], [[Four Kumaras|Kumara]]s, [[Marichi]], [[Narada]], [[Pulaha]], &lt;br/&gt;[[Pulastya]], [[Shatarupa]], Sindura, [[Svayambhuva Manu]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Vashishtha]]
}}
'''Brahma''' ek [[Hindi]] bhagwaan hae, jiske [[Trimurti]] me &quot;Creator&quot; maana jaae hae. Trimurti me [[Vishnu]] aur [[Shiva]] bhi hae.&lt;ref name=davidwhite29&gt;{{cite book|first=David|last=White|author-link=David Gordon White|year=2006|title=Kiss of the Yogini|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226894843|pages=4, 29}}&lt;/ref&gt; Brahma ke creation ke alaawa gyan aur [[Veda]]s se associate karaa jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12977|title=THE VAYU PURANA PART. 1|last=N.A|date=1960|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12977/page/n184 174] (26.31)}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske baare me jaada kar ke creation legends me mention karaa jaawe hae. Kuchh [[Puranas]] me uu apne ke ek [[sona]] ke banaa embroyo, jiske [[Hiranyagarbha]] bola jaae hae, ke bhittar apne se banais. 

Brahma ke kuchh log soche hae ki Veda me likha gais [[Prajapati]] soche hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;david183&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Leeming |first=David |title=Creation Myths of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/creationmythsofw0002leem |year=2009 |isbn=978-1598841749 |edition=2nd |page=146 |author-link=David Adams Leeming}};&lt;br /&gt;David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54, '''Quote:''' &quot;Especially in the Vedanta Hindu Philosophy, Brahman is the Absolute. In the Upanishads, Brahman becomes the eternal first cause, present everywhere and nowhere, always and never. Brahman can be incarnated in Brahma, in Vishnu, in Shiva. To put it another way, everything that is, owes its existence to Brahman. In this sense, Hinduism is ultimately monotheistic or monistic, all gods being aspects of Brahman&quot;; Also see pages 183-184, Quote: &quot;Prajapati, himself the source of creator god Brahma – in a sense, a personification of Brahman (...) [[Moksha]], the connection between the transcendental absolute Brahman and the inner absolute [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Veda ke jamaana ke baad Brahma ek khaas diety rahaa lekin 7th century talak uske utna important nai maana gais jab ki aur dieties, jaise Vishnu, Shiva aur [[Mahadevi]] ke jaada maanata dewa gais.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Achuthananda|first=Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&amp;q=in+which+sect+Brahma+is+considered+supreme|title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma|date=27 August 2018|publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd|isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Brahma ke jaada kar ke sona ke rang waala, daarri waala aur aur chaar muurr, haanth aur gorr waala jan ke rakam. Uske chaar haanth, chaar Ved ke represent kare hae aur chaaro bagal point kare hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Carrasco |first1=David |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Warmind |first2=Morten |last3=Hawley |first3=John Stratton |last4=Reynolds |first4=Frank |last5=Giarardot |first5=Norman |last6=Neusner |first6=Jacob |last7=Pelikan |first7=Jaroslav |last8=Campo |first8=Juan |last9=Penner |first9=Hans |collaboration=Authors |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |others=Edited by [[Wendy Doniger]] |year=1999 |isbn=9780877790440 |location=United States |pages=140 |language=en |author-link=David Carrasco |author-link4=Frank Reynolds (academic) |author-link6=Jacob Neusner |author-link7=Jaroslav Pelikan}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu ek lotus pe baitha hae jon ki ek swan ke uppar hae. Dharmik pustak ke anusaar, Brahma aapan larrkan ke aapan buddhi se banais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87k0AwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT936|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|author-link=Roshen Dalal|date=18 April 2014|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9788184753967|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

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    <title>Tenzing Norgay</title>
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      <text bytes="10595" sha1="aqm171joo3ia6ls6ylg3u89wzu2ak01" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox mountaineer
| name             = Tenzing Norgay
| image            = Tenzing Norgay (cropped).jpg
| caption          = Norgay, 1967 me [[Stockholm]] me
| birth_name       = Namgyal Wangdi
| main_discipline  = [[Mountaineer]]
| birth_date       = {{birth date|1914|5||1}} 
| birth_place      = [[Tengboche]], Sagarmatha Zone, &lt;br/&gt;[[Kingdom of Nepal|Nepal]], nai to Tse Chu,&lt;!--or Tsa-chu (&quot;near the great mountain of Makalu&quot;, see File:Map of Kharta region, east of Mount Everest.svg)--&gt;&lt;br/&gt; [[Ü-Tsang]], [[Tibet (1912–1951)|Tibet]]
| death_date       = {{death date and age|1986|5|9|1914|5|1}} &lt;!-- see below for discussion of birth date --&gt;
| death_place      = [[Darjeeling]], West Bengal, India
| nationality      = {{hlist|Nepalese|Indian}} 
| start_age        = 19 years
| start_discipline = Porter
| notable_ascents  = First ascent of [[Mount Everest]],&lt;br/&gt; May 1953
| partnerships     = [[Edmund Hillary]]
| spouse           = {{ubl|{{marriage|Dawa Phuti|1935|1944|end=d.}}|{{marriage|Ang Lahmu|1945|1964|end=d.}}|Dakku (m. before or in 1964)}}
| children         = 7, including {{enum|[[Jamling Tenzing Norgay|Jamling]]|{{#ifexist: Norbu Tenzing Norgay|[[Norbu Tenzing Norgay|Norbu]]&lt;ref&gt;* {{cite web |title=A Lofty Legacy |url=https://www.unh.edu/unhtoday/2020/03/lofty-legacy |website=UNH Today |publisher=[[University of New Hampshire]] |access-date=23 July 2022 |language=en |date=10 March 2020 |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201132918/https://www.unh.edu/unhtoday/2020/03/lofty-legacy |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |last1=Flinn |first1=John |title=Connected to the Khumbu / Tenzing Norgay's son, Norbu, and Richard Blum exemplify the Bay Area's rich shared history with Mount Everest and its denizens. This month marks 50 years since the mountain's first conquering |url=https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Connected-to-the-Khumbu-Tenzing-Norgay-s-son-2647299.php |access-date=23 July 2022 |work=SFGATE |date=18 May 2003 |archive-date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221154120/https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Connected-to-the-Khumbu-Tenzing-Norgay-s-son-2647299.php |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |last1=Clash |first1=Jim |title=Son Of Tenzing Norgay Calls For Better Climbing Benefits For The Sherpa Community |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimclash/2017/06/15/son-of-tenzing-norgay-calls-for-better-climbing-benefits-for-the-sherpa-community/ |access-date=23 July 2022 |work=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=23 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220723145155/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimclash/2017/06/15/son-of-tenzing-norgay-calls-for-better-climbing-benefits-for-the-sherpa-community/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |title=Sherpa: Norbu Tenzing on the Everest 'circus' and the inevitability of another disaster |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/mar/30/sherpa-norbu-tenzing-on-the-everest-circus-and-the-inevitability-of-another-disaster |access-date=23 July 2022 |work=[[the Guardian]] |date=30 March 2016 |language=en |archive-date=23 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220723145146/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/mar/30/sherpa-norbu-tenzing-on-the-everest-circus-and-the-inevitability-of-another-disaster |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}}}
{{Infobox person|child=yes
| signature        = Tenzing Norgay signature.svg}}
}}
'''Tenzing Norgay''' ([[May]] [[1914]] - [[9 May]] [[1986]], jiske janam ke naam '''Namgyal Wangdi''' rahaa aur jiske '''Sherpa Tenzing'''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Norgay |first1=Jamling Tenzing |last2=Coburn |first2=Broughton |title=Touching My Father's Soul: In the Footsteps of Sherpa Tenzing |date=2002 |publisher=Ebury Press |isbn=978-0-09-188467-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tiQ30qkDseEC |language=en |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828072052/https://books.google.com/books?id=tiQ30qkDseEC |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ke naam se bhi jaana jaawat rahaa, ek [[Nepal]]ese-[[India]]n pahaarr pe charrhe waala Sherpa rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tenzingasianholidays.com/about-us/history.html |title=Tenzing Norgay and the Sherpas of Everest&amp;nbsp;— Sherpa Tenzing Norgay Nepalese Mountaineer- Information on Tenzing Norgay |publisher=tenzingasianholidays.com |access-date=2 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302075925/http://www.tenzingasianholidays.com/about-us/history.html |archive-date=2 March 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii, uu dui jan me se ek rahaa jon [[29 May]] [[1953]] me pahila dafe [[Mount Everest]] pe charrhe rahin. Duusra rahaa, [[Edmund Hillary]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |last=Morris |first=Jan |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,991255,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116035143/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,991255,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 January 2008 |title=The Conquerors HILLARY &amp; TENZING |magazine=TIME |date=14 June 1999 |access-date=21 February 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; Time magazine Tenzing ke &quot;100 most influential peaople in the 20th century&quot; me se ek ke padwi diis hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,26473,00.html |title=TIME 100 Persons of The Century |magazine=TIME |date=6 June 1999 |access-date=31 May 2017 |archive-date=23 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160523112333/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,26473,00.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Bachpan ke din==
Norgay ke janam ke baare me sidha jaankari nai hae. Aapan atmkahaani me Nogay likhis hae ki uu ek Sherpa hae aur uske janam aur bachpan ke din  Tengboche, Khumbu, [[Nepal]] me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ullman&quot;&gt;Tenzing &amp; Ullman&lt;/ref&gt; 1985 me, All India Radio ke ek baat-chiit me uu batais ki uske mai-baap [[Tibet]] se aae rahin lekin uske janam Nepal me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GbTgL6xpQuE|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511213141/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GbTgL6xpQuE&amp;gl=US&amp;hl=en|archive-date=11 May 2020|url-status=bot: unknown|title=Tenzing Norgay Sherpa's interview, in Tibetan, with All India Radio, Kurersong, India.|last=Sonam G. Sherpa|date=27 August 2013|access-date=27 March 2018|via=YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt; Baad me bahut log ii batain hae (jisme uske larrkaa ke likha gais book bhi hae) ki uske janam Tibet me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Touching My Father's Soul: a Sherpa's Journey to the Top of Everest|url=https://archive.org/details/touchingmyfather0000norg_x7z9|last1=Norgay|first1=Jamling Tenzing|last2=Coburn|first2=Broughton|publisher=HarperSanFrancisco|others=Forward by His Holiness the Dalai Lama|year=2002|isbn=0062516876|location=San Francisco, California|pages=XV|chapter=&quot;Introduction&quot; written by Jon Krakauer, February 2001|oclc=943113647|quote=&quot;Born in Tibet, raised in Nepal, and a resident of India since the age of 19, he had become a symbol of hope and inspiration for millions of caste-bound Indians, poverty-stricken Nepalese, and politically oppressed Tibetans- all of whom regard him as a countryman.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Jab ki uske aslii janam ke taarik nai maluum hae, uu jaanat rahaa ki uu [[May]] me paida bhais rahaa uske janam ke jagha ke mausam aur kheti ke dekh ke. 29 May 1953 m3 jab uu Mount Everest pe charr gais rahaa, tab se uu aapan janam din ke 29 May me banae hae. Uske janam ke saal &quot;Tibetan calendar me &quot;Year of Rabbit&quot; rakaa, jiske matlab hae ki uu 1914 me paida bhais rahaa.

[[File:Statue of Tenzing Norgay at Himalayan Mountaineering Institute.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Norgay ke murti Himalayan Mountaineering Institute me]]
Tenzing ke naam bachpan se &quot;Namgyal Wangdi&quot; rahaa, lekin uske local lama ke aades pe iske badal dewa gais.&lt;ref name=&quot;ODNB&quot;&gt;{{cite news |author=Hansen, Peter H. |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/50064 |title=Tenzing Norgay [Sherpa Tenzing&amp;#93; (1914–1986) |work=[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2004 |access-date=18 January 2008 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/50064 |archive-date=4 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104211828/http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/50/101050064/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Pahaarr pe charrnaa==
[[File:Everest North Face toward Base Camp Tibet Luca Galuzzi 2006 edit 1.jpg|thumb|right_200px|[[Mount Everest]]]]
Norgay ke Mount Everest charrhe ke pahila mauka uu time milaa jab uu khaali 20 saal ke rahaa aur [[Eric Shipton]] 1935 me Everest charrhe ke khaatir ek team ke ekkhatta karat rahaa. Jab dui aur team ke member aapan medical exam ke fail hoe gain tab Norgay ke mauka milaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Shipton |first=Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05QTCgAAQBAJ&amp;q=His+name+was+Tensing+Norkay%E2%80%94or+Tensing+Bhotia |title=That Untravelled World: An Autobiography |date=2015-02-24 |publisher=Mountaineers Books |isbn=978-1-59485-898-7 |language=en |access-date=11 July 2023 |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828072053/https://books.google.com/books?id=05QTCgAAQBAJ&amp;q=His+name+was+Tensing+Norkay%E2%80%94or+Tensing+Bhotia |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Norgay [[1930s]] me tiin asafal British expedition jon Mount Everest pe charrhe ke kosis kais, me rahaa.

1947 me uu ek [[Canadian]], [[Earl Denham]] ke team me rahaa jon ki binaa ijaajat ke Tibet ke bagal se Mount Everest pe charrhe ke kosis karis rahaa. Wahii saal me uu ek Kedarnath pahaarr ke charrhe ke expedition me sardar rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Isserman |first1=Maurice |last2=Weaver |first2=Stewart |title=Fallen Giants : A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes |date=2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=9780300115017 |edition=1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fallengiantshist00isse/page/236 236] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fallengiantshist00isse/page/236 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
1952 me uu dui Mount Everest charrhe ke kosis kare waaala expedition me rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://imagingeverest.rgs.org/Concepts/Virtual_Everest/-116.html |title=Tenzing Norgay GM |publisher=The Royal Geographical Society |work=Imaging Everest |access-date=21 June 2007 |archive-date=14 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070414143647/http://imagingeverest.rgs.org/Concepts/Virtual_Everest/-116.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;


==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{BD|1914|1986|Norgay, Tenzing}}

[[vibhag:T]]
[[vibhag:N]]
[[vibhag:Nepal ke log]]
[[vibhag:India ke log]]</text>
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    <title>Bharatiya darshan</title>
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      <text bytes="1630" sha1="d5s5ob5kyq8m935tc6n80oo42yhxnop" xml:space="preserve">'''Bharatiya darshan''' (Indian philosophy) kaafi puraana samay se bharatiya upmahaadweep (Indian subcontinent) me mawjuut hae. Iske bahut samay &quot;darsana&quot; bola jaae hae, jiske matlab &quot;dekho&quot; hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary 1899 Basic |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/webtc2/index.php |access-date=2024-05-24 |website=www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Adamson |first1=Peter |title=Classical Indian philosophy: a history of philosophy without any gaps |last2=Ganeri |first2=Jonardon |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-885176-9 |location=Oxford New York (N.Y.)}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[India]] ke purana philosophers, jaise [[Chanakya]] aur [[Arthasatra]] iske &quot;anviksiki&quot; naam de rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Kauṭalya |title=King, governance, and law in ancient India: Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra: a new annotated translation |url=https://archive.org/details/kinggovernancela0000kaua |last2=Olivelle |first2=Patrick |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-989182-5 |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Hindu parampara me dui philosophy ke school hae, [[astika]] aur [[nastika]] ii nibhar hae tiin chij pe: [[Vedas]] se sab gyaan aawe hae, [[Brahman]] aur [[Atman]] me biswas kare hae aur punjanm aur [[Devas]] me biswas kare hae.

Vedic philosophy ke chhe khaas schools hae - [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Mimamsa]] aur [[Vedanta]]. Paanch gaer-Vedic (nastika) schools hae - [[Jain]], [[Buddhist]], [[Ajivika]], [[Ajnana]] aur [[Charvaka]]

[[vibhag:B]]
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    <title>Indian Institutes of Management</title>
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      <text bytes="15001" sha1="eq1c4dqu64lwhn6e0t0dcy0sr625atf" xml:space="preserve">'''Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs)''', [[India]] ke Central Government se funded management institutes hae jon undergraduate, postgraduate, doctoral aur executive program ke parrhai kare hae. IIMs ke India ke pahila Prime Minister, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] ke niche staphit karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReviewCommittee_Report&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.education.nic.in/tech/IIM-Reviewcommittee.pdf |title=Report of IIM Review Committee |author1=RC Bhargava |author2=Ajit Balakrishnan |author3=Anusua Basu |author4=Ram S. Tarneja |author5=Ashok Thakur |access-date=17 February 2012 |publisher=[[Ministry of Human Resource Development (India)|Ministry of Education]], Government of India |date=25 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006173642/http://education.nic.in/tech/IIM-Reviewcommittee.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010 |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;TBNT_PR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.liberalsindia.com/update/PressRelease9.php/ |title='Thanks but No Thanks' – IIM Ahmedabad's Pioneeri0.52ng Decision |website=www.liberalsindia.com |access-date=11 December 2011 |archive-date=15 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415005650/http://www.liberalsindia.com/update/PressRelease9.php/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

2017 me Ministry of Human Resources Development ii batais ki IIMs, &quot;Institutes of National Importance&quot; hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=IIMs Will Be Institutes Of National Importance |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/iims-will-be-institutes-of-national-importance-1652370 |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=NDTV.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Institutes ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash&quot;
|+ {{sronly|List of institutes}}
! scope=&quot;col&quot; class=&quot;unsortable&quot; | Photo
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Established&lt;ref name=&quot;MHRD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Technical Education {{!}} Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development |url=http://mhrd.gov.in/technical-education-3 |website=mhrd.gov.in |access-date=20 December 2018 |archive-date=26 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426063857/http://www.mhrd.gov.in/technical-education-3 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Institute
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Abbreviation
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Location
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | State/UT
! NIRF Ranking 2024&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=India Rankings 2024: Management |url=https://www.nirfindia.org/Rankings/2024/ManagementRanking.html |date=2024 |website=[[National Institutional Ranking Framework]] |access-date=16 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!Global Accreditaion
!FT Global MBA Raking 2023
!FT Masters in Mgmt 2022 Global Ranking
! Website
! scope=&quot;col&quot; class=&quot;unsortable&quot; | Notes
|-
| [[File:Indian Institute of Management Calcutta Auditorium.jpg|100x100px]]|| 1961 
| [[Calcutta|IIM Calcutta]]|| IIM-C || [[Kolkata]]|| [[West Bengal]]
|5
|[[Triple accreditation]]-[[AACSB]],[[Association of MBAs|AMBA]],[[EFMD Quality Improvement System|EQUIS]]
|76
| |
|https://www.iimcal.ac.in
|{{efn|Indian Institute of Management Calcutta was the first IIM to be set up, in November 1961.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=About IIM Calcutta |url=https://www.iimcal.ac.in/about |website=www.iimcal.ac.in |access-date=20 December 2018 |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102223435/https://www.iimcal.ac.in/about |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, panorama.jpg|100x100px]]|| 1961 
| [[Ahmedabad|IIM Ahmedabad]]|| IIM-A || [[Ahmedabad]]|| [[Gujarat]]
|1
|[[EFMD Quality Improvement System|EQUIS]]
|51
|
|https://www.iima.ac.in
|| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad was the second IIM to be set up, on 16 December 1961.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Anubhai |first1=Prafull |title=The IIMA story : the DNA of an institution |url=https://archive.org/details/iimastorydnaofin0000anub |year=2011 |publisher=Random House India |isbn=978-8184001921}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:Indian Institute of Management Bangalore, Entrance.jpg|100x100px]] || 1973 
| [[Bangalore|IIM Bangalore]] || IIM-B || [[Bengaluru]] || [[Karnataka]] 
|2
|[[EFMD Quality Improvement System|EQUIS]]
|52
|31
|https://www.iimb.ac.in
||
|-
| [[File:Academic block II of IIM Lucknow.jpg|100x100px]]|| 1984 
| [[Lucknow|IIM Lucknow]]|| IIM-L || [[Lucknow]]|| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|7
|[[Triple accreditation]]-[[AACSB]],[[Association of MBAs|AMBA]],[[EFMD Quality Improvement System|EQUIS]]
|90
| 79 |64
|https://www.iiml.ac.in
||
|-
| [[File:IIM Indore pano.jpg|100x100px]]|| 1996 
|[[Indore|IIM Indore]]|| IIM-I || [[Indore]]|| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
|8
|[[Triple accreditation]]-[[AACSB]],[[Association of MBAs|AMBA]],[[EFMD Quality Improvement System|EQUIS]]
|89
| 89||https://www.iimidr.ac.in
|
|-
| [[File:IIM Kozhikode Aerial View s.jpg|100x100px]]|| 1996 
| [[Kozhikode|IIM Kozhikode]]|| IIM-K || [[Kozhikode]]|| [[Kerala]]
|3
|[[Association of MBAs|AMBA]],[[EFMD Quality Improvement System|EQUIS]], AACSB Triple crown accreditation 
|
| |
|https://www.iimk.ac.in
|{{efn|Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode was established in 1996 and took its first batch of students in 1997.&lt;ref name=growth&gt;{{cite web |title=IIMK - Growth History |url=https://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/growthhistory.php?page=2 |website=www.iimk.ac.in |access-date=20 December 2018 |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102223513/https://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/growthhistory.php?page=2 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:Indian Institute of Management, Shillong 2012.jpg|100x100px]]|| 2007 
| [[Shillong|IIM Shillong]]|| IIM-S || [[Shillong]]|| [[Meghalaya]]
|24
|
|
| |
|https://www.iimshillong.ac.in
|
|-
| [[File:IIM_Raipur.jpg|100x100px]]|| 2010 
| [[Raipur|IIM Raipur]]|| IIM-Raipur || [[Raipur]]|| [[Chhattisgarh]]
|14
|
|
| |
|https://www.iimraipur.ac.in
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Raipur, was inaugurated on October 2010.&lt;ref name=MHRD/&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:IIM Ranchi academic block.jpg|100x100px]]|| 2010 
| [[Ranchi|IIM Ranchi]]|| IIM-Ranchi || [[Ranchi]]|| [[Jharkhand]]
|17
|
|
| |
||https://www.iimranchi.ac.in
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Ranchi started operations on 6 July 2010.&lt;ref name=MHRD/&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:IIM Rohtak Academic Building.jpg|100x100px]]|| 2010 
| [[Rohtak|IIM Rohtak]]|| IIM-Rohtak || [[Rohtak]]|| [[Haryana]]
|12
|
|
| |
||https://www.iimrohtak.ac.in
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Rohtak was inaugurated on 30 June 2010.&lt;ref name=RothakDate&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mbauniverse.com/article/id/3373/IIM-Rohtak-starts-with-50-students |title=IIM Rohtak inaugurated; Tata Motor VC Ravi Kant to Chair |website=mbauniverse.com |access-date=26 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907035133/http://www.mbauniverse.com/article/id/3373/IIM-Rohtak-starts-with-50-students |archive-date=7 September 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:Indian Institute of Management, Kashipur.jpg|100x100px]]|| 2011 
| [[Kashipur|IIM Kashipur]]|| IIM-Kashipur || [[Kashipur, Uttarakhand|Kashipur]]|| [[Uttarakhand]]
|23
|
|
| |
|https://www/iimkashipur.ac.in
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Kashipur on 1 July 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  |url=http://blog.careermitra.com/2011/04/iim-kashipur-foundation-stone-laid-kapil-sibal/  |title=IIM Kashipur Foundation Stone Laid by Kapil Sibal  |website=blog.careermitra.com  |access-date=24 October 2011  |archive-date=31 August 2011  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831194855/http://blog.careermitra.com/2011/04/iim-kashipur-foundation-stone-laid-kapil-sibal/  |url-status=live  }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:Indian Institute of Management Tiruchirappalli (24669650467).jpg|100x100px]]|| 2011 
| [[Tiruchirappalli|IIM Tiruchirappalli]]|| IIM-T || [[Tiruchirappalli]]|| [[Tamil Nadu]]
|27
|
|
| |
|https://www.iimtrichy.ac.in
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Tiruchirappalli was inaugurated in January 2011.&lt;ref name=MHRD/&gt;}}
|-
| || 2011 
| [[Udaipur|IIM Udaipur]]|| IIM-U || [[Udaipur]]|| [[Rajasthan]]
|22
|[[Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business|AACSB]]
|
|81
||https://iimu.ac.in/
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Udaipur started operation on 30 July 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=IIM-Udaipur's first session begins |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/IIM-Udaipurs-first-session-begins/articleshow/9428162.cms |access-date=20 December 2018 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=31 July 2011 |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102223438/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/IIM-Udaipurs-first-session-begins/articleshow/9428162.cms |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:Indian Institutes of Management Amritsar, Dec 2015.jpg|100x100px]]|| 2015 
| [[Amritsar|IIM Amritsar]]|| IIM Amritsar || [[Amritsar]]|| [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|47
|
|
| |
|https://www.iimamritsar.ac.in
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Amritsar started operation on 7 August 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Kaur |first1=Usmeet |title=IIM Amritsar gets rolling with 50 students on board |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/iim-amritsar-gets-rolling-with-50-students-on-board/story-ygX3Znn8eZyCdg2BtsdSSJ.html |access-date=20 December 2018 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=6 August 2015 |language=en |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102223520/https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/hpbose-10th-12th-exams-2021-himachal-pradesh-board-exams-to-begin-from-may-4/story-yfOpMagJadKfudZahstjfN.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:Indian Institute of Management Bodh Gaya, 2017.jpg|100x100px]] || 2015 
| [[Bodh Gaya|IIM Bodh Gaya]] || IIM-BG || [[Bodh Gaya]] || [[Bihar]] 
|33
|
|
| |
|https://www.iimbg.ac.in {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914132158/https://iimbg.ac.in/ |date=2024-09-14 }}
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Bodh Gaya was inaugurated on 31 August 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=HRD minister inaugurates academic session at IIM-Bodh Gaya |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/hrd-minister-inaugurates-academic-session-at-iim-bodh-gaya-115083100686_1.html |access-date=20 December 2018 |work=[[Business Standard India]] |date=31 August 2015 |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102223438/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/hrd-minister-inaugurates-academic-session-at-iim-bodh-gaya-115083100686_1.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
|[[File:IIM Nagpur-1500x900.jpg|100x100px|]] ||2015
| [[Nagpur|IIM Nagpur]]||IIM-N||[[Nagpur]]|| [[Maharashtra]]
|31
|
|
| |
|https://www.iimnagpur.ac.in
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Nagpur, the first of the six third generation IIMs, was inaugurated on 26 July 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Chaturvedi |first1=Anumeha |title=Maharashtra's first IIM unveiled in Nagpur by CM Devendra Fadnavis |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/services/education/maharashtras-first-iim-unveiled-in-nagpur-by-cm-devendra-fadnavis/articleshow/48230411.cms |access-date=20 December 2018 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |date=27 July 2015 |language=en |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102223435/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/services/education/maharashtras-first-iim-unveiled-in-nagpur-by-cm-devendra-fadnavis/articleshow/48230411.cms |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
| [[File:IIM Sambalpur academic building.jpg|100x100px]] || 2015 
| [[Sambalpur|IIM Sambalpur]]|| IIM Sambalpur || [[Sambalpur]]|| [[Odisha]]
|50
|
|
| |
|https://www.iimsambalpur.ac.in
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Sambalpur started operation on 23 September 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=IIM-Sambalpur takes off with 49 students |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/management/iim-sambalpur-takes-off-with-49-students-115092300947_1.html |access-date=20 December 2018 |work=[[Business Standard India]] |date=24 September 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
|[[File:IIM Sirmaur.jpg|99x99px]]|| 2015 
| [[Sirmaur|IIM Sirmaur]]|| IIM Sirmaur || [[Sirmaur district]]|| [[Himachal Pradesh]]
|57
|
|
| |
|http://www.iimsirmaur.ac.in {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419215718/https://iimsirmaur.ac.in/ |date=19 April 2021 }} 
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Sirmaur started operations on 4 September 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Kalra |first1=Shalender |title=Classes for first post graduate batch at IIM Sirmour begins |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/classes-for-first-post-graduate-batch-at-iim-sirmour-begins/story-r7C5D7mcPyTNlzeAAJFIBJ.html |access-date=20 December 2018 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=4 September 2015 |language=en |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102223443/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/classes-for-first-post-graduate-batch-at-iim-sirmour-begins/story-r7C5D7mcPyTNlzeAAJFIBJ.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
| || 2015 
| [[Visakhapatnam|IIM Visakhapatnam]]|| IIM-V || [[Visakhapatnam]]|| [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| 26
|
|
| |
|https://www.iimv.ac.in 
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Visakhapatnam started operation on 21 September 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=IIM-Vizag to officially start sessions at AU today |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/good-governance/andhra-pradesh/IIM-Vizag-to-officially-start-sessions-at-AU-today/articleshow/49043938.cms |access-date=20 December 2018 |work=The Times of India |issue=21 September 2015 |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102223439/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/andhra-pradesh/IIM-Vizag-to-officially-start-sessions-at-AU-today/articleshow/49043938.cms |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
|[[File:Indian Institutes of Management Jammu, 2018.jpg|100x100px]]|| 2016 
| [[Jammu|IIM Jammu]]|| IIM-J ||[[Jammu]]|| [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
|42
|
|
| |
|https://www.iimj.ac.in 
| {{efn|Indian Institute of Management Jammu started operation in November 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=IIM Srinagar: Find alternative if Narkara site not suitable; CS to Div Com |url=https://kashmirreader.com/2017/12/16/iim-srinagar-find-alternative-if-narkara-site-not-suitable-cs-to-div-com/ |access-date=20 December 2018 |work=[[Kashmir Reader]] |date=15 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405073151/https://kashmirreader.com/2017/12/16/iim-srinagar-find-alternative-if-narkara-site-not-suitable-cs-to-div-com/ |archive-date=5 April 2019 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405073151/https://kashmirreader.com/2017/12/16/iim-srinagar-find-alternative-if-narkara-site-not-suitable-cs-to-div-com/ |date=5 April 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|-
|[[File:Indian Institute of Management Mumbai, Academic Building, Dec. 2023.jpg|100x100px]]
|1963 (converted to IIM in 2023)
|[[Mumbai|IIM Mumbai]]
|IIM-M
|[[Mumbai]]
|[[Maharashtra]]
|6
|
|
|
|[http://iimmumbai.ac.in/ http://www.iimmumbai.ac.in]
|{{efn|Previously the National Institute of Industrial Engineering; became an IIM in 2023}}
|}

[[vibhag:I]]
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  <page>
    <title>Austronesian bhasa</title>
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      <text bytes="3152" sha1="863so9def1xkfyzfqblxqo04dpbkb19" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox language family
| name          = Austronesian
| region        = [[Taiwan]], [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], [[Madagascar]], parts of [[Mainland Southeast Asia]], [[Hainan]] ([[China]]), and [[Oceania]]
| familycolor   = Austronesian
| protoname     = [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]]
| family        = One of the world's primary [[language family|language families]]
| child1        = {{Nowrap|[[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]}}
| child2        = {{Nowrap|''[[Bunun language|Bunun]]''}}
| child3        = {{Nowrap|[[East Formosan languages|East Formosan]]}}
| child4        = {{Nowrap|[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]}}
| child5        = {{Nowrap|[[Northwest Formosan languages|Western Plains]]}}
| child6        = {{Nowrap|[[Northwest Formosan languages|Northwest Formosan]]}}
| child7        = {{Nowrap|''[[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]''}}
| child8        = {{Nowrap|''[[Puyuma language|Puyuma]]''}}
| child9        = {{Nowrap|''[[Rukai language|Rukai]]''}}
| child10        = {{Nowrap|[[Tsouic languages|Tsouic]]}}
| iso2          = map
| iso5          = map
| glotto        = aust1307
| glottorefname = Austronesian
| map           = File:Austroneske jazyky.jpg
| mapcaption    = The historical distribution of Austronesian languages
| ancestor      = 
| glottoname    = 
| notes         = 
| ethnicity     = [[Austronesian peoples]]
}}
'''Austronesian bhasa''', ek bhasa ke palwaar hae jiske [[Southeast Asia]], [[Madagascar]], [[Pacific Ocean]] aur [[Taiwan]] ke aadiwaasi log baat kare hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Austronesian Languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Austronesian-languages |access-date=26 October 2016 |last=Blust |first=Robert Andrew}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii bhasa ke palwaar me 328 million log baat kare hae, jon [[dunia]] ke abaadi ke 4.4% hae.&lt;ref name=Eth&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/| title=Statistical Summaries; Ethnologue}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=eth&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/447/| title=Austronesian; Ethnologue}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii dunia ke paanchwa sab se barraa bhasa ke palwaar hae. Kuchh khaas Austronesian bhasa hae [[Malay bhasa]], jisme [[Indonesian bhasa]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author-link=James Neil Sneddon|first=James Neil|last=Sneddon|title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesianlangua0000sned|publisher=UNSW Press|year=2004|page =[https://archive.org/details/indonesianlangua0000sned/page/14 14]}})&lt;/ref&gt; bhi hae, [[Javanese bhasa]], [[Sundanese bhasa]], [[Tagalog bhasa]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|page=76|title=Language and Nationalism: The Philippine Experience Thus Far|ISBN=9711130009|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|location=Manila|first=Andrew B.|last=Gonzalez|year=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Malagasy bhasa]], aur [[Cebuano bhasa]]. II bhasa ke palwaar me 1,257 bhasa hae, jon bhasa ke palwaar me duusra sab se jaada hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=History of the Austronesian Languages|author=Robert Blust|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|year=2016|author-link=Robert Blust}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[vibhag:Austronesian bhasa| ]]
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  <page>
    <title>Dravidian bhasa</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <text bytes="2396" sha1="3ac84z5txy2nnbk1z2nydp3vf6bxx86" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox language family
| name = Dravidian
| region = [[South India]], north-east [[Sri Lanka]] and south-west [[Pakistan]]
| familycolor = Dravidian
| family = One of the world's primary [[language families]]
| protoname = [[Proto-Dravidian language|Proto-Dravidian]]
| child1 = [[North Dravidian languages|North]]
| child2 = Central
| child3 = South-Central
| child4 = [[South Dravidian languages|South]]
| iso2 = dra
| iso5 = dra
| lingua = 49= (phylozone)
| glotto = drav1251
| speakers = 250 million
| ref = {{sfnp|Steever|2020|p=1}}
| date = 2020
| glottorefname = Dravidian
| map = Dravidian map.svg
| mapcaption = Distribution of the Dravidian languages
| ancestor = 
| glottoname = 
| notes = 
}}
'''Dravidian bhasa''', jiske kabhi-kabhi '''Dravidic'''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Definition of Dravidic |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/dravidic |website=dictionary.com|access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409105614/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/dravidian |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; bola jaae hae, ek bhasa ke palwaar hae jisme 250 million log baat kare hae, jaada kar ke South [[India]], north-east [[Sri Lanka]] aur south-west [[Pakistan]] me baat karaa jaae hae. Dravidian bhasa jisme sab se jaada log baat kare hae, descending order me, hae[[Telugu]], [[Tamil bhasa]], [[Kannada bhasa]] aur [[Malayalam bhasa]]. Ii chaaro bhasa ke bahut puraana likhe waala itihaas hae. Aur chhota bhasa jisme likha jaae hae, [[Tulu bhasa]] aur [[Kodava bhasa]] hae. Aur dher chhotaa bhasa, jisme [[Gondi bhasa]] bhi hae, ii sab bhasa south India aur north east Sri Lanka me baat karaa jaae hae aur lagbhag sab Dravidian bhasa hae. [[Malto bhasa]] aur [[Kurukh bhasa]] ke chota-chota jagha me eastern India me baat karaa jaae hae. Kurukh ke [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] aur [[Bangladesh]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Bhutan|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbhutan0000phun|first=Karma|last=Phuntsho|date=23 April 2013 |publisher=Random House India|isbn=978-81-8400-411-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofbhutan0000phun/page/72 72]}}&lt;/ref&gt; me bhi baat karaa jaae hae. [[Brahui bhasa]] ke [[Pakistan]] ke [[Balochistan]] ilaaka, [[Iran]] ke Balochistan, [[Afghanistan]] aur [[Turkmenistan]] me baat karaa jaae hae.
[[File:DravidianTree.png|thumb|Dravidian Bhasa keTree]]
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  <page>
    <title>Germanic bhasa</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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| name          = Germanic
| region        = Dunia bhar me, jaada kar ke Northern, Western and Central Europe, the [[Americas]] ([[Anglo-America]], [[Caribbean Netherlands]] and [[Suriname]]), [[Southern Africa]], [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]], [[Oceania]]
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| protoname     = [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]]
| child1        = [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]]
| child2        = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| child3        = [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] [[Extinct_language|{{Extinct}}]]
| iso2          = gem
| iso5          = gem
| glotto        = germ1287
| glottorefname = Germanic
| lingua        = 52- (phylozone)
| map           = Germanic languages with dialects revised.png
| mapcaption    = European Germanic languages
| map2          = Germanic languages.svg
| mapalt2       = world map dekhae hae uu des jahaan pe ek Germanic bhasa khaas, nai to sarkari bhasa hae 
| mapcaption2   = ''world map dekhae hae uu des jahaan pe ek Germanic bhasa khaas, nai to sarkari bhasa hae''&lt;br /&gt;
{{legend|#800000|Des jahaan pe ek Germanic bhasa jaada log ke matr bhasa hae.}}
{{legend|#ff0000|Des jahaan pe ek Germanic bhasa sarlari bhasa hae lekin jaada log ke matr bhasa nai hae]]}}
{{legend|#f6c0f1|Des jahaan pe ek Germanic bhasa ke koi  official status nai hae lekin kaam me laawa jaae hae}}
}}
'''Germanic bhasa''', ek bhasa ke palwaar hae jon [[Indo-European bhasa]] ke palwaar ke ek hissa hae. Isme lagbhag 515 million log baat kare hae{{refn|group=nb|Estimates of native speakers of the Germanic languages vary from 450 million, jaada kar ke [[Europe]], [[North America]], [[Oceania]] aur southern [[Africa]] me. Sab se jaada baat karaa jaae waala Germanic bhasa, [[English bhasa]] hae, jon [[dunia]] ke sab se jaada bola jaae waala bhasa hae, with lagbhag 2 billion baat kare waala log. Sab Germanic bhasa Proto-Germanic me se aais hae jisme Iron Age me [[Scandinavia]], northern [[Germany]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-first=Andrew |editor-last=Bell-Fialkoll |title=The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization v. &quot;Barbarian&quot; and Nomad |url=https://archive.org/details/roleofmigrationi0000unse |year=2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=0-312-21207-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/roleofmigrationi0000unse/page/117 117]}}&lt;/ref&gt;, [[North Sea]] ke coast me aur [[Baltic Sea]] ke coast me bola jaawat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-languages/The-emergence-of-Germanic-languages | title=Germanic languages - Proto-Germanic, Indo-European, Germanic Dialects &amp;#124; Britannica | access-date=29 December 2023 | archive-date=29 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229223738/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-languages/The-emergence-of-Germanic-languages | url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Germanic bhasa ke tiin hissa me baata jaae hae; [[North Germanic bhasa]], [[West Germanic bhasa]] aur [[East Germanic bhasa]]. West Germanic bhasa me tiin sab se jaada bola jaae waala Germanic bhasa hae; English bhasa, jon 360-400 million log ke matr bhasa hae&lt;ref name=&quot;NE100&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 |title=Världens 100 största språk 2010 |work=[[Nationalencyklopedin]] |trans-title=The world's 100 largest languages in 2010 |year=2010 |access-date=12 February 2014 |language=sv |archive-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006155303/http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;, [[German bhasa]], jon 100 million log ke matr bhasa hae aur [[Dutch bhasa]], jon 24 million log ke matr bhasa hae. Aur West Germanic bhasa hae [[Afrikaans]], [[Low German bhasa]], [[Yiddish]], [[Scots bhasa]], [[Limburgish bhasa]] aur [[Frisian bhasa]]. Sab se barraa North Germanic bhasa hae [[Swedish bhasa]], [[Danish bhasa]], aur [[Norwegian bhasa]]. East Germanic bhasa me [[Gothic bhasa]], [[Burgundian bhasa]] aur [[Vandalic bhasa]] rahaa, jon sab abhi mar gais hae.

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  <page>
    <title>Slasher film</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-23T18:36:45Z</timestamp>
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      <text bytes="709" sha1="axdeu0a5yi0ezdkx3h6c3hyrjf7lsnn" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Psycho (1960) theatrical poster (retouched).jpg|thumb|[[Alfred Hitchcock]] ke ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' (1960) ek slasher genre ke film hae.]]
'''Slasher film''', horror films ke ek subgenre hae jisme ek kaatil, nai to ek kaatil ke jhund koi ke chok aujaar se murder mare hae. &lt;ref name=&quot;Clayton-2015&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Style and form in the Hollywood slasher film |url=https://archive.org/details/styleforminholly0000unse |date=2015|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|last=Clayton|first=Wickham |isbn=9781137496478|location=Basingstoke|oclc=927961472}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuchh jaana maana slasher film hae; [[Peeping Tom]], [[Psycho]], [[Friday the 13th]], [[Scream]]

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  <page>
    <title>Explosive chemical</title>
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      <text bytes="3765" sha1="e1vn3o62o1zn32gq5p2qt75h6zkv96s" xml:space="preserve">'''Explosive chemical''', nai to '''explosive''', ek reactive chij hae jisme dher [[potential energy]] hae aur jon ek dhamaaka ke cause kare hae jab iske achaanak me chhorraa jaae hae. Iske saathe chiraag (sparks) , garmii, awaaj aur pressure bhi bane hae.

Explosive material me jon taagat bandha hae, ii tiin chij hoe sake hae:
* [[chemical energy]], jaise [[nitroglycerin]]
* pressurised gas jaise gas cylinder, aerosol can, nai to khaulte (boiling) ras (liquid)
* [[nuclear]] energy, jaise [[uranium]]-235 aur [[plutonium]]-239

==Itihaas==
[[File:Year_book_-_photo_flashes_showing_Toledo's_phenomenal_progress,_thriving_industries_and_wonderful_resources_-_DPLA_-_ac95c5ef8efd2394c21e2b6edcd01d94_(page_37)_(cropped).jpg|right|200px|thumb|Ohio ke explosive banae waala company]]
Puraana jamaana se aagi waala hathyaar ke kaam me laawa jaae hae. Ii rakam ke hathyaar ke itihaas ke saathe [[baruud]] ke itihaas bhi hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Weapons of Mass Destruction |last= Sastri |first=M.N. |publisher=APH Publishing Corporation |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-7648-742-9 |page=1}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Chemistry in Daily Life |last=Singh |first=Kirpal |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=2010 |isbn=978-81-203-4617-8 |page=68}}&lt;/ref&gt; 9th century me [[Tang dynasty]] ke time, [[China]] ke chemist log amar (immortal) rahe ke dawai khojat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://gbtimes.com/chinas-explosive-history-gunpowder-and-fireworks |title=China's explosive history of gunpowder and fireworks |last=Sigurðsson |first=Albert |date=17 January 2017 |website=GBTimes |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033748/https://gbtimes.com/chinas-explosive-history-gunpowder-and-fireworks |archive-date=1 December 2017 |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii khojte ke time uu logan explode hoe waala karia powder, jon [[koila]], [[saltpeter]] aur [[sulphur]] je banaa rahaa, ke 1044 me paain. 1161 talak Chaina log baruud ke explosive chemical ke ruup me 1161 me kaam me laawat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/web/s10/0781_sect10_timeline.pdf |title=China and Europe, 1500–2000 and Beyond: What is Modern? |last1=Pomeranz |first1=Ken |last2=Wong |first2=Bin |publisher=Columbia University Press |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213050629/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/web/s10/0781_sect10_timeline.pdf |archive-date=13 December 2016 |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China |url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch0000kerr |last=Kerr |first=Gordon |publisher=No Exit Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84243-968-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=The Ancient World |last1=Takacs |first1=Sarolta Anna |last2=Cline |first2=Eric H. |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |page=544}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chaina log baruud ke baans (bamboo), nai to [[bronze]] tube se daagat rahin. Kabhi kabhi uu log, jinda chuuha ke explosive ke saathe daagat rahin jisse virod ke sipaahi log dar jaawat rahin aur gkorraa darae jaat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Back |first=Fiona |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-86397-826-2 |page=55|title=Australian History Series: The ancient world |publisher=Ready-Ed Publications }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Karia podar se aur taagat waala explosive, [[nitroglycerin]] ke [[1847]] me banaawa gais rahaa. Kaaheki nitroglycerin ek liquid hae aur bahut unstable hae, [[1863]] me iske [[TNT]] se aur [[1867]] me dynamite se replace kar dewa gais rahaa. Ii duuno ke [[Alfred Nobel]] invent karis rahaa. Iske baad aur taagt waala C-4 aur PETN explosive ke banaawa gais hae.&lt;ref name=ankony1&gt;Ankony, Robert C., ''Lurps: A Ranger's Diary of Tet, Khe Sanh, A Shau, and Quang Tri,'' revised ed., Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishing Group, Lanham, MD (2009), p.73.&lt;/ref&gt;


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    <title>Limpopo Naddi</title>
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      <text bytes="5312" sha1="fb9d50tchbsmkj4y1nlkg64q0m2stpt" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox river
| name               = Limpopo Naddi
| native_name        = 
| native_name_lang   = 
| name_other         = Vhembe
| name_etymology     = 
&lt;!---------------------- IMAGE &amp; MAP --&gt;
| image              = Limpopo.jpg
| image_size         = 
| image_caption      = Limpopo Naddi, [[Mozambique]] me
| map                = Limpopo River basin map.svg
| map_size           = 
| map_caption        =  Limpopo Naddi ke course aur watershed 
| pushpin_map        = 
| pushpin_map_size   = 
| pushpin_map_caption = 
| mapframe           = yes
| mapframe-zoom      = 5
&lt;!---------------------- LOCATION --&gt;
| subdivision_type1  = Country
| subdivision_name1  = [[South Africa]], [[Botswana]], [[Zimbabwe]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Mozambique]]
| subdivision_type2  = 
| subdivision_name2  = 
| subdivision_type3  = 
| subdivision_name3  = 
| subdivision_type4  = 
| subdivision_name4  = 
| subdivision_type5  = 
| subdivision_name5  = 
&lt;!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --&gt;
| length             = {{convert|1,750|km|mi|abbr=on}} 
| width_min          = 
| width_avg          = 
| width_max          = 
| depth_min          = 
| depth_avg          = 
| depth_max          = 
| discharge1_location= [[Xai-Xai]]
| discharge1_min     = 
| discharge1_avg     =(Period: 1971–2000){{cvt|313.4|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Limpopo&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&amp;id=48&amp;catid=197&amp;Itemid=179|title=Limpopo|access-date=23 February 2024|archive-date=23 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223124451/https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&amp;id=48&amp;catid=197&amp;Itemid=179|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| discharge1_max     = 
&lt;!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --&gt;
| source1            = 
| source1_location   = 
| source1_coordinates= 
| source1_elevation  = 
| source_confluence            = [[Marico River|Marico]] and [[Crocodile River (Limpopo)|Crocodile]]
| source_confluence_location   = Botswana/South Africa border
| source_confluence_coordinates= {{coord|-24.1913|26.8708|format=dms|type:river|display=inline}}
| source_confluence_elevation  = {{convert|872|m|abbr=on}}
| mouth              = [[Indian Ocean]]
| mouth_location     = [[Gaza Province]], [[Mozambique]]
| mouth_coordinates  = {{coord|25|12|22|S|33|30|40|E|format=dms|type:river_region:MZ}}
| mouth_elevation    = {{cvt|0|m|abbr=on}}
| progression        = 
| river_system       = Limpopo River
| basin_size         = {{convert|415,000|km2|abbr=on}}
| tributaries_left   =[[Notwane River|Notwane]], [[Bonwapitse River|Bonwapitse]], Mahalapswe, [[Lotsane River|Lotsane]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Motloutse River|Motloutse]], [[Shashe River|Shashe]], [[Umzingwani River|Umzingwani]], [[Bubi River|Bubi]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Mwenezi River|Mwenezi]], [[Changane River|Changane]]
| tributaries_right  =[[Marico River|Marico]], [[Crocodile River (Limpopo)|Crocodile]], [[Matlabas River|Matlabas]], [[Mokolo River|Mikolo]], [[Palala River|Palala]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Mogalakwena River|Mogalakwena]], Kolope, [[Sand River (Limpopo)|Sand]], [[Nwanedi River|Nwanedi]], [[Luvuvhu River|Luvuvhu]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Olifants River (Limpopo)|Olifants]]
| custom_label       = 
| custom_data        = 
| extra              = 
}}
'''Limpopo Naddi''' ({{IPAc-en|l|I|m|'|p|ou|p|ou}})  [[South Africa]] me suruu hoe hae&lt;ref name=&quot;EBLimpopo&quot;&gt;{{citation |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |title=Limpopo River |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Limpopo-River |access-date=2018-04-29 |archive-date=30 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430053526/https://www.britannica.com/place/Limpopo-River |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; aur east ke bagal [[Mozambique]] me se bahe ke [[Indian Ocean]] me nikle hae. Limpopo ke naam  Rivombo , ek Tsonga settlers ke  group jiske Hosi Rivombo lead karis rahaa, aur jon aas paas ke pahaar me aae ke bas gae rahin, ke leader ke naam se rakkha gais hae.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023|reason=The linked reference doesn't make this claim, no is it found from a quick search}} Ii naddi ke local Venda log Vhembe bole hae, aur ii naam ke South Africa ke sarkar adopt karis hae.  Ii naddi lagbhag {{cvt|1,750|km|mi|abbr=on}} lamba, aur iske [[drainage basin]]  {{cvt|415,000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} hae. Iske mean discharge, jon saal bhar naapa gais hae, {{cvt|170|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} se {{cvt|313|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} iske muh me hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last= Nakayama |first= Mikiyasu |title= International Waters in Southern Africa |url= https://archive.org/details/internationalwat0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=United Nations University Press |isbn=92-808-1077-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationalwat0000unse/page/9 9]}}; online at [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ittv1oAJ37sC Google Books]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Limpopo&quot;/&gt; Limpopo Naddi, duusra sab se barraa naddi hae, [[Zambezi]] Naddi ke baad, jon Indian Ocean me nikle hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Zhu |first1=Tingju |last2=Ringler |first2=Claudia |title=Climate change impact on water availability and use in the Limpopo river basin |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232271837 |website=Researchgate.net |access-date=2021-09-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[vibhag:L]]
[[vibhag:South Africa ke naddi]]
[[vibhag:Botswana ke naddi]]
[[vibhag:Zimbabwe ke naddi]]
[[vibhag:Mozambique ke naddi]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bharat mein Tibet ke log</title>
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      <id>337650</id>
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      <text bytes="3737" sha1="d0qzqcvm1e5vceayjlrsvc3iso67j1j" xml:space="preserve">[[Bharat]] mein [[Tibet]] ke log (tibeti: རྒྱ་གར་ནང་གི་བོད་མི།), Bhaarat mein tibetaane ka ek praant hain jo duniya ki sabse bada tibetan diaspora communities me se kuchh the. 1950 mein Tibet ke dalai lama ne [[China]] se ek adhyaksh ko India me laane ki koshish kiya, lekin inmein kareeb do saal tak chineeya shaasanon aur tibetiyon men bhira-baghosh ho gaya. se, India tibet ke bail gaye log ka praant meghron mein raha hai aur un ko aasil-pavitra karne ki koshish kar rahi hain. ke ek raajya mein tibet ka sarkaar, jo ki Central Tibetan Administration (CTA) banaai gayi hai aur Himachal Pradesh me Dharamshala se shaamil hain.

== Background ==
Tibet ke logon ka [[Bharat]] mein presence Buddhism aur samaanya sanskrati se bhare hue special relationships ki kaaran hai, lekin modern migration 1950 me shuroo ho gaya tha jab XIV Dalai Lama aur log Lhasa aadesh ko chinees sarkaar ne hara diya.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Melvyn C.|title=A History of Modern Tibet, volume 2: The Calm before the Storm: 1951-1955|date=2007|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-93332-3|location=Berkeley, CA}}&lt;/ref&gt; dhan mantri Jawaharlal Nehru ke netrutv mein India ki sarkaar, dalai lama aur usee logon ko aashvaad deti hai. is tarah se Tibeti ekta-aasri government Dharamshala (Himachal Pradesh) me banaai gayi thi jo 1950 tak Bhaarat ka sabse bada tibetaankali raajya tha.

1950 se, Tibet ke logon ko India mein ek hi tarah ka pravakta naheen mil sakta tha. In log Bhaarat ki or par aane vaale desh-aatankvaadiyon aur bhaarateeya sainikon ne bhi apni jariye laaya hai. Saath is kee saathe Hindustani sarkaaron dvaara Himachal Pradesh (Himachali), Karnataka (Karnataka) Aurunachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand  me Tibetans k liye rehableenshan land dena shuroo kiya gaya theen jo ab tak kam ho gaye hain.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citeweb|title=Tibetan Refugees in India and Rehabilitation Policy, 2014 – GKToday|url=https://www.gktoday.in/tibetan-refugees-in-india-and-rehabilitation-policy-2014/}}&lt;/ref&gt; Baad mein, aur bhi Tibet ke log Bharat aaye China mein Cultural Revolution ke wakt, jiske kaaran Tibet me repression chalta raha.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Rehearsing the state: the political practices of the Tibetan government-in-exile}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Dharam aur Sanskrati ==
Tibetans ne India mein apne safalta aur adhyakshaik roop se apni sanskruti ki or par bhi ek praant banaae hain. Buddhism ka pratibandh praant ke saath, ek raashtreeya raajaneetik kshetr hai aur is mein Tibetan buddha ne bhi aarthik roop se sabse bada hissa le liya. Mainna buddhist monastery jaise ki Namdroling Monasteries Karnataka me and Tawang Monasteries Arunachal Pradesh men sanskrutic hubs banaate hain.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Tibetan assimilation of Buddhism: conversion, contestation, and memory|url=https://archive.org/details/tibetanassimilat0000kaps|date=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513122-2|editor-last=Kapstein|editor-first=Matthew T.|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; amshala mein Tibetan Works and Archives Library ke anusaar institutes tibet ki literature, history aur philosophy ko baarish par kaam kar rahe hain.

Tibetan naya saal (Losar) aur Dalai Lama ke janamdin jabardasti ka praapt hone par Tibet mein ek aam-aarambh ki taur peene vaale festivals hain.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Shakya|first=Tsering|title=The dragon in the land of snows: a history of modern Tibet since 1947|url=https://archive.org/details/dragoninlandofsn00tser_0|date=2000|publisher=Penguin Compass|isbn=978-0-14-019615-3|location=New York, N.Y}}&lt;/ref&gt; amtirik tibet ke arts, jinmein Thangka pittura aur opera shaamil hain, ko bhi praant karne ka kaam sanskruti ki koshishon se hota hai.

== References ==

[[vibhag:India]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Toronto</title>
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      <text bytes="10892" sha1="eje7kl0l5pl860463poq0rwqpdt12it" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Toronto
| official_name      = City of Toronto
| settlement_type    = [[List of cities in Ontario|City]] ([[List of municipalities in Ontario#Single-tier municipalities|single-tier]])&lt;!-- Consensus see: [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Ontario/Archive 1#City infoboxes: &quot;tier&quot; or &quot;conventional&quot; municipal statuses (or both)?]] --&gt;
| image_skyline      = {{multiple image
| border            = infobox
| total_width       = 280
| perrow            = 1/2/2/2
| caption_align     = center
| image1            = CC 2022-06-18 193-Pano (cropped) 01.jpg&lt;!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--&gt;
| caption1          = Skyline of [[Downtown Toronto]] and [[CN Tower]]
| image2            = Ontario Legislative Building, Toronto, South view 20170417 1.jpg&lt;!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--&gt;
| caption2          = [[Ontario Legislative Building]]
| image3            = Nathan Phillips Square (33343114810).jpg&lt;!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--&gt;
| caption3          = [[Toronto Sign]] &amp; [[Toronto City Hall|City Hall]]
| image4            = Toronto - ON - Humber Bay und Humber Bay Arch Bridge.jpg&lt;!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--&gt;
| caption4          = [[Humber Bay Arch Bridge]]
| image5            = Casa Loma (23170005321).jpg&lt;!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--&gt;
| caption5          = [[Casa Loma]]
| image6            = Royal Ontario Museum in Fall 2021.jpg
| caption6          = [[Royal Ontario Museum]]
| image7            = Scarborough bluffs -b.jpg
| caption7          = [[Scarborough Bluffs]]
}}
| image_size         = 250px
| image_flag         = Toronto Flag.svg
| flag_size          = 125px
| flag_link          = Flag of Toronto
| image_seal         = Coat of arms of Toronto.png
| seal_type          = Coat of arms
| seal_size          = 95px
| seal_link          = Coat of arms of Toronto
| image_blank_emblem = Toronto, City of.svg
| blank_emblem_type  = Logo
| blank_emblem_size  = 140px
| etymology          = From the [[Mohawk language|Mohawk]] word {{lang|iro|tkaronto}} ('tree in the water there'), the name of a channel between Lakes [[Lake Simcoe|Simcoe]] and [[Lake Couchiching|Couchiching]]
| nicknames          = [[Name of Toronto#Nicknames|See list]]
| motto              = Diversity Our Strength&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/awards-tributes/tributes/history-of-city-symbols/ |website=www.toronto.ca |title=History of City Symbols |publisher=City of Toronto |year=2020 |access-date=October 27, 2020 |archive-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812134238/https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/awards-tributes/tributes/history-of-city-symbols/ |url-status=live |last1=Toronto |first1=City of }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Social Construction of Diversity: Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations |url=https://archive.org/details/socialconstructi0000unse_p1m3 |last1=Harzig |first1=Christiane |last2=Juteau |first2=Danielle |author2-link=Danielle Juteau |last3=Schmitt |first3=Irina |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-57181-376-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/socialconstructi0000unse_p1m3/page/310 310] |quote=In reflecting and capturing this sense of the city, one of the first actions of the newly amalgamated Toronto City Council in 1998 was to adopt &quot;Diversity Our Strength&quot; as its official motto. }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|The motto is typically rendered without punctuation, while the city's coat of arms uses [[Bullet (typography)|typographical bullets]] to space the words used in the motto. However, some sources from the municipal government of Toronto use punctuation to describe the motto as &quot;Diversity, Our Strength.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/accessibility-human-rights/equity-diversity-inclusion/ |title=Equity, Diversity &amp; Inclusion |author=City of Toronto Government |date=August 18, 2017 |access-date=October 27, 2020 |archive-date=October 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009135713/https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/accessibility-human-rights/equity-diversity-inclusion/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
| image_map          = {{hidden begin|title=OpenStreetMap|ta1=center}}{{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=250|frame-height=200|frame-align=center|zoom=8|type=point|title=Toronto|marker=city|type2=shape|stroke-width2=2|stroke-color2=#808080}}{{hidden end}}
| coordinates        = {{coord|43|44|30|N|79|22|24|W|region:CA-ON_type:city|notes=&lt;ref name=cgndbtor&gt;{{Cite cgndb|FEUZB|Toronto|access-date=March 11, 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;|display=inline,title}}
| pushpin_map        = Ontario#Canada
| pushpin_mapsize    = 250px
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Toronto in Ontario
| pushpin_label      = Toronto
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_relief = yes
| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = Canada
| subdivision_type1  = [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
| subdivision_name1  = [[Ontario]]
| subdivision_type2  = [[List of regions of Canada|Region]]
| subdivision_name2  = [[Southern Ontario]]
| parts_type         = [[Amalgamation of Toronto|Communities]]
| parts              = {{hlist|[[East York]]|[[Etobicoke]]|[[North York]]|[[Old Toronto]]|[[Scarborough, Ontario|Scarborough]]|[[York, Toronto|York]]}}
| established_title1 = Established
| established_date1  = {{start date and age|1793|08|27}} (as [[York, Upper Canada|York]])
| established_title2 = [[Municipal corporation|Incorporated]]
| established_date2  = {{start date and age|1834|03|06}} (as [[Municipal government of Toronto|City of Toronto]])
| established_title3 = [[List of census divisions of Ontario|Amalgamated into division]]
| established_date3  = {{start date and age|1953|01|20}} (as [[Metropolitan Toronto]])
| established_title4 = [[Merger (politics)|Amalgamated]]
| established_date4  = {{start date and age|1998|01|01}} (as current City of Toronto)
| government_type    = [[List of municipalities in Ontario#Single-tier municipalities|Single-tier municipality]] with a [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council system]]
| governing_body     = [[Toronto City Council]]
| leader_title       = [[Mayor of Toronto|Mayor]]
| leader_name        = [[Olivia Chow]]
| leader_title1      = [[Deputy Mayor of Toronto|Statutory Deputy Mayor]]
| leader_name1       = [[Ausma Malik]]
| unit_pref          = Metric
| total_type         = City
| area_footnotes     = &amp;nbsp;&lt;ref name=2016censusCSD&gt;{{SCref|unit=csd|name=2016csd|year=2016|accessdate=2017-02-12|code=3520005}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=2011censusPC&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&amp;T=801&amp;PR=0&amp;RPP=9999&amp;SR=1&amp;S=3&amp;O=D |title=Population and dwelling counts, for population centres, 2011 and 2006 censuses |work=[[2011 Canadian census|2011 Census of Population]] |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=January 13, 2014 |access-date=December 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026043520/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&amp;T=801&amp;PR=0&amp;RPP=9999&amp;SR=1&amp;S=3&amp;O=D |archive-date=October 26, 2014 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=2011censusCMA&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&amp;T=205&amp;S=3&amp;RPP=50 |title=Population and dwelling counts, for census metropolitan areas, 2011 and 2006 censuses |work=[[2011 Canadian census|2011 Census of Population]] |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=January 13, 2014 |access-date=December 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622041944/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&amp;T=205&amp;S=3&amp;RPP=50 |archive-date=June 22, 2012 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area_magnitude     = 
| area_total_km2     = 630.20
| area_urban_km2     = 1792.99
| area_metro_km2     = 5905.71
| elevation_m        = 76.5
| population_as_of   = [[2021 Canadian census|2021]]
| population_footnotes =&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Census Profile, 2021 Census |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&amp;SearchText=Toronto&amp;DGUIDlist=2021A00053520005&amp;GENDERlist=1&amp;STATISTIClist=1&amp;HEADERlist=0 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca |date=February 9, 2022 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=February 10, 2022 |archive-date=February 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210174708/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&amp;SearchText=Toronto&amp;DGUIDlist=2021A00053520005&amp;GENDERlist=1&amp;STATISTIClist=1&amp;HEADERlist=0 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_rank    = [[List of North American cities by population|4th]] in North America&lt;br /&gt;[[List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population|1st]] in Canada
| population_density_km2 = 4,427.8
| population_total   = 2,794,356&lt;!--Please don't change until the 2026 Canadian Census is released per [[WP:CANPOP]]--&gt; ([[List of the largest population centres in Canada|1st]])
| population_blank1_title = Metro
| population_blank1  = 6,202,225&lt;!--Please don't change until the 2026 Canadian Census is released per [[WP:CANPOP]]--&gt; ([[List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada|1st]])
| population_blank2_title = [[Golden Horseshoe|Region]]
| population_blank2  = 9,765,188&lt;!--Please don't change until the 2026 Canadian Census is released per [[WP:CANPOP]]--&gt;
| pop_est_as_of      = 
| population_est     = 
| population_demonym = Torontonian
| population_note    = 
| postal_code_type   = Postal code span
| postal_code        = [[List of postal codes of Canada: M|M]]
| area_codes         = [[Area codes 416, 647, and 437|416, 647, 437]]
| unemployment_rate  = 
| blank_name_sec1    = [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (Toronto {{Abbr|CMA|Census metropolitan area}})
| blank_info_sec1    = {{CAD|link=yes}}473.7&amp;nbsp;billion (2021)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610046801 |title=Gross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by census metropolitan area (CMA) |date=January 25, 2025 |access-date=January 25, 2025 |archive-date=January 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122184338/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610046801 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| blank1_name_sec1   = GDP per capita (Toronto {{Abbr|CMA|Census metropolitan area}})
| blank1_info_sec1   = {{CAD}}73,176 (2021)
| timezone           = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
| utc_offset         = −05:00
| timezone_DST       = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
| utc_offset_DST     = −04:00
| website            = {{Official URL}}
}}
'''Toronto''', [[Canada]] ke sab se barraa city, aur [[Ontario]] Province ke capital hae.

[[vibhag:T]]
[[vibhag:Canada ke city]]</text>
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    <title>Lake Malawi</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="4179" sha1="8knetir144ql1xtev3ilnvlr79nbztg" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox body of water
| name               = Malawi Talaab (Nyasa Talaab)
| image              = Lake Malawi seen from orbit.jpg
| alt                = Satellite image of lake with clouds in forground.
| caption            = Lake orbit se dekhae hae. North uppar right corner me hae
| image_bathymetry   = 
| caption_bathymetry = 
| pushpin_map        = Malawi#Africa
| pushpin_map_alt    = Located in souther portion of East Africa's Great Lakes on borders of Tanzania, Malawi, and Mozambique.
| coords             = {{Coord|12|00|S|34|30|E|type:waterbody_scale:2500000}}
| lake_type          = [[Ancient lake]], [[Rift Valley lakes|Rift lake]]
| inflow             = [[Ruhuhu River]]&lt;ref name=ac/&gt;
| outflow            = [[Shire River]]&lt;ref name=ac/&gt;
| catchment          = 
| basin_countries    = [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], and [[Tanzania]]
| length             = {{convert|560|km|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=ac/&gt; to 580
| width              = {{convert|75|km|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=ac/&gt;
| area               = {{convert|29,600|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=ac/&gt;
| depth              = {{convert|292|m|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=ilec/&gt;
| max-depth          = {{convert|706|m|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=ilec/&gt;
| volume             = {{convert|8640|km3|cumi|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=ilec/&gt;
| residence_time     = 
| shore              = 
| elevation          = {{convert|468|m|ft}} above sea level&lt;ref name=&quot;readersnatural&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Natural Wonders of the World|url=https://archive.org/details/readersdigestnat00sche|publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc|year=1980|isbn=0-89577-087-3|editor-last=Scheffel|editor-first=Richard L.|location=United States of America|pages=[https://archive.org/details/readersdigestnat00sche/page/222 222]|editor-last2=Wernet|editor-first2=Susan J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| islands            = [[Likoma Island|Likoma]] and [[Chizumulu Island|Chizumulu]] islets, [[Mumbo Island]]
| cities             = 
| reference          = &lt;ref name=ac&gt;{{Cite web|url= http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/cichlid/malawi.php |title=Malawi Cichlids|access-date=2007-04-02 |work= AC Tropical Fish |publisher=Aquaticcommunity.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=ilec&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-13.html |title=Lake Malawi |access-date=2007-04-02 |work=World Lakes Database |publisher=International Lake Environment Committee Foundation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210044454/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-13.html |archive-date=February 10, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| embedded           = 
}}

'''Malawi Talaab''', jiske [[Tanzania]] me '''Lake Nyasa''', [[Mozambique]] me   '''Lago Niassa''' bola jaae hae,  [[Africa ke barraa talaab]] me se ek hae aur [[East African Rift]] system ke southernmost lake hae, jon  [[Malawi]], Mozambique aur Tanzania ke biich me hae.

By volume ii [[dunia]] ke chauthaa sab se barraa talaab hae, by area ii dunia ke 9th sab se barraa lake hae aur by by depth ii Africa ke duusra sab se gahiraa lake hae.  Lake Malawi me dunia ke koi talaab ke mukable me sab se jaada rakam ke jiu hae.,&lt;ref name=unep/&gt; jisme 700 species ke [[cichlid]]s bhi hae.&lt;ref name=Turner2001&gt;Turner, Seehausen, Knight, Allender, and Robinson (2001). &quot;How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes?&quot; ''Molecular Ecology'' 10: 793–806.&lt;/ref&gt; Ii talaab ke Mozambique ke hissa ke June 10, 2011 me Mozambuque ke sarkar ek reserve declare kar diis rahaa ,&lt;ref name=panda&gt;WWF (10 June 2011). [http://wwf.panda.org/?uNewsID=200583 &quot;Mozambique’s Lake Niassa declared reserve and Ramsar site&quot;] Retrieved 17 July 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; jab Malawi waalaa hissa [[Lake Malawi National Park]] me hae.&lt;ref name=unep&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |title=Protected Areas Programme |access-date=2008-06-26 |date=October 1995 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, UNESCO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511101010/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |archive-date=2008-05-11 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malawi, Lake}}

[[vibhag:M]]
[[vibhag:Malawi]]
[[vibhag:Mozambique]]
[[vibhag:Tanzania]]
[[vibhag:Africa ke talaab]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>North America ke barraa talaab</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>63327</id>
    <revision>
      <id>337572</id>
      <parentid>323782</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-23T17:40:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>26740</id>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="3977" sha1="9l8gaz07vkf3ibcesnr47lbrrlv1afe" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox body of water
| name               = North America ke barraa talaab
| other_name         = Great Lakes
| image              = Great Lakes, No Clouds (4968915002) Brighter.jpg
| alt                = Five continent-sized lakes
| caption            = North America ke barraa talaab ke chhaapa NASA&lt;br/&gt; ke Aqua satellite  August 2010 me liis rahaa. Left se&lt;br/&gt; right: [[Lake Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]], [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]]
| image_bathymetry   = Great Lakes bathymetry map.png
| alt_bathymetry     = 
| caption_bathymetry = Great Lakes ke Bathymetry map 
| location           = [[North America]] ke east me
| coordinates        = {{coord|45|N|84|W|region:US_type:waterbody_scale:7500000}}
| type               = mitthaa paani waala kuchh&lt;br/&gt; talaab jon ek duusre se jurraa hae
| part_of            = [[Great Lakes Basin]]
| inflow             = Past: [[precipitation]] and [[meltwater]]&lt;br /&gt;Now: [[river]]s, precipitation,&lt;br/&gt; aur [[Spring (hydrology)|groundwater spring]]s
| outflow            = Evaporation, [[Saint Lawrence Naddi]]&lt;br/&gt;se [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| catchment          = &lt;!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --&gt;
| basin_countries    = [[Canada]], [[United States]]
| agency             = 
| area               = {{convert|94250|sqmi|0}}
| depth              = {{cvt|60–480|ft|m}} talaab pe nirbhar
| max-depth          = {{cvt|210–1300|ft|m}} talaab pe nirbhar
| volume             = {{convert|5439|cumi|0}} (lowest)
| salinity           = 
| shore              = &lt;!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --&gt;
| elevation          = &lt;!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --&gt;
| temperature_high   = &lt;!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --&gt;
| temperature_low    = &lt;!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --&gt;
| frozen             = around January to March
| islands            = 
| trenches           = 
| cities             = &lt;!--      Map      --&gt;
| website            = 
| reference          = &lt;!-- In the article --&gt;
}}

'''Great Lakes''', jiske '''North America ke barraa talaab''' bhi bola jaae hae, kuchh barraa jurraa mitthaa paani waala talaab hae jon  Canada–United States border pe hae. Paanch talaab he [[Lake Superior|Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]], aur [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]] . Great Lakes Waterway ke kaaran log taab me boat se travel kare sake hae.  Ii sab lake  [[Atlantic Ocean]] ke [[Saint Lawrence Naddi]] se, aur [[Mississippi Naddi]] se Illinois Waterway me jurre hae.

Great Lakes, mitthaa paani waala talaab ke sab se barraa group hae agar area ke dekha jaae aur duusra sab se barraa agar volume dekha jaae. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Great Lakes |url=http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/basicinfo.html |publisher=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] |date=June 28, 2006 |access-date=February 19, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=LUHNA Chapter 6: Historical Landcover Changes in the Great Lakes Region |publisher=USGS: Ecosystems |date=November 20, 2003 |access-date=February 19, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111122929/http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/chap6.html |url=http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/chap6.html |archive-date=January 11, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Ghassemi |first=Fereidoun |title=Inter-basin water transfer |url=https://archive.org/details/interbasinwatert0000ghas |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-86969-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; Puura surface area {{convert|94250|sqmi|0}} aur puura volume {{convert|5439|cumi|0}} hae. &lt;ref name=&quot;EPAphysical&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts |url=http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |date=May 25, 2011 |access-date=November 9, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529233616/http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |archive-date=May 29, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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  <page>
    <title>Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2024</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>63653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>337707</id>
      <parentid>326797</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-24T10:38:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KaiRewa</username>
        <id>33465</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>337707</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="2256" sha1="qnawjvrzu6ubr05q9cd54rwoxyodar1" xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=225 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Champion versus Champion&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|115px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:FFALogo.jpg|50px]]
|}
|-
| width=&quot;50px&quot;|'''Number:''' || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;175px&quot;|'''32'''
|-
| '''Jagha:''' || [[Subrail Park|Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Ratu Cakobau Park]], [[Nausori]]
|-
| '''Tarik:''' || [[1 February]] [[2025]]&lt;br/&gt;[[9 February]] [[2025]]
|-
| '''Winner:''' || [[Rewa Soccer Association|Rewa]]
|-
| '''Runner-up:''' || [[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]]
|-
| '''Goals:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:Rewa-3, Labasa-0&lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:Rewa-1, Labasa-0&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Goal banae waala:''' || 
|-style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot;  |'''[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2023|&lt;&lt; CVC 2023]] &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2025| CVC 2025 &gt;&gt;]] '''
|}
2024 ke '''Pillay Garments Champions League''' Rewa aur Labasa ke biich me, Labasa ke Subrail Park aur Nausori ke Ratu Cakobau Park me khela gais rahaa. Rewa isme National League ke jiit ke qualify bhais aur Labasa isme IDC ke jiitis rahaa.  Pahila game Rewa 3-0 se jiitis rahaa aur duusra game 1-0 se jiitis rahaa. Tab Rewa CVC super cup ke duusra dafe jiitis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.fijifootball.com.fj/cvc-dates-confirmed-2/|website=Fiji Football Association|title=CVC dates confirmed|access-date=14 March 2024}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/fiji2024.html#cvc |website=Rec. Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation|title=Champion vs Champion 2023/24|access-date=14 March 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{winners|fb|2024 Champion versus Champion|Rewa|2nd}}


== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Champion versus Champion - Fiji|2024]]</text>
      <sha1>qnawjvrzu6ubr05q9cd54rwoxyodar1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>337708</id>
      <parentid>337707</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-24T10:44:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KaiRewa</username>
        <id>33465</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="2153" sha1="2nbsz7unq72qmf9cp3f8fs1gvgkpwry" xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=225 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Champion versus Champion&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|115px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:FFALogo.jpg|50px]]
|}
|-
| width=&quot;50px&quot;|'''Number:''' || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;175px&quot;|'''32'''
|-
| '''Jagha:''' || [[Subrail Park|Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Ratu Cakobau Park]], [[Nausori]]
|-
| '''Tarik:''' || [[1 February]] [[2025]]&lt;br/&gt;[[9 February]] [[2025]]
|-
| '''Winner:''' || [[Rewa Soccer Association|Rewa]]
|-
| '''Runner-up:''' || [[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]]
|-
| '''Goals:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:Rewa-3, Labasa-0&lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:Rewa-1, Labasa-0&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Goal banae waala:''' || Mosese Nabose &lt;ref&gt;[https://fijilive.com/rewa-wins-first-leg-of-champion-v-champion/ Rewa wins first leg of champion versus champion]&lt;/ref&gt;
|-style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot;  |'''[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2023|&lt;&lt; CVC 2023]] &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2025| CVC 2025 &gt;&gt;]] '''
|}
2024 ke '''Pillay Garments Champions League''' Rewa aur Labasa ke biich me, Labasa ke Subrail Park aur Nausori ke Ratu Cakobau Park me khela gais rahaa. Rewa isme National League ke jiit ke qualify bhais aur Labasa isme IDC ke jiitis rahaa.  Pahila game Rewa 3-0 se jiitis rahaa aur duusra game 1-0 se jiitis rahaa. Tab Rewa CVC super cup ke duusra dafe jiitis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/fiji2024.html#cvc |website=Rec. Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation|title=Champion vs Champion 2023/24|access-date=14 March 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{winners|fb|2024 Champion versus Champion|Rewa|2nd}}


== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Champion versus Champion - Fiji|2024]]</text>
      <sha1>2nbsz7unq72qmf9cp3f8fs1gvgkpwry</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>337709</id>
      <parentid>337708</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-24T10:45:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KaiRewa</username>
        <id>33465</id>
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|+&lt;big&gt;'''Champion versus Champion&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|115px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:FFALogo.jpg|50px]]
|}
|-
| width=&quot;50px&quot;|'''Number:''' || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;175px&quot;|'''32'''
|-
| '''Jagha:''' || [[Subrail Park|Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Ratu Cakobau Park]], [[Nausori]]
|-
| '''Tarik:''' || [[1 February]] [[2025]]&lt;br/&gt;[[9 February]] [[2025]]
|-
| '''Winner:''' || [[Rewa Soccer Association|Rewa]]
|-
| '''Runner-up:''' || [[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]]
|-
| '''Goals:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:Rewa-3, Labasa-0&lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:Rewa-1, Labasa-0&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Goal banae waala:''' || 
|-style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot;  |'''[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2023|&lt;&lt; CVC 2023]] &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2025| CVC 2025 &gt;&gt;]] '''
|}
2024 ke '''Pillay Garments Champions League''' Rewa aur Labasa ke biich me, Labasa ke Subrail Park aur Nausori ke Ratu Cakobau Park me khela gais rahaa. Rewa isme National League ke jiit ke qualify bhais aur Labasa isme IDC ke jiitis rahaa.  Pahila game Rewa 3-0 se jiitis rahaa aur duusra game 1-0 se jiitis rahaa. Tab Rewa CVC super cup ke duusra dafe jiitis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/fiji2024.html#cvc |website=Rec. Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation|title=Champion vs Champion 2023/24|access-date=14 March 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{winners|fb|2024 Champion versus Champion|Rewa|2nd}}


== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Champion versus Champion - Fiji|2024]]</text>
      <sha1>e402ck6sl77h7fi1rm6dumeczyjjawr</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Zanzibar Archipelago</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>63758</id>
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      <id>337538</id>
      <parentid>323561</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-23T17:25:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>26740</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
      <origin>337538</origin>
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      <text bytes="1694" sha1="7dvk28q5t3c63o1m5iw12gj0bwz4zq4" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Zanzibar Archipelago location map.svg|thumb|The Zanzibar Archipelago]]
[[Image:Map of Zanzibar Archipelago-en.svg|thumb|Unguja and Pemba Islands]]

'''Zanzibar Archipelago''' (''Funguvisiwa la Zanzibar'', [[Swahili language|Swahili]] me, [[Tanzania]] ke coast ke lage, [[sea of Zanj]] me ek island ke group hae. Ii archipelago ke '''Spice Islands''' bhi bola jaae hae. 

Isme tiin island ke group hae jisme [[insaan]] rahe haeT, [[Unguja|Zanzibar island]], [[Pemba Island|Pemba island]], aur [[Mafia Island|Mafia island]]. Ek aur coral island, [[Latham Island|Latham island]] bhi hae, jisme seabird breed kare hae. Ii islands ke chaaro bagal aur chhota-chhota island bhi hae .&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Africa Overland |url=https://archive.org/details/africaoverland0000will |author=Lizzie Williams|year= 2005|publisher=New Holland Publishers|isbn=1-77007-187-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isme ke jaada island [[Tanzania]] ke  [[Zanzibar]] semi-autonomous zone me hae, jab bagal ke [[Mafia Archipelago]] aur iske bagal ke chhotaa-chhotaa island Tanzania ke mainland ke   [[Pwani Region]] ke hissa hae.{{Coord|6|33|S|39|34|E|display=title|type:isle_region:TZ_dim:300000}}

==Island ke suchi==
===Main islands===
[[File:UngujaZanzibar2021OSM.png|thumb|An enlargeable, detailed map of Unguja]]
[[File:ZanzibarPemba2021OSM.png|thumb|An enlargeable, detailed map of Pemba]]

*[[Unguja|Unguja Island]] – sab se barraa island, jiske Zanzibar bola jaae hae, aur isme 896,721 log rahe hae

*[[Pemba Island]] – duusra sab se barraa island jisme 406,808 log rahe hae

*[[Mafia Island]] – tiisra sab se  barraa island, jisme  66,180 log rahe hae.

[[vibhag:Z]]
[[vibhag:Indian Ocean ke island]]
[[vibhag:Tanzania]]</text>
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    <title>British Isles</title>
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      <text bytes="7771" sha1="6gxmxfc9gptqq8z2qd5iv7fqcvwhs4b" xml:space="preserve">{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox island
|local_name = 
 {{collapsible list
  |titlestyle = background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:9pt;
  |liststyle = text-align:center;
  |title = Duusra native naam

  |1= {{native name|ga|Éire agus an Bhreatain Mhór}}&lt;ref name=&quot;téarma.ie – Dictionary of Irish Terms&quot;&gt;The British Isles ''s'' ''pl''  ''Na hOileáin bhriontanacha'' {{cite web | url = http://www.tearma.ie/Search.aspx?term=the+British+Isles | title = the British Isles | work = téarma.ie – Dictionary of Irish Terms | publisher = [[Foras na Gaeilge]] and [[Dublin City University]] | access-date = 18 November 2016 | archive-date = 17 November 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181117041329/http://www.tearma.ie/Search.aspx?term=the+British+Isles | url-status = dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
  |2 = {{native name|cy|Ynysoedd Prydain}}
  |3 = {{native name|kw|Enesow Bretennek}}
  |4 = {{native name|gd|Eileanan Bhreatainn}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|url=http://www.gla.ac.uk/departments/celtic/duilleagangidhlig/|title=University of Glasgow Department of Celtic}}&lt;/ref&gt;
  |5 = {{native name|gv|Ny h-Ellanyn Goaldagh}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|url=http://www.tynwald.org.im/papers/press/2008/pr33.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224221228/http://www.tynwald.org.im/papers/press/2008/pr33.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 February 2009|title=Office of The President of Tynwald}}&lt;/ref&gt;
  |6 = {{native name|fr|Îles Britanniques}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Règlement (1953) (Amendement) Sur l'importation et l'exportation d'animaux|url=https://www.jerseylaw.je/laws/enacted/Pages/L-17-1953.aspx|website=[[Jersey Legal Information Board]]|access-date=2 February 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
|image_name = MODIS - Great Britain and Ireland - 2012-06-04 during heat wave.jpg
|image_caption =  ritish Isles ke ek 2012 ke [[NASA]] ke satellite chhaapa,&lt;br/&gt;  [[Shetland]] aur [[Channel Islands]] ke chhorr ke.
|image_alt = A map of the British Isles and their location in Europe.
|map_image = British Isles (orthographic projection).svg
|map_size = 220
|location = North-western [[Europe]]
|coordinates = {{Coord|54|N|4|W|scale:10000000}}
|waterbody = [[Atlantic Ocean]]
|area_km2 = 315159
|area_footnotes = &lt;ref name=&quot;UNEP&quot;&gt;[http://islands.unep.ch/Cindex.htm Country/Territory Index, Island Directory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181213045516/http://islands.unep.ch/Cindex.htm |date=13 December 2018}}, United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved 9 August 2015.&lt;br /&gt;[https://www.gov.im/categories/business-and-industries/iom-key-facts-guide/island-facts/ Island Facts] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050532/https://www.gov.im/categories/business-and-industries/iom-key-facts-guide/island-facts/ |date=4 March 2016}}, Isle of Man Government. Retrieved 9 August 2015.&lt;br /&gt;According to the UNEP, the Channel Islands have a land area of {{val|194|u=km2|fmt=commas}}, the Republic of Ireland has a land area of {{val|70,282|u=km2|fmt=commas}}, and the United Kingdom has a land area of {{val|244,111|u=km2|fmt=commas}}. According to the Isle of Man Government, the Isle of Man has a land area of {{val|572|u=km2|fmt=commas}}. Therefore, the overall land area of the British Isles is {{val|315159|u=km2|fmt=commas}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|total_islands = 6,000+
|highest_mount = {{nowrap|[[Ben Nevis]]}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ordnance Survey Blog-2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/blog/2016/03/britains-tallest-mountain-is-taller/|title=Great Britain's tallest mountain is taller - Ordnance Survey Blog|date=18 March 2016|work=Ordnance Survey Blog|access-date=9 September 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|elevation_m = 1345
|population = 71,891,524
|population_as_of = 2019
|population_footnotes = &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url = https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/ |title = World Population Prospects 2017 |access-date = 26 May 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160927210437/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/ |archive-date = 27 September 2016 |url-status = dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|density_km2 = 216
|languages = [[English language|English]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Manx language|Manx]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Scots language|Scots]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[French language|French]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Guernésiais]], [[Jèrriais]], [[Sercquiais]], [[Shelta]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster-Scots]], [[Angloromani]],&lt;br/&gt; [[British Sign Bhasa]], [[Irish Sign Bhasa]] 
|timezone1 = [[Greenwich Mean Time]] / &lt;br/&gt;[[Western European Time]]
|utc_offset1 = ±0{{!}}UTC
|timezone1_DST = [[Western European Summer Time]]&lt;br/&gt;{{ref label|footnote_a|a}}
|utc_offset1_DST = +1
|additional_info = {{Infobox |child=yes |label1 = Drives on the |data1 = left}}
|footnotes =
}}

'''British Isles''', [[continental Europe]] ke  north-western coast ke bahaar,  [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]] ke islands hae.  Isme [[Great Britain]], [[Ireland]],  [[Isle of Man]],  [[Inner Hebrides|Inner]] aur [[Outer Hebrides|Outer]] [[Hebrides]],  [[Northern Isles]] ([[Orkney]] aur [[Shetland]]), chhe hajaar se jaada chhota-chhota island hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica-2023&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=12 May 2023 |title=British Isles |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/British-Isles |access-date=26 May 2023 |website=[[Britannica Online]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske puura  area  {{convert|315159|km2||abbr=on}} hae aur puura abaadi lagbhag  72&amp;nbsp;million haea. Isme dui independent states, [[Republic of Ireland]] (jon Ireland ke  five-sixths area ke cover kare hae),&lt;ref&gt;The diplomatic and constitutional name of the Irish state is simply ''Ireland''. For disambiguation purposes, ''Republic of Ireland'' is often used although technically not the name of the state but, according to the ''[[Republic of Ireland Act]] 1948'', the state &quot;may be described&quot; as such.&lt;/ref&gt; aur [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]. [[Channel Islands]], jon [[France]] se baahar hae, ke jaada kar ke British Isles ke hissa maana jaae hae&lt;ref&gt;Oxford English Dictionary: &quot;British Isles: a geographical term for the islands comprising Great Britain and Ireland with all their offshore islands including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; jab ki  geographically ii [[archipelago]] ke hissa nai hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1 = Alan |first1 = Lew |last2 = Colin |first2 = Hall |last3 = Dallen |first3 = Timothy|title = World Geography of Travel and Tourism: A Regional Approach |url = https://archive.org/details/worldgeographyof0000lewa |publisher=Elsevier |place = Oxford |year = 2008 |quote = The British Isles comprise more than 6,000 islands off the north-west coast of continental Europe, including the countries of the United Kingdom of Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) and Northern Ireland, and the Republic of Ireland. The group also includes the United Kingdom crown dependencies of the Isle of Man, and by tradition, the Channel Islands (the Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey), even though these islands are strictly speaking an archipelago immediately off the coast of Normandy (France) rather than part of the British Isles. |isbn = 978-0-7506-7978-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; UK Interpretation Act 1978 ke niche, Channel Island, [[British Islands]] ke hissa hae,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1838152 |title=&quot;British Islands&quot; means the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. (1889) |publisher=Statutelaw.gov.uk |access-date=4 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507182642/http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?activeTextDocId=1838152 |archive-date=7 May 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; jiske British Isles se confuse nai kare ke chaahi.

[[vibhag:B]]
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  <page>
    <title>Yamgrah</title>
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      <text bytes="10482" sha1="cydv4ph18pzwz7ftgywkwhi0a7j5vdz" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox planet
| name = Yamgrah
| minorplanet = yes
| symbol = [[File:Pluto monogram (bold).svg|24px|♇|class=skin-invert]] or [[File:Pluto symbol (large orb, bold).svg|24px|⯓|class=skin-invert]]&lt;!--Do not delete the bident symbol; it is not merely astrological. NASA has used it; moreover, the IAU specifically discourages use of symbols--&gt;
| image = Pluto in True Color - High-Res.jpg
| caption = Yamgrah ke sahii rang, jaise  ''[[New Horizons]]'' spacecraft July 2015,&lt;br/&gt; {{convert|35,445|km|mi|abbr=on}} duur se utaaris hae 
| background = PapayaWhip
| discoverer = [[Clyde W. Tombaugh]]
| discovered = February 18, 1930
| discovery_site = [[Lowell Observatory]]
| mpc_name = (134340) Pluto
| named_after = [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]]
| mp_category = {{Plain list|
* [[Dwarf planet]]
* [[Trans-Neptunian object]]
* [[Kuiper belt]] object
* [[Plutino]]
}}
| orbit_ref = 
| epoch = [[J2000]]
| earliest_precovery_date = August 20, 1909
| aphelion = {{Plain list|
* {{val|49.305|ul=AU}}
* ({{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|7.37593|u=billion km}}}})
* February 2114
}}
| perihelion = {{Plain list|
* {{val|29.658|u=AU}}
* ({{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|4.43682|u=billion km}}}})
* (September 5, 1989)
}}
| semimajor = {{Plain list|
* {{val|39.482|u=AU}}
* ({{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|5.90638|u=billion km}}}})
}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.2488}}
| inclination = {{Plain list|
* {{val|17.16|u=°}}
* (11.88° to Sun's equator)
}}
| asc_node = {{val|110.299|u=°}}
| arg_peri = {{val|113.834|u=°}}
| period = {{Plain list|
* {{val|247.94}} [[julian year (astronomy)|years]]
* {{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|90560|u=days}}}}
&lt;!-- * {{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|14164.4}}}} Plutonian [[solar day]]s&lt;ref name=&quot;planet_years&quot; /&gt; --&gt;
}}
| synodic_period = 366.73 days
| avg_speed = 4.743&amp;nbsp;km/s
| mean_anomaly = {{val|14.53|u=[[Degree (angle)|deg]]}}
| satellites = [[Moons of Pluto|5]]
| mean_radius = {{Plain list|
* {{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|1188.3|0.8|u=km}}}}&lt;ref name = &quot;Pluto System after New Horizons&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Stern |first1=S.A. |last2=Grundy |first2=W. |last3=McKinnon |first3=W.B. |last4=Weaver |first4=H.A. |last5=Young |first5=L.A. |title=The Pluto System After New Horizons |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=2018 |pages=357–392 |arxiv=1712.05669 |year=2017 |bibcode=2018ARA&amp;A..56..357S |s2cid=119072504 |doi=10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935|issn = 0066-4146}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nimmo2017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Nimmo |first=Francis |display-authors=etal |title=Mean radius and shape of Pluto and Charon from New Horizons images |journal=Icarus |date=2017 |volume=287 |pages=12–29 |bibcode=2017Icar..287...12N |arxiv=1603.00821 |s2cid=44935431 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.027}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 0.1868 [[Earth radius|Earths]]}}
| dimensions = {{val|fmt=commas|2376.6|1.6|u=km}} 
| surface_area = {{Plain list|
* {{val|1.774443|e=7|u=km2}}
* 0.035 Earths
}}
| volume = {{Plain list|
* {{val|7.057|0.004|e=9|u=km3}}
* {{val|0.00651|u=Earths}}
}}
| mass = {{Plain list|
* {{val|1.3025|0.0006|e = 22|u=kg}}&lt;!-- Calculated from GM=869.3 ± 0.4 km3 s–2 --&gt;
* {{val|0.00218|u=[[Earth mass|Earths]]|fmt=none}}
* 0.177 [[Moon mass|Moons]]
}}
| density = {{val|1.853|0.004|u=g/cm3}}
| surface_grav = {{cvt|0.620|m/s2|g0|lk=out}}
| escape_velocity = {{val|1.212}}&amp;nbsp;km/s
| rotation = {{Plain list|
* {{val|−6.38680|u=day}}
* −6 d, 9 h, 17&amp;nbsp;m, 00 s
}}&lt;ref name=&quot;planet_years&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://cseligman.com/text/sky/rotationvsday.htm |title=Rotation Period and Day Length |last=Seligman |first=Courtney |access-date=June 12, 2021 |archive-date=September 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929010908/http://cseligman.com/text/sky/rotationvsday.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| sidereal_day = {{Plain list|
* {{val|−6.387230|u=day}}
* −6 d, 9 h, 17&amp;nbsp;m, 36 s
}}
| rot_velocity = {{cvt|47.18|km/h|m/s|disp=out}}{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}
| axial_tilt = {{val|119.51|u=°}} (to orbit)
| right_asc_north_pole = 132.993°
| declination = −6.163°
| albedo = 0.52 [[Geometric albedo|geometric]] (locally 0.08–1.0)&lt;br /&gt;0.72 ± 0.07 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]
| magnitude = 13.65 to 16.3 &lt;br /&gt; (mean is 15.1)
| abs_magnitude = −0.44
| angular_size = 0.06 to 0.11
| pronounced = 
| adjectives = [[Wiktionary:Plutonian#Adjective 2|Plutonian]] {{IPAc-en|p|l|uː|ˈ|t|oʊ|n|i|ə|n}}
| atmosphere = yes
| temp_name1 = [[Kelvin]]
| min_temp_1 = 33 K
| mean_temp_1 = 44 K (−229 °C)
| max_temp_1 = 55 K
| surface_pressure = 1.0 [[pascal (unit)|Pa]] (2015)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-33657447 |title=New Horizons: Pluto may have 'nitrogen glaciers' |publisher=BBC News |date=July 23, 2015 |access-date=July 26, 2015 |quote=It could tell from the passage of sunlight and radiowaves through the Plutonian &quot;air&quot; that the pressure was only about 10 microbars at the surface |archive-date=October 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027182142/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-33657447 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ({{val|9.9|e=-6|u=[[atmosphere (unit)|atm]]}})
| atmosphere_composition = [[Nitrogen]], [[methane]], [[carbon monoxide]]
| note = no
| scale_height = 
| flattening = &lt;1%
}}
&lt;!-- Per [[WP:LEADCITE]], there is no need to cite material in the lead if it is cited elsewhere.
 --&gt;

'''Yamgrah''' (Pluto) (minor-planet designation: '''134340 Pluto''') ek [[bauna grah]], [[Kuiper belt]] me hae, jon bodies [[Neptude]] se duur hae. Ii 9th sab se barraa  aur 10th sab se garrhu ([[Eris]] ke baad) chij hae jon [[Suraj]] ke sidhe parikrama kare hae.   Duusra Kuiper belt ke chij ke rakam, ii jaada kar ke  ice aur pattharr ke banaa hae, lekin bhittar waala grah se bahut chhotaa hae.  Pluto ke wajan [[Chandarma]] ke  one-sixth hae aur volume  one-third hae. Pahile iske ek grah maana jaawat rahaa, lekin ek nawaa definition ke niche iske ek [[bauna grah]] classify karaa gais hae. 

Yamgrah ke orbit badalte rahe hae aur ii range kare hae [[Suraj]] se  {{convert|30|to|49|AU|e9km e9mi|lk=on|abbr=off}}. Suraj ke rosni ke hian talak pahunche me 5.5 ghantaa lage hae jab iske orbital distance {{convert|39.5|AU|e9km e9mi|abbr=unit|}} rahe hae. Pluto ke ii orbit ke kaaran kabhi-kabhi Yamgrah [[Neptune]] se jaada nagiich hoe jaae hae, lekin ek stable [[orbital resonance]] ke kaaran duuno collide nai hoe hae. 

Yamgrah ke paanch chaand ke baare me jaana jaae hae; (moon)|Charon]], the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; [[Styx (moon)|Styx]]; [[Nix (moon)|Nix]]; [[Kerberos (moon)|Kerberos]]; and [[Hydra (moon)|Hydra]]. Yamgrah aur Charon ke kabh-kabhi  ek [[binary system]]  maana jaae hae, kaaheki duuno ke orbit koi ek me bandha nai hae. [[New Horizons]] pahila spacecraft rahaa jon Yamgrah aur uske chaand measurements aur observations lis rahaa jab uu [[14 July]] [[2015]] me hian se flyby bhais rahaa.

==Itihaas==
[[1840s]] me [[Urbain Le Verrier]], [[Classical mechanics]] ke kaam me laae ke [[Neptune]] ke predict karis rahaa, [[Uranus]] ke orbit ke asar ke analyse kare ke baad. 19th century ke aakhri hissa me astronomer log ii speculate kare lagin ki Neptune ke alaawa ek duusra planet bhi Uranus ke orbit ke asar kare hae. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Croswell |first=Ken |title=Planet Quest: The Epic Discovery of Alien Solar Systems |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=60sPD6yjbVAC |location=New York |publisher=The Free Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-684-83252-4 |page=43 |access-date=April 15, 2022 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226151141/https://books.google.com/books?id=60sPD6yjbVAC |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[1906]] me [[Percival Lowell]] en 9th grah ke khoj suruu karis jiske uu &quot;[[Planet X]]&quot; ke naam diis rahaa aur 1909 me Lowell aur  [[William Henry Pickering|William H. Pickering]] ii planet ke coordinate suggest kare rahin. 
[[File:Clyde W. Tombaugh.jpeg|left|thumb|upright|
Clyde Tombaugh, in Kansas]]

1929 me [[Clyde Tombaugh]] Planet X ke khoj fir se suruu karis. Tambaugh raat ke aasmaan ke dui chaapa utaar ke ii dekhe ke kosis karis ki koi chij aapan position ke badlis hae ki nai. 18 February 1930 me uu ii dekhis ke jon chhaapa ke 23 January aur 29 January ke biich me lewea gis rahaa, me ek chij move hoe hae. Jab aur observation iske confirm karis tab ii sab chaapa ke 13 March 1930 me Harvard College Observatory ke lage bheja gais rahaa. 

Yamgrah ke ek saal, dunia ke 247.94 saal ke baraabar hae, jiske matlab ii hae ki Yamgrag 2178 me iske discovery ke baad pahila orbit complete kari.

Jab Yamgrah ke paae lewa gais rahaa, tab se astronomer log ii nai biswas kare hae ki ii Lowell ke Planet X hae. Pluto ke mass ke anumaan ke 20th century me kamti karaa gais hae. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1 = Stern|first1 = Alan|last2 = Tholen|first2 = David James|title = Pluto and Charon|url = https://archive.org/details/plutocharon0000unse|date = 1997|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn = 978-0-8165-1840-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/plutocharon0000unse/page/206 206]–208}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable plainrowheaders floatright&quot; style=&quot;clear:right;&quot;
|+ Pluto ke mass ke estimates
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Year
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Mass
!scope=&quot;col&quot;| Estimate by
|-
!scope=&quot;row&quot;| 1915
| 7 Earths
| [[Percival Lowell|Lowell]] (prediction for [[Planet X]])
|-
!scope=&quot;row&quot;| 1931
| 1 Earth
| [[Seth Barnes Nicholson|Nicholson]] &amp; [[Nicholas U. Mayall|Mayall]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Nicholson et al 1930&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
 | bibcode = 1930PASP...42..350N
 | title = The Probable Value of the Mass of Pluto
 | first1 = Seth B.
 | last1 = Nicholson
 | author-link1 = Seth Barnes Nicholson
 | first2 = Nicholas U.
 | last2 = Mayall
 | author-link2 = Nicholas U. Mayall
 | journal = Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
 | volume = 42
 | issue = 250
 | page = 350
 | date = December 1930
 | doi = 10.1086/124071
 | doi-access = free
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
!scope=&quot;row&quot;| 1948
| 0.1 (1/10) Earth
| [[Gerard Kuiper|Kuiper]]
|-
!scope=&quot;row&quot;| 1976
| 0.01 (1/100) Earth
| [[Dale Cruikshank|Cruikshank]], &lt;!-- Carl --&gt;Pilcher, &amp; [[David Morrison (astrophysicist)|Morrison]]{{sfn|Croswell|1997|p=57}}
|-
!scope=&quot;row&quot;| 1978
| 0.0015 (1/650) Earth
| [[James W. Christy|Christy]] &amp; [[Robert Sutton Harrington|Harrington]]
|-
!scope=&quot;row&quot;| 2006
| 0.00218 (1/459) Earth
| [[Marc W. Buie|Buie]] et al.&lt;!-- William M. Grundy, Eliot F. Young, Leslie A. Young, S. Alan Stern --&gt;
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Solar System}}

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    <title>Europa</title>
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| name = Europa
| alt_names = Jupiter {{rn|II}}
| pronounced = {{IPAc-en|j|ʊ|ˈ|r|oʊ|p|ə}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Europa |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182116/https://www.lexico.com/definition/europa |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 March 2020 |title=Europa |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| adjectives = Europan {{IPAc-en|j|ʊ|ˈ|r|oʊ|p|ən}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Lucchita |first1=B. K. |url=https://open.uapress.arizona.edu/system/actioncallout/4/f/d/4fd096aa-d130-495a-a611-80deb03ab195/attachment/28561a2d1a1959358964a24da9723ff2.pdf |title=Satellites of Jupiter |last2=Soderblom |first2=L. A. |date=1982 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-0762-7 |editor-last=Morrison |editor-first=David |series=Space science series |location=Tucson, Ariz |editor-last2=Matthews |editor-first2=Mildred Shapley}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Greenberg 2005&quot;&gt;Greenberg (2005) ''Europa: the ocean moon''&lt;/ref&gt;
| named_after = [[Europa (mythology)|Ευρώπη]] ''Eurōpē''
| image = Europa - Perijove 45 (cropped).png
| image_alt = Surface predominantly white, with a prominent brown oval on the lower right named Callanish crater
| image_scale = 
| caption = Europa ke chhaapa, jiske ''[[Juno (spacecraft)|Juno]]'' spacecraft, September&lt;br/&gt; 2022 me utaris rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia25334-junocam-image-of-europa-from-flyby | title=JunoCam Image of Europa from Flyby | website=Jet Propulsion Laboratory}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
| discoverer = [[Galileo Galilei]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Simon Marius]]
| discovered = 8 January 1610
| orbit_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;horizons&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi|title=JPL HORIZONS solar system data and ephemeris computation service|work=Solar System Dynamics|publisher=[[NASA]], Jet Propulsion Laboratory|access-date=10 August 2007|archive-date=7 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007034731/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| epoch = 8 January 2004
| mean_orbit_radius = {{val|670900|u=km}}&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Overview of Europa Facts|work=NASA|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jup_Europa|access-date=27 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326221921/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jup_Europa|archive-date=26 March 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| eccentricity = 0.009&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;/&gt;
| periapsis = {{val|664862|u=km}} Periapsis is derived&lt;br/&gt; from the semimajor axis (''a'') and&lt;br/&gt; eccentricity (''e''): ''a''(1&amp;nbsp;−&amp;nbsp;''e'').&lt;/ref&gt;
| apoapsis = {{val|676938|u=km}} Apoapsis is derived&lt;br/&gt; from the semimajor axis (''a'') and &lt;br/&gt;eccentricity (''e''): ''a''(1&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''e'').&lt;/ref&gt;
| period = {{val|3.551181|u=d}}&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;/&gt;
| avg_speed = {{val| 13743.36|u=m/s}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/europa/by-the-numbers|title=By the Numbers &amp;#124; Europa|website=NASA Solar System Exploration|access-date=6 May 2021|archive-date=6 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506170939/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/europa/by-the-numbers/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| inclination = 0.470° (to Jupiter's equator)&lt;br /&gt;1.791° (to the [[ecliptic]])&lt;ref name=&quot;factsheet&quot;/&gt;
| satellite_of = [[Jupiter]]
| group = [[Galilean moon]]
| mean_radius = {{val|1,560.8|.5|u=km}}&lt;br /&gt;(0.245 [[Earth]]s)&lt;ref name=&quot;jplfact&quot;/&gt;
| surface_area = {{val|3.061|e=7|u=km2}}&lt;br /&gt;(0.061 Earths) Surface area derived from&lt;br/&gt; the radius (''r''): 4{{pi}}''r''&lt;sup&gt; 2&lt;/sup&gt;.
| volume = {{val|1.593|e=10|u=km3}}&lt;br /&gt;(0.015 Earths) Volume derived from&lt;br/&gt; the radius (''r''): &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;{{pi}}''r''&lt;sup&gt; 3&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
| mass = {{val|4.79984|e=22|u=kg}}&lt;br /&gt;(0.008 Earths)&lt;ref name=&quot;jplfact&quot;/&gt;
| density = {{val|3.013|.005|u=g/cm3}}&lt;br /&gt;(0.546 Earths)&lt;ref name=&quot;jplfact&quot;/&gt;
| surface_grav = {{val|1.314|ul=m/s2}}&lt;br /&gt;(0.134 g) Surface gravity derived from&lt;br/&gt; the mass (''m''), the [[gravitational constant]]&lt;br/&gt; (''G'') and the radius (''r''): G''m''/''r''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
| moment_of_inertia_factor = {{val|0.346|0.005}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Showman1999&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1= Showman|first1=A. P.|last2= Malhotra|first2= R.|s2cid=9492520|title=The Galilean Satellites|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1999-10-01_286_5437/page/77|journal= Science|volume= 286|issue= 5437|date= 1 October 1999|pages =77–84|doi= 10.1126/science.286.5437.77|pmid=10506564}}&lt;/ref&gt; (estimate)
| escape_velocity = {{val|2.025|u=km/s}} Escape velocity derived from&lt;br/&gt; the mass (''m''), the [[gravitational constant]]&lt;br/&gt; (''G'') and the radius (''r''): &lt;math&gt;\textstyle\sqrt{2Gm/r}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;
| rotation = [[synchronous rotation|Synchronous]]
| axial_tilt = 0.1°&lt;ref name=&quot;Bills2005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Bills|first=Bruce G.|title=Free and forced obliquities of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter|date=2005|volume=175|issue=1|pages=233–247|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.10.028|bibcode=2005Icar..175..233B|journal=Icarus|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259023|access-date=29 June 2019|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727063125/https://zenodo.org/record/1259023|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; (to Jupiter)
| right_asc_north_pole = 268.08° &lt;ref name=&quot;iau2015&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Archinal |first1=B. A. |last2=Acton |first2=C. H. |last3=A'Hearn |first3=M. F. |last4=Conrad |first4=A. |last5=Consolmagno |first5=G. J. |last6=Duxbury |first6=T. |last7=Hestroffer |first7=D. |last8=Hilton |first8=J. L. |last9=Kirk |first9=R. L. |last10=Klioner |first10=S. A. |last11=McCarthy |first11=D. |last12=Meech |first12=K. |last13=Oberst |first13=J. |last14=Ping |first14=J. |last15=Seidelmann |first15=P. K. |date=2018 |title=Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2015 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10569-017-9805-5 |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |language=en |volume=130 |issue=3 |page=22 |doi=10.1007/s10569-017-9805-5 |bibcode=2018CeMDA.130...22A |issn=0923-2958}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| declination = 64.51° &lt;ref name=&quot;iau2015&quot; /&gt;
| albedo = 0.67&amp;nbsp;±&amp;nbsp;0.03&lt;ref name=&quot;jplfact&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Yeomans|first=Donald K.|date=13 July 2006|title=Planetary Satellite Physical Parameters|publisher=JPL Solar System Dynamics|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par|access-date=5 November 2007|archive-date=14 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814111752/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| magnitude = 5.29 ([[Opposition (astronomy and astrology)|opposition]])&lt;ref name=&quot;jplfact&quot;/&gt;
| temp_name1 = Surface
| min_temp_1 = ≈&amp;thinsp;50 [[kelvin|K]]
| mean_temp_1 = 102&amp;nbsp;K (−171&amp;nbsp;°C)
| max_temp_1 = 125&amp;nbsp;K
| atmosphere = yes
| surface_pressure = 0.1 [[Pascal (unit)|μPa]] (10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; [[bar (unit)|bar]])&lt;ref name=&quot;McGrathChapter&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=McGrath|editor1=Pappalardo, Robert T.|editor2=McKinnon, William B.|editor3=Khurana, Krishan K.|title=Europa|url=https://archive.org/details/europa0000unse_y7v1|date=2009|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-2844-8|chapter=Atmosphere of Europa }}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
'''Europa''' [[Brahaspati ke chaand]] hae.  Iske [[dunia]] se sadhaaran durbiiin se dekha jaae sake hae aur chaar  [[Galilean moons]] me se ek hae. Ii sab se chhotaa chaand hae jon Brahaspati ke parikrama kare hae, aur ii dunia ke [[chandarma]] se thorraa chhota hae.   Europa ek icy chaand hae, aur ii Brahaspati ke tiin icy chaand me se Brahaspati ke sab se nagiich hae. Iske kaaran iske surface kaafi nawaa hae, jiske kaaran [[tidal heating]] hae.

{{Solar System}}

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  <page>
    <title>Charon</title>
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      <text bytes="6287" sha1="dy0uefcskq0xinyuctlf79qz9yt7gu7" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox planet
| name = Charon
| image = Charon in True Color - High-Res.jpg
| background = Gainsboro
| caption = Charon, aslii rang me, jiske   ''[[New Horizons]]'' spacecraft&lt;br/&gt; July 2015 me utaris rahaa.
| discoverer = [[James W. Christy]]
| discovered = June 22, 1978
| alt_names = S/1978 P 1
| mpc_name = Pluto I&lt;ref name=&quot;Nomenclature&quot;&gt;{{cite web
 |date=November 9, 2009
 |title=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature
 |publisher=IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN)
 |first=Jennifer |last=Blue
 |url = http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/append7.html#DwarfPlanets
 |access-date=February 24, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| pronounced = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɛər|ɒ|n|,_|-|ə|n}} {{respell|KAIR|on|,_-|ən}} or&lt;br/&gt; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|ær|ə|n}} {{respell|SHARR|ən}}The former is the anglicized&lt;br/&gt; pronunciation of the, the latter is the&lt;br/&gt; discoverer's pronunciation.
| note = yes
| adjective = Charonian, from the alternative Latin oblique&lt;br/&gt; form &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-0-387-89518-5 |title=New Horizons: Reconnaissance of the Pluto-Charon System and the Kuiper Belt |date=2009 |publisher=Springer New York |isbn=978-0-387-89517-8 |editor-last=Russell |editor-first=C. T. |location=New York, NY |pages=96 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-89518-5 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Theater outside Athens: drama in Greek Sicily and South Italy |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-52750-8 |editor-last=Bosher |editor-first=Kathryn |location=Cambridge |pages=100, 104–105}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;Charontian, -eanFrom the Latin oblique form&lt;br/&gt;  (cf. Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese ''Caronte'')&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Studies in honor of Gerald E. Wade |url=https://archive.org/details/studiesinhonorof0000unse_k0k9 |date=1979 |publisher=J. Porrúa Turanzas |isbn=978-84-7317-086-4 |editor-last=Wade |editor-first=Gerald Edward |series=Studia humanitatis |location=Madrid |pages=[https://archive.org/details/studiesinhonorof0000unse_k0k9/page/125 125]–126 |language=en, es |editor-last2=Bowman |editor-first2=Sylvia E.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Herbert |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mFiEy0DIFwQC |title=Attila, King of the Huns |date=1838 |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |pages=48 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;Charonean&lt;ref group=note&gt;From the Latin adjectival form {{L&amp;S|Charon|''Charōnēus''|ref}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Kontou |first=Tatiana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfKTnQAACAAJ |title=Spiritualism and Women's Writing: From the Fin de Siècle to the Neo-Victorian |date=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-349-29915-7 |pages=60 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| named_after = Discoverer's wife, Charlene,&lt;br/&gt; and [[Charon (mythology)|Χάρων]] ''Kharōn''
| orbit_ref = &amp;nbsp;&lt;!-- https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0512491.pdf was A. J. Steffl, M. J. Mutchler, H. A. Weaver, S. A. Stern, D. D. Durda, D. Terrell, W. J. Merline, L. A. Young, E. F. Young, M. W. Buie, and J. R. Spencer, ''New Constraints on Additional Satellites of the Pluto System'', Astronomical Journal, Volume 132, Issue 2, pp. 614–619 (August 2006)--&gt;
| epoch = {{val|2452600.5}}&lt;br /&gt;(2002 Nov 22)
| semimajor = {{val|19595.764|0.007|0.008}} km (planetocentric)&lt;br&gt;{{val|17181.0}} km (barycentric)
| eccentricity = 0.000161
| periapsis = 19 592.61 km
| apoapsis = 19 598.92 km
| period = {{val|6.387221|0.000005|0.000003|u=d}}&lt;br&gt;(6 d, 9 h, 17 m, 35.89 ± 0.35 s)
| avg_speed = 0.21 km/s
| inclination = {{val|0.080|u=°}} {{nowrap|(to Pluto's equator)}}&lt;br&gt;{{val|119.591|0.014|u=°}} {{nowrap|(to Pluto's orbit)}}&lt;br&gt;{{val|112.783|0.014|u=°}} {{nowrap|(to the [[ecliptic]])}}
&lt;!-- The latter are based on the Charonian orbital pole of α=133.046±0.014°, δ=-6.145±0.014° in [[J2000]] coordinates ([[International Celestial Reference Frame|ICRF]]) given in Buie et al. (ref name=&quot;Buie_2006&quot;)--&gt;| asc_node = {{val|223.046|0.014|u=°}} {{nowrap|(to [[Equinox (celestial coordinates)|vernal equinox]])}}
| satellite_of = [[Pluto]]
| mean_radius = {{val|606.0|0.5|u=km}}&lt;br/&gt; {{nowrap|(0.095 Earths, 0.51 Plutos)}}
| flattening = &lt;0.5%
| surface_area = {{val|4.6|e=6|u=km2}} {{nowrap|(0.0090 Earths)}}
| volume = {{val|9.32|.14|e=8|u=km3}} {{nowrap|(0.00086 Earths)}}
| mass = {{val|1.5897|0.0045|e=21|u=kg}}&lt;br&gt;({{val|2.66|e=-4|u=Earths}})&lt;br&gt;(12.2% of Pluto)
| density = {{val|1.705|0.006|u=g/cm3}}
| surface_grav = {{val|0.288|ul=m/s2}}
| escape_velocity = {{val|0.59|u=km/s}}&lt;br&gt;0.37 mi/s
| single_temperature = {{val|-220|u=°C}} ({{val|53|ul=K}})
| rotation = [[Synchronous rotation|synchronous]]
| axial_tilt = 
| albedo = ~0.38 (locally 0.20–0.73)&lt;br&gt;0.25 ± 0.03 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103516307308]&lt;/ref&gt;
| magnitude = 16.8&lt;ref name=&quot;magnitude&quot;&gt;{{cite web
 |title        = Classic Satellites of the Solar System
 |url          = http://www.oarval.org/ClasSaten.htm
 |website      = Observatorio ARVAL
 |date         = April 15, 2007
|access-date   = October 19, 2007
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20100731193653/http://www.oarval.org/ClasSaten.htm
 |archive-date = July 31, 2010
 |url-status=dead
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| abs_magnitude = 1&lt;ref name=&quot;jewitt1000km&quot;&gt;{{cite web
 | date = June 2008
 | title = The 1000 km Scale KBOs
 | publisher = Institute for Astronomy (UH)
 | first = David | last = Jewitt
 | url = http://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~jewitt/kb/big_kbo.html
 | access-date = June 13, 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| angular_size = 55 milli-arcsec
}}
'''Charon''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɛər|ɒ|n|,_|-|ə|n}} {{respell|KAIR|on|,_-|ən}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|ær|ə|n}} {{respell|SHARR|ən}}),, jiske formal designation '''(134340) Pluto I''' hae, paanch [[bauna grah]] [[Yamgrah ke chaand]] me se sab se barraa hae. Iske [[mean radius]]  {{Cvt|606|km||abbr=}} hae. Charon 6th sab se barraa  [[trans-Neptunian object]] Yamgrah ke baad, [[Eris]], [[Haumea]], [[Makemake]], aur [[Gonggong]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnos.html#LAR|title=Trans-Neptunian objects}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske 1978 me [[United States Naval Observatory]], [[Washington, D.C.]] me, photographic plates se kaam me laae ke [[United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station]] (NOFS) me.

{{Saur Mandal}}

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  <page>
    <title>Joan Crawford</title>
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    <id>64641</id>
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      <text bytes="7526" sha1="dqgwzyosf9ge2rgv6l2ztsv97divcq2" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name               = Joan Crawford
| image              = JCrawford39.jpg
| caption            = Crawford, 1939 me
| birth_name         = Lucille Fay LeSueur
| birth_date         = March 23, 190?&lt;!-- DO NOT change birth_date, read group note regarding differing, multiple dates as per [[WP:DOB]]--&gt;
| birth_place        = [[San Antonio]], Texas, U.S.
| death_date         = 10 May 1977
| death_place        = New York City, U.S.
| resting_place      = [[Ferncliff Cemetery]]
| occupation         = Actress
| years active       = 1924–1972
| spouse             = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Douglas Fairbanks Jr.]]&lt;br/&gt;|1929|1933|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Franchot Tone]]|1935|1939|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Phillip Terry]]|1942|1946|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Alfred Steele]]|1955|1959|reason=d.}}
}}
| children           = 4, including [[Christina Crawford|Christina]]
| relatives          = [[Hal LeSueur]] (brother)
}}

'''Joan Crawford''' (janam '''Lucille Fay LeSueur'''; [[23 March]] 190?&lt;!-- DO NOT change birth date, multiple dates as per [[WP:DOB]]--&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{multiref
|{{cite book|first=Thomas S.|last=Hischak|title=The Oxford Companion to the American Musical: Theatre, Film, and Television: Theatre, Film, and Television: Theatre, Film, and Television|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbBz3C4Gr0EC&amp;pg=PA174|year=2008|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-533533-0|page=174|quote=Crawford, Joan [born Lucille Fay LeSueur] (1904-1977)}}

|{{cite book|first=David|last=Bret|title=Joan Crawford: Hollywood Martyr|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfjCtf9scpUC&amp;pg=PT8|year=2009|publisher=[[Da Capo Press]]|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-7867-3236-4|page=8|quote=She was born Lucille Fay LeSueur, most likely on 23 March 1904 (though she always maintained it was 1908, when birth certificates became state mandatory...)}}
|{{cite book|first=Mark |last=Knowles|title=The Wicked Waltz and Other Scandalous Dances: Outrage at Couple Dancing in the 19th and Early 20th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAzP__xv7CkC&amp;pg=PA233|year=2009|publisher=[[McFarland (publisher)|McFarland]]|location=Jefferson, NC|isbn=978-0-7864-3708-5|page=233|quote=Joan Crawford was born Lucille Fay LeSueur in San Antonio, Texas on March 23, 1904. (After she was famous, the date of her birth mysteriously changed to 1906 or 1908)}} }}&lt;/ref&gt; 1905,&lt;ref&gt;{{multiref
|{{cite book|first=Susan|last=Ware|title=Notable American Women: A Biographical Dictionary Completing the Twentieth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WSaMu4F06AQC&amp;pg=PA143|year=2004|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=978-0-674-01488-6|page=143|quote=offers the birth date of March 23, 1905}}
|{{cite book|first=Peter|last=Cowie|title=Joan Crawford: The Enduring Star|url=https://archive.org/details/joancrawfordendu0000cowi|year=2009|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|isbn=978-0-8478-3066-4|quote= On March 23, 1908, by her own reckoning (although the real date may have been 1905, or even 1904), Lucille Fay LeSueur was born ...}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1906,&lt;ref&gt;{{multiref
|{{cite book|first=Donald|last=Spoto|title=Possessed: The Life of Joan Crawford|url=https://archive.org/details/possessedlifeofj0000spot_m3z5|url-access=registration|year=2010|publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=New York City|isbn=978-0-06-202020-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/possessedlifeofj0000spot_m3z5/page/6 6]}}
|{{cite book|first=Donna Marie|last=Nowak|title=Just Joan: A Joan Crawford Appreciation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T4VyDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT583|year=2010|publisher=BearManor Media|location=Albany, GA|pages=583–|id=GGKEY:5Y2F5EPURAR}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 1908.&lt;ref&gt;{{multiref
|{{cite book|first1=Lawrence J.|last1=Quirk|first2=William|last2=Schoell|title=Joan Crawford: The Essential Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/joancrawford00lawr|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|location=Lexington, KY|isbn=978-0-8131-2254-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/joancrawford00lawr/page/n22 1]|quote=On March 23, 1904, in San Antonio, Texas, Anna Bell Johnson LeSueur gave birth to a little girl, whom she and her husband, Thomas, named Lucille Fay. Lucille was the couple's third child; another daughter, Daisy, had died in infancy, and Lucille's brother, Hal, had been born the previous year. (Many years later, when little Lucille was the famous woman known to the world as Joan Crawford, the year of her birth mysteriously changed to 1906 or 1908.)}}
|{{cite magazine |magazine=[[Life (magazine)|Life]] |title=The Second Rise of Joan Crawford |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0gEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA45 |date=June 23, 1947 |access-date=March 23, 2020 |page=45 |issn=0024-3019 |quote=The year of Miss Crawford's birth has been variously identified as 1904, 1906, 1908, and 1909, the last being her own favorite..}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; Crawford apne 1908 ke daawa karis rahaa (jon taarik uske tombstone pe hae).&lt;ref name=&quot;Wilson2016&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Scott|last=Wilson|title=Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FOHgDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA165|year=2016|publisher=[[McFarland (publisher)|McFarland]]|location=Jefferson, North Carolina|isbn=978-1-4766-2599-7|page=165|quote=Crawford, Joan (Lucille LeSueur, March 23, 1904 – May 10, 1977) San Antonio born film star.... Her ashes were placed in the vault beside the coffin of her husband, with the crypt listing her birth year as 1908.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Crawford ke larrki, [[Christina Crawford|Christina]] daawa kare hae ki ii 1904 hae,  biography ''[[Mommie Dearest]]'' me, jiske 1978 me publish karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dearest&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Christina|last=Crawford|author-link=Christina Crawford|title=Mommie Dearest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqY4DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT20|date=2017|orig-date=1978|publisher=[[William Morrow &amp; Company]]|location=New York City|isbn=978-1-5040-4908-5|quote=My mother was born Lucille LeSueur in San Antonio, Texas, in 1904, although when she came to Hollywood, she lied about her age and changed the year to 1908. Publicly, her birth date was always reported as March 23, 1908, but Grandmother told me that she was actually born in 1904.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{snd}} ek [[America]]n actress rahii. Uu aapan career nachaniyaa se suruu karis rahaa , traveling theatrical companies me [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] me kaam suruu kare se pahile. Crawford ke 1925 me [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]]  motion-picture ke khaatir  contract sign karis rahaa. Suruu me uu aapan role ke size aur quality se khusi nai rahii, lekin uu ek publicity campaign launch karis aur [[1920s]] talak des bhar me mashuur rahii.  [[1930s]] talak, Crawford ke fame  MGM colleagues [[Norma Shearer]] aur [[Greta Garbo]] ke baraabar rahaa. Crawford jaada kar ke uu role act karis rahaa jisme uu ek  hardworking, young women rahii jon   romance aur financial success ke paae hae. Ii &quot;rags-to-riches&quot; kahaani ke [[Great Depression|Depression]]-era audiences pasand karat rahin aur aurat me famous rahaa.  Crawford  [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]]'s most prominent movie stars banis aur United States me sab se jaada paisa kamae waali aurat rahii, lekin uske film film ke loss hoe lagaa.  [[1930s]] ke end talak, uske &quot;[[Box Office Poison (magazine article)|box office poison]]&quot; label karaa gais rahaa.

{{BD||1977|Crowford, Joan}}

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    <title>Doris Day</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="4461" sha1="h9vlnsp0eojqpbmeuc71sgzo4uifgjl" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name = 
| image = DorisDay-midnightlace-full.jpg
| caption = Day ek publicity portrait me
| birth_name = Doris Mary Kappelhoff
| birth_date = {{birth date|1922|4|3}}
| birth_place = Cincinnati, [[Ohio]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|2019|5|13|1922|4|3}}
| death_place = Carmel Valley, [[California]], U.S.
| known_for = 
| occupation = {{hlist|Actress|singer}}
| years_active = 1937–2012
| spouse = {{plainlist|
*{{marriage|Al Jorden|1941|1943|end=div.}}
*{{marriage|[[George William Weidler|George Weidler]]|1946|1949|end=div.}}
*{{marriage|[[Martin Melcher]]|1951|1968|end=died}}
*{{marriage|Barry Comden|1976|1982|end=div.}} }}
| children = [[Terry Melcher]]
| website = {{URL|dorisday.com}}
| signature = Doris Day signature.svg
}}

'''Doris Day''' (janam '''Doris Mary Kappelhoff'''; [[3 April]] [[1922]] – [[13 May]] [[2019]]&lt;!-- Do not change her birth date to 1924 or any other date - this has been discussed and resolved on the talk page. --&gt;) ek [[America]]n actress aur gaayak rahii.&lt;!--Keep most notable occupations in lead per [[MOS:ROLEBIO]]--&gt; Uu aapan  career ek big band gaayak se, 1937 me suruu karis rahaa, aur   1945 me commercial success achieve karis jab uu dui   No. 1 recordings, &quot;[[Sentimental Journey (song)|Sentimental Journey]]&quot; aur &quot;[[My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time]]&quot; , [[Les Brown (bandleader)|Les Brown and His Band of Renown]] ke saathe record karis. Iske baad uu  Brown ke chhorr ke ek   solo career ke suruu karis  aur 1947 se 1967 talak   650 gaana ke record karis. 

[[1950s]] aur [[1960s]] me, Day  [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] ke ek leading film star rahii. Uske film career  ''[[Romance on the High Seas]]'' (1948) se suruu bhais rahaa. Uu dher genres ke film me act karis rahaa, jisme musicals, comedies, dramas aur thrillers rahaa. Uu title role ''[[Calamity Jane (film)|Calamity Jane]]'' (1953) me kare rahii aur [[Alfred Hitchcock]] ke ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1956) with [[James Stewart]] me star kare rahii. Uu [[Rock Hudson]] ke saathe tiin successful comedies me star kare rahii; ''[[Pillow Talk]]'' (1959), jiske khaatir uske [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] ke khaatir nominate karaa gais rahaa, ''[[Lover Come Back (1961 film)|Lover Come Back]]'' (1961) aur ''[[Send Me No Flowers]]'' (1964). Uu [[James Garner]] ke saathe bhi kaam karis duuno ''[[Move Over, Darling]]'' (1963) aur ''[[The Thrill of It All (film)|The Thrill of It All]]'' (1963) me, aur [[Clark Gable]], [[Cary Grant]], [[James Cagney]], [[David Niven]], [[Ginger Rogers]], [[Jack Lemmon]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Rex Harrison]], [[Myrna Loy]], aur [[Rod Taylor]] ke saathe dher film me. 1968 me  uu aapan career ke khalaas kar ke  aapan television sitcom ''[[The Doris Day Show]]'' (1968–1973) me star kare rahii.

[[1989]] me Day ke [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] aur [[Cecil B. DeMille Award]] for Lifetime Achievement in Motion Pictures dewa gais rahaa. [[2004]] me uske [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] milaa. [[2008]] me uske Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award aur ek Legend Award  [[Society of Singers]] se milaa. [[2011]] me uske  [[Los Angeles Film Critics Association's Career Achievement Award]] mila. 2011 me Day aapan 29th studio album, ''[[My Heart (Doris Day album)|My Heart]]'' ke nikaalis, jisme nawaa chij rahaa aur ii ek UK Top 10 album ban gais rahaa. {{As of|2020}}, uu aath recording artists me se ek hae jon   top box-office earner in the United States chaar dafe rahis hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=2013|title=Doris Day|url=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/bic1/BiographiesDetailsPage/BiographiesDetailsWindow?failOverType=&amp;query=&amp;prodId=BIC1&amp;windowstate=normal&amp;contentModules=&amp;display-query=&amp;mode=view&amp;displayGroupName=Biographies&amp;limiter=&amp;currPage=&amp;disableHighlighting=false&amp;displayGroups=&amp;sortBy=&amp;search_within_results=&amp;p=BIC1&amp;action=e&amp;catId=&amp;activityType=&amp;scanId=&amp;documentId=GALE%7CK2419200293&amp;u=xavier_main&amp;jsid=9460d7cd6fd7bee022fae21120e7eb84|access-date=January 15, 2016|website=Biography in Context|publisher=Gale|location=Detroit, MI}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AEHotchner1976&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hotchner|first=A.E.|title=Doris Day: Her Own Story|url=https://archive.org/details/dorisdayherownst0000dayd|publisher=William Morrow and Company, Inc.|year=1976|isbn=978-0-688-02968-5|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1922|2019|Day, Doris}}

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  <page>
    <title>Tom Hanks</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="12258" sha1="rwvtrf0qc9wggznc4fs68n5dh7hos2k" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name               = Tom Hanks
| image              = TomHanksPrincEdw031223 (11 of 41) (cropped).jpg
| alt                = 
| caption            = Hanks in 2023
| birth_name         = Thomas Jeffrey Hanks
| birth_date         = {{birth date and age|1956|7|9}}
| birth_place        = Concord, [[California]], U.S.
| death_date         = 
| death_place        = 
| citizenship        = United States&lt;br&gt;Greece (since 2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;eka&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ekathimerini.com/255134/article/ekathimerini/news/pm-meets-tom-hanks-now-a-greek-citizen|title=PM meets Tom Hanks, now a Greek citizen|website=Ekathimerini|date=July 26, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| occupation         = {{flatlist|
* Actor
* filmmaker
}} &lt;!-- Do ''not'' inflate this by changing/adding additional occupations --&gt;
| alma_mater         = [[Chabot College]]
| years_active       = 1977{{en dash}}present
| works              = [[List of Tom Hanks performances and credits|Full list]]
| spouse             = {{Unbulleted list
  | {{marriage|Samantha Lewes&lt;br/&gt;|1978|1987|reason=divorced}}
  | {{marriage|[[Rita Wilson]]|1988}}
  }}
| children           = 4, including [[Colin Hanks|Colin]] and [[Chet Hanks|Chet]]
| relatives          = {{ubl
|[[Jim Hanks]] (brother)
|[[Larry Hanks]] (brother)
|[[Lincoln family]]&lt;br/&gt; (through [[Nancy Lincoln|Nancy Hanks]])
}}
| awards             = [[List of awards and nominations received by Tom Hanks|Full list]]
| signature          = Tom Hanks signature.svg
}}

'''Thomas Jeffrey Hanks''' (janam [[9 July]] [[1956]]) ek [[America]]n actor aur filmmaker hae. Uske duuno comedic aur dramatic roles ke khaatir jaana jaae hae, uu ek bahut  popular aur pahchaana jaae waala film star [[dunia]] bhar me hae, aur uske ek American cultural icon maana jaae hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Framing Public Memory|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0817313893|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_0817313893/page/214 214]|publisher=University of Alabama Press|last=Phillips|first=Kendall R.|year=2004|isbn=9780817313890}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hanks 4th sab se jaada paisa kamae waala  American film actor hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=50 Highest-Grossing Actors of All Time|first=Andrew|last=Lisa|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/highest-grossing-actors-time-100057140.html|date=October 22, 2020|access-date=March 23, 2021|publisher=Yahoo! Finance}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://boxofficemojo.com/people/chart/?id=tomhanks.htm |title=Tom Hanks Movie Box Office Results |website=[[Box Office Mojo]] |access-date=January 25, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske [[List of awards and nominations received by Tom Hanks|dher awards]] me hae dui [[Academy Awards]], saat [[Primetime Emmy Awards|Emmy Awards]], aur chaar [[Golden Globe Awards]]; uske paanch [[BAFTA Awards]] aur ek [[Tony Award]] ke khaatir bhi nominate karaa gais hae. Uske 2002 me [[AFI Life Achievement Award]] milaa, 2014 me [[Kennedy Center Honors|Kennedy Center Honor]] mila, 2016 me [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] milaa, aur 2020 me [[Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award]] mila rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/11/16/president-obama-names-recipients-presidential-medal-freedom |title=President Obama Names Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom |date=November 16, 2016 |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |access-date=November 16, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://people.com/movies/tom-hanks-to-receive-frances-highest-honor-for-world-war-ii-work/ |title=Tom Hanks to Receive France's Highest Honor for His Work Highlighting World War II |last=Mikelbank |first=Peter |date=May 17, 2016 |work=[[People (magazine)|People]] |access-date=January 6, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= https://deadline.com/2020/01/tom-hanks-cecil-b-demille-award-golden-globes-injects-class-1202821546/|title= Tom Hanks Injects Class Into Golden Globes With Cecil B. DeMille Speech, Extolling Film Craft And 'Love Boat'|website= [[Deadline Hollywood]]|date= January 6, 2020|accessdate= January 22, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Hanks mashuur bhais rahaa jab uu  leading roles comedies: ''[[Splash (film)|Splash]]'' (1984), ''[[The Money Pit]]'' (1986), ''[[Big (film)|Big]]'' (1988), aur ''[[A League of Their Own]]'' (1992) me karis rahaa. Uu dui  consecutive [[Academy Awards]], [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]], ek gay lawyer jiske AIDS raha ''[[Philadelphia (film)|Philadelphia]]'' (1993) me, aur fir [[Forrest Gump (character)|title character]], ''[[Forrest Gump]]'' (1994) me.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://variety.com/1995/film/news/tom-hanks-joins-back-to-back-oscar-elite-1201345110/ |title=Tom Hanks Joins Back-to-Back Oscar Elite |last=Weiner |first=Rex |date=March 28, 1995 |work=Variety |access-date=June 22, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hanks, [[Steven Spielberg]] ke saathe paanch film me kaam karis hae—''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' (1998), ''[[Catch Me If You Can]]'' (2002), ''[[The Terminal]]'' (2004), ''[[Bridge of Spies (film)|Bridge of Spies]]'' (2015), aur ''[[The Post (film)|The Post]]'' (2017)—aur tiin [[World War II]]-themed [[miniseries]]: ''[[Band of Brothers (miniseries)|Band of Brothers]]'' (2001), ''[[The Pacific (miniseries)|The Pacific]]'' (2010), aur ''[[Masters of the Air]]'' (2024). Uu dher dafe  directors [[Ron Howard]], [[Nora Ephron]], aur [[Robert Zemeckis]] ke saathe bhi kaam karis hae.

Hanks dekhais ki uu ek film star hae jab uu lead roles  romantic comedies ''[[Sleepless in Seattle]]'' (1993) aur ''[[You've Got Mail]]'' (1998); the dramas ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' (1995), ''[[The Green Mile (film)|The Green Mile]]'' (1999), ''[[Cast Away]]'' (2000), ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' (2002), ''[[Cloud Atlas (film)|Cloud Atlas]]'' (2012), aur ''[[News of the World (film)|News of the World]]'' (2020); aur biographical dramas ''[[Charlie Wilson's War (film)|Charlie Wilson's War]]'' (2007), ''[[Captain Phillips (film)|Captain Phillips]]'' (2013), ''[[Saving Mr. Banks]]'' (2013), ''[[Sully (film)|Sully]]'' (2016), ''[[A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood]]'' (2019), aur ''[[Elvis (2022 film)|Elvis]]'' (2022) me act karis rahaa. Uu act karis rahaa [[Robert Langdon|the title character]]  [[Robert Langdon (film series)|''Robert Langdon'' series]] (2006–2016) me aur  [[Sheriff Woody]] ke [[Toy Story (franchise)|''Toy Story'' franchise]] (1995–present) me voice karis rahaa aur dher role  ''[[The Polar Express (film)|The Polar Express]]'' (2004) me. Hanks directed aur act karis hae ''[[That Thing You Do!]]'' (1996) aur ''[[Larry Crowne]]'' (2011) me.

Uske breakthrough television role rahaa jab uu co-lead rahaa [[American Broadcast Company|ABC]] sitcom ''[[Bosom Buddies]]'' (1980–1982) me. Uu ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' kedas dafe host karis rahaa&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|url= https://ew.com/conan-o-brien-recalls-finding-tom-hanks-sleeping-on-snl-table-8739708#:~:text=Hanks%20hosted%20SNL%20seven%20times,a%20staggering%2017%20hosting%20credits.|title= Conan O'Brien recalls Tom Hanks sleeping 'like Christ' across Saturday Night Live writers' room tables|magazine= [[Entertainment Weekly]]|accessdate= November 11, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur ek production company, [[Playtone]] ke suruu karis rahaa, jon dher  limited series aur television movies ke banais hae, jisme hae ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'' (1998), ''Band of Brothers'', ''[[John Adams (miniseries)|John Adams]]'' (2008), ''The Pacific'', ''[[Game Change (film)|Game Change]]'' (2012), aur ''[[Olive Kitteridge (miniseries)|Olive Kitteridge]]'' (2015). Uu [[Broadway (theatre)|Broadway]] me pahila dafe Nora Ephron ke ''[[Lucky Guy (play)|Lucky Guy]]'' (2013) me karis rahaa, jiske khaatir uske ek nomination [[Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play]] khaatir milaa rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general-news/tonys-tom-hanks-gets-nomination-448972/|title= Tonys: Tom Hanks Gets Nomination for 'Lucky Guy'|website= [[The Hollywood Reporter]]|date= April 30, 2013|accessdate= January 22, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bachpan ke din aur palwaar ==
Hanks ke janam Concord, [[California]] me,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Concord Fun Facts {{!}} Concord, CA |url=https://www.cityofconcord.org/426/Concord-Fun-Facts |access-date=December 22, 2023 |website=www.cityofconcord.org |archive-date=January 14, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114211359/https://www.cityofconcord.org/426/Concord-Fun-Facts |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;  July 9, 1956 me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Monitor |newspaper=[[Entertainment Weekly]] |date=July 13, 2012 |issue=1215 |page=20}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske maiyaa,  hospital worker, Janet Marylyn ({{nee|Frager}}) rahii aur pitaji&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bensinger |first1=Graham |author1-link=Graham Bensinger |title=Tom Hanks |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WuCphhyBzIg |website=In Depth with Graham Bensinger |access-date=June 22, 2022 |language=en |date=August 3, 2021 |via= YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Chilton |first1=Louis |title=Tom Hanks says his father was 'broken' by witnessing his grandfather's killing |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/tom-hanks-amos-dad-grandfather-killing-witness-in-depth-b596240.html |access-date=June 22, 2022 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=September 25, 2020 |language=en}}
&lt;/ref&gt; cook Amos &quot;Bud&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;tca&quot;&gt;Stated on ''[[Inside the Actors Studio]]'', 1999&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=David |last=Gardner |url=https://archive.org/details/tomhanks00gard |url-access=registration |title=Tom Hanks |date=January 1, 1999 |publisher=Blake |isbn=978-1-85782-327-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hanks rahaa. Uske maiyaa ek [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] palwaar ke rahii; aur uu log ke naam suruu me &quot;Fraga&quot; rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://portuguese-american-journal.com/honor-portuguese-american-actor-tom-hanks-awarded-presidential-medal-of-freedom-washington-dc/ |title=Honor: Portuguese American actor Tom Hanks awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom—Washington, DC |work=Portuguese American Journal |date=November 23, 2016 |access-date=February 1, 2018 |quote=...{{nbsp}}Tom Hanks was born in Contra Costa county, California, in 1956, of Portuguese, British, and Irish descent. His maternal ancestors were Portuguese pioneers in California with roots in the Azores. His mother Janet Marylyn Frager (Fraga) was a hospital worker{{nbsp}}...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske pitaji ke  English ancestry rahaa,&lt;ref&gt;BBC program: Friday Night with Jonathan Ross, January 2008&lt;/ref&gt; aur uske line se, Hanks, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] ke distant cousin hae&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Montalti |first1=Victoria |title=11 celebrities who are related to US presidents |url=https://www.insider.com/celebrities-related-to-us-presidents |access-date=June 23, 2022 |work=[[Insider Inc.]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;herald-review-lincolns-mothers-heritage&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last1=Ingram |first1=Ron |title=It's more than history; it's blood: Cousin climbs through family tree, discusses Lincoln's mother's heritage |url=https://herald-review.com/special-section/news/outlook/its-more-than-history-its-blood-cousin-climbs-through-family-tree-discusses-lincolns-mothers-heritage/article_c0467fb1-590f-51a3-9eba-730a1bf1c2cd.html |access-date=June 23, 2022 |work=[[Herald &amp; Review]] |date=April 30, 2009 |location=Decatur, Illinois |language=en |quote=Tom Hanks often visits the gravesite of his great-grandfather William Hanks, who is a cousin of Nancy Hanks, Abraham Lincoln's mother, at the Boling Springs Cemetery.}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur larrkan ke host [[Fred Rogers]] (jiske Hanks ek film role me play karis hae).&lt;ref name=&quot;snopes-tom-related-fred&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Is Actor Tom Hanks Related to Fred Rogers? |url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/tom-hanks-related-fred-rogers/ |website=[[Snopes]] |access-date=June 23, 2022 |date=November 21, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;cbsnews-hanks-related-rogers&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=Tom Hanks Finds Out He Is Related To Fred Rogers Days Before 'A Beautiful Day In The Neighborhood' Release |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/losangeles/news/tom-hanks-related-fred-rogers-a-beautiful-day-in-the-neighborhood/ |access-date=June 23, 2022 |work=[[CBS News]] |date=November 19, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{BD|1956||Hanks, Tom}}

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    <title>Buster Keaton</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="5492" sha1="g1ui0znvil5u77sw1asjszp3r8wy7op" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name               = Buster Keaton
| image              = Busterkeaton edit.jpg
| caption            = Keaton in 1920
| birth_name         = Joseph Frank Keaton
| birth_date         = {{Birth date|1895|10|4|mf=y}}
| birth_place        = [[Piqua, Kansas]], U.S.
| death_date         = {{Death date and age|1966|2|1|1895|10|4|mf=y}}
| death_place        = [[Los Angeles|Los Angeles, California]], U.S.
| resting_place      = [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Hollywood Hills]], California, U.S.
| occupation         = {{hlist|Actor|comedian|filmmaker&lt;br/&gt;|stuntman}}
| years_active       = 1899–1966
| works              = &lt;!-- ''[[Our Hospitality]]'', ''[[Sherlock Jr.]]'', ''[[The Navigator (1924 film)|The Navigator]]'', ''[[Seven Chances]]'', ''[[The General (1926 film)|The General]]'', ''[[Steamboat Bill, Jr.]]'' --&gt; [[Buster Keaton filmography|Full list]]
| spouse             = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Natalie Talmadge]]|1921|1932|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|Mae Scriven|1933|1936|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Eleanor Keaton|Eleanor Norris]]|1940}}
}}
| children           = 2
| father             = [[Joe Keaton]]
| mother             = [[Myra Keaton|Myra Cutler]]
}}

'''Joseph Frank''' &quot;'''Buster'''&quot; '''Keaton''' ([[4 October]] [[1895]] – [[1 February]] [[1966]])&lt;ref name=Meade16&gt;{{cite book |title=Buster Keaton: Cut to the Chase|url=https://archive.org/details/busterkeatoncutt0000mead_w5s3|last=Meade |first=Marion|year=1997|publisher=Da Capo |isbn=0-306-80802-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/busterkeatoncutt0000mead_w5s3/page/16 16]}}&lt;/ref&gt; ek [[America]]n actor, comedian aur filmmaker rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Obituary ''[[Variety Obituaries|Variety]]'', February 2, 1966, page 63.&lt;/ref&gt; Keaton ke uske [[1920s]] ke  [[silent film]]s khaatir jaana jaae hae, jisme uu [[physical comedy]] aur [[stunt]]s karis rahaa. Uu jaada kar ke ek stoic, [[deadpan]] facial expression rahaa, jon uske trademark hoe gais aur jisse uske  nickname &quot;The Great Stone Face&quot; rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/deadpan-but-alive-to-the-future-buster-keaton-the-revolutionary-9037459.html|title=Deadpan but alive to the future: Buster Keaton the revolutionary|last=Barber|first=Nicholas|work=[[The Independent]]|date=January 8, 2014|access-date=November 3, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;re&quot;&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-the-films-of-buster-keaton|author-link= Roger Ebert| first=Roger|last= Ebert|title=The Films of Buster Keaton| date=November 10, 2002|access-date=January 28, 2016| archive-date=November 3, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151103163906/http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-the-films-of-buster-keaton | url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Keaton ek child  star rahaa, aur aapam palwaar ke  traveling act me perform karat rahaa. Jab uu barra bhais tab uu  independent producer [[Joseph M. Schenck]] aur filmmaker [[Edward F. Cline]] ke saathe kaam kare lagaa, jiske saathe uu dher successful [[two-reel]] comedies  early [[1920s]] me banais, jisme rahaa ''[[One Week (1920 film)|One Week]]'' (1920), ''[[The Playhouse (film)|The Playhouse]]'' (1921), ''[[Cops (1922)|Cops]]'' (1922), aur ''[[The Electric House]]'' (1922). Iske baad uu feature-length films me kaam kare lagaa; jaise ''[[Sherlock Jr.]]'' (1924), ''[[The General (1926 film)|The General]]'' (1926), ''[[Steamboat Bill, Jr.]]'' (1928), aur ''[[The Cameraman]]'' (1928), ke achchhaa maana jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.theyshootpictures.com/keatonbuster.php |title=Buster Keaton's Acclaimed Films |publisher=They Shoot Pictures, Don't They |access-date=September 29, 2016 |archive-date=March 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329215414/http://theyshootpictures.com/keatonbuster.php |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; ''The General'' saait uske sab se achchhaa kaam hae ; [[Orson Welles]] ke anusar ii &quot;the greatest comedy ever made...and perhaps the greatest film ever made&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=https://mubi.com/lists/sight-and-sound-critics-poll-2002-top-films-of-all-time | title=''Sight &amp; Sound'' Critics' Poll (2002): Top Films of All Time| publisher= Sight &amp; Sound via [[Mubi.com]]| access-date=January 29, 2016| archive-date=January 29, 2016| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160129151429/https://mubi.com/lists/sight-and-sound-critics-poll-2002-top-films-of-all-time | url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--Three other Keaton films received votes in the magazine's survey: ''[[Our Hospitality]]'', ''[[Sherlock, Jr.]]'', and ''[[The Navigator (1924 film)|The Navigator]]''.--&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b6aae85f3/sightandsoundpoll2012 |title=Votes for The General (1924) |publisher=British Film Institute |access-date=September 29, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/features/general-greatest-comedy-all-time | title=The General: the greatest comedy of all time?| first=Geoff |last=Andrew |date= January 23, 2014|work=Sight &amp; Sound|access-date= January 28, 2016|archive-date= September 6, 2015| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150906131312/http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/features/general-greatest-comedy-all-time|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Orson Welles interview, from the Kino November 10, 2009 Blu-Ray edition of The General&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1895|1966|Keaton, Buster}}

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  <page>
    <title>Mary Pickford</title>
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| name               = Mary Pickford
| image              = Mary Pickford cph.3c17995u.jpg
| caption            = Pickford, 1910 me
| birth_date         = {{birth date|1892|4|8|mf=yes}}
| birth_name         = Gladys Louise Smith&lt;ref name=&quot;pbs&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pickford-1892-1979/|title=Mary Pickford (1892–1979)|website=pbs.org|access-date=December 20, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| birth_place        = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], Canada
| death_date         = {{death date and age|1979|5|29|1892|4|8}}
| death_place        = [[Santa Monica]] [[California]], U.S.
| burial_place       = [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Glendale, California]]
| citizenship        = {{ubl|
| [[British subject]] (1892–1947)
| United States (1920-1979)
| Canada (1947–1979)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|last=York|first=Cal|magazine=Photoplay|volume=18|issue=6|date=November 1920|publisher=MacFadden Publications|page=99|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_photoplay_1920-11_18_6/page/99/|title=Plays and Players}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
| awards             = {{ubl|[[Hollywood Walk of Fame]]
|2 [[Academy Awards]]}}
| known_for          = {{hlist|[[The Female of the Species (film)|The Female of the Species]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[The Poor Little Rich Girl]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[In the Bishop's Carriage]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[Caprice (1913 film)|Caprice]]|[[Coquette (film)|Coquette]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[Hearts Adrift]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1917 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]&lt;br/&gt;|[[Tess of the Storm Country (1914 film)|Tess of the Storm Country]]|[[Pollyanna (1920 film)|Pollyanna]]}}
| occupation         = {{hlist|Actress|producer|screenwriter&lt;br/&gt;|businesswoman}}
| years_active       = 1900–1955
| spouse             = {{ubl|{{marriage|[[Owen Moore]]|1911|1920|reason=divorced}}|{{marriage|[[Douglas Fairbanks]]|1920|1936|reason=divorced}}|{{marriage|[[Charles &quot;Buddy&quot; Rogers]]|1937&lt;!--Omission per template instructions--&gt;}}}}
| children           = 2
| mother             = [[Charlotte Hennessey]]
| relatives          = {{ubl|[[Lottie Pickford]] (sister)|[[Jack Pickford]] (brother)}}
| website            = {{Official website|marypickford.org|Mary Pickford Foundation}}
| signature          = Autograph Mary Pickford.svg
}}

'''Gladys Louise Smith''' ([[8 April]] [[1892]] – [[29 May]] [[1979]]), jiske  '''Mary Pickford''' ke naam se jaana jaae hae, ek [[Canada|Canadian]] aur [[America]]n film actress aur producer rahii. Ek [[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood|American film industry ke pioneer]] jiske Hollywood career  five decade lambaa rahaa, Pickford suunsaan (silent) film jamaana ke ke ek mashuur  actresses rahii. Uske film career 1909 me suruu bhais rahaa, Pickford 1916 me pahila millionaire ban gay rahii, aur aapan career ke choti ke time , had complete creative control of her films aur dunia ke sab se jaana maana aurat rahii.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Adams|first1=Katherine H.|first2=Michael L.|last2=Keene|first3=Jennifer C.|last3=Koella |title=Seeing the American Woman, 1880–1920: The Social Impact of the Visual Media Explosion |year=2012|url=https://archive.org/details/seeingamericanwo0000adam|publisher=McFarland |publication-date=December 8, 2011 |page=[https://archive.org/details/seeingamericanwo0000adam/page/32 32]}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Whitfield|1997|pp=8, 25, 28, 115, 125, 126, 131, 300, 376}} Uske &quot;Queen of the Movies&quot; bhi bola jaawat rahaa. Uske khaas haanth film acting ke development me rahaa  aur uu {{lang|fr|[[ingénue]]}} rakam ke cinema ke suruu karis rahaa, jisse uske mila rahaa, nickname &quot;[[America's Sweetheart]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Love |first1=Claire |last2=Pollack |first2=Jen |last3=Landsberg |first3=Alison |year=2017 |title=Silent Film Actresses and Their Most Popular Characters |url=https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/silent-film-actresses-and-their-most-popular-characters |publisher=National Women's History Museum}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1892|1979|Pickford, Mary}}

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  <page>
    <title>Yevgeny Leonov</title>
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| name               = Yevgeny Leonov
| honorific_suffix   = 
| image              = Евгений Леонов (1979) (cropped).jpg
| imagesize          = 300px
| caption            = 1979
| native_name        = Евгений Леонов
| birth_name         = Yevgeny Pavlovich Leonov
| birth_date         = {{Birth date|df=yes|1926|09|02}}
| birth_place        = [[Moscow]], [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|RSFSR]], [[Soviet Union]]
| death_date         = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1994|01|29|1926|09|02}}
| death_place        = [[Moscow]], [[Russia]]
| resting_place      = [[Novodevichy Cemetery]], [[Moscow]]
| restingplacecoordinates = 
| native_name_lang   = ru
| othername          = 
| alma_mater         = [[Moscow Art Theatre School]]
| occupation         = Actor
| yearsactive        = 1947–1994
| title              = [[People's Artist of the USSR]] (1978)
| spouse             = Vanda Stoilova
| children           = Andrei Leonov
| parents            = Pavel Vasilyevich Leonov&lt;br&gt;Anna Ilyinichna Leonova
| awards             = [[Order of Lenin]]
| website            = 
| domesticpartner    = 
}}

'''Yevgeny Pavlovich Leonov''' ( [[2 September]] [[1926]] – [[29 January]] [[1994]]) ek [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] aur [[Russia]]n actor rahaa jon dher sab se jaada mashuur  [[Cinema of the Soviet Union|Soviet films]], jaise ''[[Gentlemen of Fortune]]'', ''[[Mimino]]'' aur ''[[Striped Trip]]'' me actinng karis rahaa.  Uske  &quot;one of Russia's best-loved actors&quot;  bola jaawat rahaa,&lt;ref name=&quot;Death&quot;&gt;''Death: Yevgeny Leonov.'' '''[[The Guardian]]''' (London). 23 February 1994.&lt;/ref&gt; aur uu dher many Soviet cartoon characters ke voice karis rahaa, jisme ''Vinny Pukh'' (''[[Winnie-the-Pooh]]'') bhi rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Russian and Soviet Cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000roll_z3y1|author=Peter Rollberg|publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield|year=2009|place=US|isbn=978-0-8108-6072-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000roll_z3y1/page/403 403]–405}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1926|1994|Leonov, Yevgeny}}

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    <title>Mikhail Ulyanov</title>
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&lt;!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Antikiller.jpg|thumb|Ulyanov as a boss of the [[Russian Mafia]] in the 2001 blockbuster ''Antikiller''.]] --&gt;
'''Mikhail Alexandrovich Ulyanov''' ( [[20 November]] [[1927]] &amp;ndash; [[26 March]] [[2007]]) ek [[USSR|Soviet]] aur [[Russia]]n [[actor]] rahaa jon  post-[[World War II]] [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[theatre]] aur [[Film|cinema]] ke sab se jaada pahachaane waala  actor rahaa. Uske [[People's Artist of the USSR]] ke naam 1969 me dewa gais rahaa aur [[Hero of Socialist Labour]] 1986 me aur uske 1982 me ek special prize  [[Venice Film Festival]] se milaa rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Russian and Soviet Cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000roll_z3y1|author=Peter Rollberg|publisher=Rowman Littlefield|year=2009|place=US|isbn=978-0-8108-6072-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000roll_z3y1/page/714 714]–715}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1927|2007|Ulyanov, Mikhail}}

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    <title>Maximilian Schell</title>
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| name         = Maximilian Schell
| image        = Maximilian Schell - 1970-1.jpg
| caption      = Schell, 1970 me
| birth_date   = {{Birth date|1930|12|8|df=yes}}
| birth_place  = [[Vienna]], Austria
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|2014|2|1|1930|12|8|df=yes}}
| death_place  = [[Innsbruck]], Austria
| citizenship  = Switzerland&lt;!--Please see talk page; provide reliable, third-party sources for multiple citizenship.--&gt;
| occupation   = {{Hlist|Actor|film director|producer}}
| years_active = 1955–2014
| children     = 1
| relatives    = [[Maria Schell]] (sister)
| spouse       = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Natalya Andreychenko]]|1985|2005|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Iva Mihanovic]]|2013}}
}}
}}
'''Maximilian Schell''' ([[8 December]] [[1930]] – [[1 February]] [[2014]]) ek &lt;!--Per talk page discussion, do NOT Austrian-born--&gt;Swiss&lt;!--Just Swiss, per talk and WP:ETHNICITY.--&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Johnstone |first=Iain |title=The Arnhem Report: The story behind A Bridge Too Far |url=https://archive.org/details/arnhemreport0000john |year=1977 |publisher=Allen |isbn=0352397756 |quote=I'm Swiss, but I was born in Austria.}}&lt;/ref&gt; actor rahaa. Uske janam [[First Austrian Republic|Austria]] me bhais rahaa. Uske mai-baap , arts  me rahin aur Achnell barraa bhais rahaa  surrounded by performance and literature. Jab uu chhotaa rahaa, tab uske palwaar 1938 me  [[Switzerland]] bhaag gais rahaa jab  [[Nazi Germany]] [[Anschluss|Austria ke annexe]] kar liis, aur uu log [[Zürich]] me rahe lagin. [[World War II]] ke baad , Schell acting aur directing full-time kare lagaa. 

Schell  [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] ke jiitis rahaa  uske ek wakiil ke role,  legal drama ''[[Judgment at Nuremberg]]'' (1961) me. Uske Oscar-nominate karaa gais rahaa, ek character ke role act kare ke khaatir jiske dher   identities rahaa, ''[[The Man in the Glass Booth]]'' (1975) me aur ek admii jon   Nazism ke resist karis rahaa ke role  ''[[Julia (1977 film)|Julia]]'' (1977) me. Schell, duuno  English aur German me fluent rahaa, aur Schell ke kuchh top billing  Nazi-era themed films me act kare ke milaa. Uu act karis rahaa film me jaise ''[[Topkapi (film)|Topkapi]]'' (1964), ''[[The Deadly Affair]]'' (1967), ''[[Counterpoint (film)|Counterpoint]]'' (1968), ''[[Simón Bolívar (1969 film)|Simón Bolívar]]'' (1969), ''[[The Odessa File (film)|The Odessa File]]'' (1974), ''[[A Bridge Too Far (film)|A Bridge Too Far]]'' (1977), aur ''[[Deep Impact (film)|Deep Impact]]'' (1998).

{{BD|1930|2014|Schell, Maximilian}}

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  <page>
    <title>Cyd Charisse</title>
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      <text bytes="4861" sha1="1kmctmdopc4j63pb72dxo1mrz7ewjfx" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name           = Cyd Charisse
| image          = Cyd Charisse - (1949).jpg
| imagesize      =
| caption        = Charisse in 1949
| birth_name     = Tula Ellice Finklea
| birth_date     = {{birth date|1922|03|08}}
| birth_place    = [[Amarillo, Texas|Amarillo]], [[Texas]], U.S.
| death_date     = {{death date and age|2008|06|17|1922|03|08}}
| death_place    = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| othername      = Lily Norwood&lt;br&gt;Felia Siderova&lt;br&gt;Maria Istomina
| years_active   = 1939–2008
| resting_place  = [[Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]]
| occupation     = {{Flatlist|
*Actress
*dancer
}}
| spouse         = {{Plainlist|
* {{marriage|Nico Charisse|1939|1947|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Tony Martin (American singer)|Tony Martin]]&lt;br&gt;|1948}}
}}
| children       = 2
| relatives      = [[Nana Visitor]] (niece)
}}

'''Cyd Charisse''' (janam '''Tula Ellice Finklea'''; [[8 March]] [[1922]] – [[17 June]] [[2008]])&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Obituary: Cyd Charisse|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2008/jun/18/news.culture|date=2008-06-18|work=The Guardian|author=Ronald Bergan|access-date=June 29, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=SSDI&gt;{{cite web|title=Cyd C. Martin|url=http://www.americanancestors.org/PageDetail.aspx?recordId=108247609|work=Social Security Death Index|publisher=New England Historic Genealogical Society|access-date=March 9, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; ek [[America]]n nachaniyaa aur actress rahii.

Bajpan me  [[polio]] ke bemaari se bach ke uu ballet study karis, aur [[1940s]] me film acting suruu karis. Uske roles jaada kar ke uske naache ke ability ke dekhaawat rahaa, aaur uu jaada kar ke  [[Fred Astaire]] nai to  [[Gene Kelly]] ke saathe act karat rahii. Uske film me rahaa ''[[Singin' in the Rain]]'' (1952), ''[[The Band Wagon]]'' (1953), ''[[Brigadoon (film)|Brigadoon]]'' (1954), aur ''[[Silk Stockings (1957 film)|Silk Stockings]]'' (1957). [[1950s]] me uu film me naache ke band kar diis, lekin film aur  television me act karte rahis. 1991 me uu [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] me kaam suruu karis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Cyd Charisse – Broadway Cast &amp; Staff {{!}} IBDB|url=https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-cast-staff/cyd-charisse-83980|access-date=2021-10-20|website=IBDB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Baad ke zindagi me uu Holywood musicals ke itihaas ke  documentaries me discuss karis aur 1994 me  ''[[That's Entertainment! III]]'' me rahii. 2006 me uske  [[National Medal of Arts|National Medal of the Arts and Humanities]] dewa gais rahaa.

==Bajpan ke din==
Cyd Charisse ke janam ke naam Tula Ellice Finklea rahaa aur uu  [[Amarillo]], [[Texas]] me paida bhae rahii, uske maiyaa ke naam Lela (née Norwood) aur pitaji Ernest Enos Finklea Sr. rahaa, jon ek sonaar rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE1DE1F38F936A35757C0A964958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=2 Profile], ''The New York Times''; accessed November 4, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; Uske nickname &quot;Sid&quot; uske barraa bhaiyaa  Ernest E. Finklea Jr., jon &quot;Sis&quot; bole maangat rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;yahoo&quot;&gt;[https://www.pasadenastarnews.com/2008/06/17/cyd-charisse-dies-in-la-at-86/ &quot;Cyd Charisse dies in LA at 86&quot;;accessed April 11, 2021.]&lt;/ref&gt; Iske baad me [[Arthur Freed]] &quot;Cyd&quot; ke spelling diis rahaa .&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title = Cyd Charisse Interview|url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HWDvVfSKnpU|date = 2014-06-12|access-date = 2016-02-15|last = Marmar}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Uu benaria larrki rahii jon chhe saal ke umar me nache sikhe lage rahii aapn taagat ke barrhaawe ke khaatir polio ke bemaari ke baad. 12 saal ke umar me uu Los Angeles me  [[ballet]] parrhe rahii , [[Adolph Bolm]] aur [[Bronislava Nijinska]] ke saathe, aur 14 saal ke umar me,  [[Ballet Russe de Monte-Carlo]] me as &quot;Felia Siderova&quot; naache rahii&lt;ref name=&quot;Wollen&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Wollen|first=Peter|title=Singin' in the Rain|url=https://archive.org/details/singininrain0000woll|publisher=[[British Film Institute]]|year=1992|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/singininrain0000woll/page/42 42]|isbn=0-85170-351-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Missiaen&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Missiaen|first=Jean-Claude|title=Cyd Charisse, du ballet classique à la comédie musicale|publisher=Henri Veyrier|year=1978|location=Paris|page=38|isbn=2-85199-186-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur baad me , as &quot;Maria Istomina&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Missiaen&quot;/&gt; Uske parrhai [[Hollywood Professional School]] me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k1LnvFcRzfQC&amp;dq=%22Hollywood+Professional+School%22+%22Linda%22&amp;pg=PA221|page=221|title=Screen World|year=1969|volume=20|editor=John Willis|publisher=[[Crown Publishers]]|isbn=9780819603104}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ek European tour me uu  Nico Charisse, ek young dancer  ke milis jiske saathe uu Los Angeles me parrhis rahaa. Uu log 1939 me , Paris me saadi karis aur unke ek larrka,  Nicky bhais.&lt;ref name=&quot;yahoo&quot;/&gt;

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    <title>Isadora Duncan</title>
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      <text bytes="4639" sha1="7fqv9t3jymrtejk89vq3fhase04lb7c" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox artist
| name = Isadora Duncan
| image = Isadora Duncan portrait cropped.jpg
| caption = Duncan {{circa|1906–1912}}
| birth_name = Angela Isadora Duncan
| birth_date = {{birth date|1877|5|26}}{{efn|name=&quot;birthdate&quot;|group=notes|While Duncan's birth date is widely given as May 27, 1878, her posthumously discovered baptismal certificate records May 26, 1877. Any corroborating documents that might have existed were likely destroyed in the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Stokes|first1=Sewell|title=Isadora Duncan|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/173622/Isadora-Duncan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=28 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
| birth_place = [[San Francisco]], California, U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date|1927|9|14}} (aged 50){{efn|name=&quot;birthdate&quot;}}
| death_place = [[Nice]], France
| citizenship = American, French, Soviet
| movement = [[Modern dance|Modern/contemporary dance]]
| field = [[Dance]] and [[choreography]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Sergei Yesenin]]|May 2, 1922|May 1923|end=sep}}
| partner = [[Edward Gordon Craig]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Paris Singer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Romano Romanelli]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mercedes de Acosta]]
|children= 3
| relatives = [[Raymond Duncan (dancer)|Raymond Duncan]] (brother)
| signature= Signature d'Isadora Duncan.jpg 
}}

'''Angela Isadora Duncan''' ([[26 May]] [[1877]]  – [[14 September]] [[1927]]) ek [[America]]n me paeda bhais nachaniyaa aur choreographer rahii, jon  modern contemporary dance  ke suruu kare rahii aur jon dher sabassi ke saathe  [[Europe]] aur [[United States]] me perform kare rahii. Uske janam aur bachpan ke din  California me rahaa, lekin uu  Western Europe, the U.S., aur [[Soviet Russia]] me 22 saal se rahis aur naachis. Duncan uu time maris jab usje scarf ke motar ke pahiyaa aur axel me bajh gais rahaa jab uu   [[Nice]], France me rahii.&lt;ref name=&quot;Craine&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Dance|url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000crai_b0t4|last1=Craine|first1=Debra|last2=Mackrell|first2=Judith|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-19-860106-7|edition= First|location=Oxford [England]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000crai_b0t4/page/152 152]|oclc=45663394}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bachpan ke din ==
Angela Isadora Duncan ke San Francisco me bhais rahaa, aur uu Joseph Charles Duncan (1819–1898), ek banker, [[mining engineering|mining engineer]] aur connoisseur of the arts, and Mary Isadora Gray (1849–1922) ke chaar larrkan me se sab se chhotii rahii. Uske bhaiyaa [[Augustin Duncan]] aur [[Raymond Duncan (dancer)|Raymond Duncan]];&lt;ref name=&quot;Jowitt1989&quot; /&gt; aur bahini, [[Elizabeth Duncan (dancer)|Elizabeth Duncan]] rahii, aur uu bhi ek nachaniyaa rahii.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/agc1996000096/PP/|title=Elizabeth Duncan dancer|last=Genthe|first=Arnold (photographer)|website=Library of Congress|access-date=2017-10-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KarinaKant2004&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Lilian Karina|author2=Marion Kant|title=Hitler's Dancers: German Modern Dance and the Third Reich|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8f_bKK2fnEC&amp;pg=PA11|date=January 2004|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-688-7|pages=11}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Isadora ke janam ke kuchh din baad, uske pitaji ke ke charge karaa gais rahaa, uske palwaar ke bank ke bankcrupt hoe ke kaaran.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Kurth |first=Peter |title=Isadora: A Sensational Life |url=https://archive.org/details/isadorasensation2002kurt |publisher=Little Brown |year=2001 |isbn=978-0316057134 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isadorasensation2002kurt/page/11 11]-13}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jab ki  jury uske acquit kar diis rahaa,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Isadora ke maiyaa (angered over his infidelities as well as the financial scandal) uske divorce kar diis  aur iske baad palwaar garibi me rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jowitt1989&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Deborah Jowitt|title=Time and the Dancing Image|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uaECpiO__W8C&amp;pg=PA75|year=1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06627-4|pages=75}}&lt;/ref&gt; Joseph Duncan, aapan tiisra aurat aur larrki ke saathe mar gais jab  British passenger steamer [[SS Mohegan|SS ''Mohegan'']] [[Cornwall]] ke coast me duub gais rahaa .&lt;ref&gt;Ean Wood, ''Headlong Through Life: The Story of Isadora Duncan'' (2006), p. 27: &quot;They...would all be drowned, along with 104 others, when the S.S. Mohegan, en route from London to New York, ran aground on the Manacle Rocks off Falmouth, in Cornwall.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1877|1927|Duncan, Isadora}}

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  <page>
    <title>Masaala</title>
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      <text bytes="11633" sha1="tsga0sqq4hbprv9liqb019cr5deeyta" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Spices1.jpg|thumb|Agadir, [[Morocco]] ke central market me masaala]]
[[File:Indianspicesherbs.jpg|thumb|Kuchh [[Indian]]  jarri-buuti (herb) aur masaala, piyaala me]]
[[File:Spices of Saúde flea market, São Paulo, Brazil.jpg|thumb|[[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]] ke Saúde flea market me masaala]]

Paak kalaa (Culinary arts) me, ek '''masaala''' koi [[biyaa]], [[fal]], [[jarr]], [[Bark (botany)|bark]], nai to duusra [[paudhaa]] ke chij hae, jon uu ruup me hae jisse iske khaana ke  [[flavoring]] nasi to [[color]]ing ke khaatir kaam me laawa jaawe hae. Masaala  [[jarri-buuti]] se different hae, jon patti, fuul, nai to paudhaa ke stems hae jiske [[flavoring]] nai to [[garnish (food)|garnish]] kare khaatir kaam me laawa jaawe hae. Masaala aur [[seasoning]] ekke chij nai hae, lekin masaala, seasoning ke vibhaag me jarri-buuti ke rakam hae. 

Masaala ke kabhi-kabhi [[medicine]], dharmik sanskaar, [[cosmetics]], nai to  sugandh (perfume) ke banae me kaam me laawa jaawe hae. Iske jaada kar ke masaala, masaala ke biyaa aur jarri-buuti ke vibhag me rakkhaa jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-03-08 |title=Spice and herb {{!}} Types, Uses, &amp; Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/spice-food |access-date=2024-04-09 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jaise, [[vanilla]] ke sugandh manufacturing me kaam me laaw ajaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00048-3 |chapter=Vanilla |title=Medicinal Plants of South Asia |year=2020 |last1=Ahmad |first1=Hafsa |last2=Khera |first2=Rasheed Ahmad |last3=Hanif |first3=Muhammad Asif |last4=Ayub |first4=Muhammad Adnan |last5=Jilani |first5=Muhammad Idrees |pages=657–669 |isbn=978-0-08-102659-5 |s2cid=241855294 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Paudha se aawe waala mitthaa kare waala chij, jaise [[chini]] ke masaala nai maana jaawe hae. 

Masaala ke dher ruup me kaam me laawa jaawe hae, jisme hae; taaja, puura, jhuraawal, khurchal, kaatal, piisal. Ii sab processes ke masaala ke beche se pahile karaa jaawe hae, kitchan me khaana ke tayaari kare ke time, aur table pe bhi jab khaana ke seve karaa jaawe hae, jaise pepper ke grind karnaa.  Kuchh masaala, jaise hardi ke jaada kar ke piisal ruup me kharida jaawe hae. Chhotaa biyaa, jaise saunf aur sarso ke chaahe piisal nai to puure kaam me laawa jaawe hae. 

Ek puura jhuraan masaala ke sab se jaada din talak rakkhaa jaawe sake hae, aur ii kaaran se iske dher amount me khariid ke rakkhaa jaawe sake hae, jisse ii per-serving basis pe sastaa parre hae. Ek taaja masaala, jaise [[adrak]], ke jaada kar ke aur flavorful rahe hae, agar iske jhuraawal form se compare karaa jaawe, lekin taaja masaala aur mahangaa rahe hae aur iske dher din talak rakkhaa nai jaawe sake hae. 

Ii saabuut nai hae ki masaala khaawe se health ke khaatir achchhaa hae. &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal| display-authors=3|last1=Vázquez-Fresno|first1=Rosa|last2=Rosana | first2=Albert Remus R. | last3=Sajed | first3=Tanvir | last4=Onookome-Okome | first4=Tuviere | last5=Wishart | first5=Noah A. | last6=Wishart | first6=David S.|title=Herbs and Spices - Biomarkers of Intake Based on Human Intervention Studies – A Systematic Review|journal=Genes and Nutrition|volume=14|issue=18|doi=10.1186/s12263-019-0636-8|pmid=31143299|pmc=6532192|date=22 May 2019 |page=18 |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Dunia]] ke 75% masaala [[India]] me bane hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Spices Board |url=https://www.indianspices.com/ |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=www.indianspices.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske ek kaaran hae ki India ke khaana me dher masaala ke kaam me laawa jaawe hae. Agar itihass ke dekha jaae tab spice me trade Indian subcontinent, [[Middle East]] aur [[East Asia]] me suruu bhais rahaa. [[Europe]] me masaala ke maang, colonialism ke ek kaaran rahaa.

==Itihaas==
===Puraana itihaas===
Masaala ke acheological adyam karraa hae, kaaheki masaala ke chhotaa amount me kaam me laawa jaawe hae, aur isse bahut kamti bache hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Katherine M |title=Routledge International Handbook of Food Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/routledgeinterna0000kena |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-78264-7 |editor-last=Albala |editor-first=Ken |editor-link=Ken Albala |location=Oxford &amp; New York |chapter=The archaeology of food}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Masaala me trade [[Indian subcontinent]] &lt;ref name=&quot;Sidebotham2019&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Steven E. Sidebotham|title=Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw6LDwAAQBAJ|date=May 7, 2019|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-30338-6|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=June 30, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115408/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw6LDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; aur [[Middle East]] me 2000B CE me suruu bhais rahaa, jisme jaada kar ke daalchini aur golmirch me trade karaa jaawat rahaa aur [[East Asia]] me jarri-buuti aur pepper me. Egypt ke log jarri-buuti ke khaana aur mummification ke khaatir kaam me laawat rahin. Uulog ke masaala ke demand ke kaaran dunia bhar me trade barrha.

Lawang ke [[Mesopotamia]] me 1700&amp;nbsp;BCE talak kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa.{{refn |group=note |A team of archaeologists led by [[Giorgio Buccellati]] excavating the ruins of a burned-down house at the site of [[Terqa]], in modern-day [[Syria]], found a ceramic pot containing a handful of cloves. The house had burned down around 1720 BC and this was the first evidence of cloves being used in the west before Roman times.&lt;ref&gt;Daniel T. Potts (1997), [https://books.google.com/books?id=O_aFGKPsWwcC&amp;pg=PA269 Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164819/https://books.google.com/books?id=O_aFGKPsWwcC&amp;pg=PA269 |date=March 26, 2023 }} A&amp;C Black publishers, p. 269&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Buccellati, G., M. Kelly-Buccellati, Terqa: The First Eight Seasons, Les Annales Archeologiques Arabes Syriennes 33(2), 1983, 47–67&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=O'Connell |first=John |title=The Book of Spice: From Anise to Zedoary |publisher=Pegasus Books |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-68177-152-6|url=https://archive.org/details/bookofspicefroma0000ocon_t5u6}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} Sab se puraana likha gais  records, masaala ke baare me, puraana Egyptian, Chinese, aur Indian cultures se aais hae.  [[Ebers Papyrus]], jon puraana Egypt ke hae, aur 1550 BCE puraana hae, lagbhag 800 herbal medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures ke describe kare hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Food and Culture|last=Woodward|first=Penny|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|year=2003|editor-last=Katz|volume=2|pages=187–195|chapter=Herbs and Spices}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1000&amp;nbsp;BCE talak, medical systems based jon jarri0buuti pe based rahaa ke  [[China]], [[Korea]], aur [[India]] me paawa jaae lagaa rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author1=Sonal Dubey |title=Indian Spices and their medicinal value |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320247387_Indian_Spices_and_their_Medicinal_Value |website=ResearchGate |access-date=27 July 2025 |doi=10.5530/ijper.51.3s.41 |quote=By  1000 BCE, medical systems based upon  herbs could be found in China,  Korea,  and  India.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske pahila kaam me laawe waale  iske  magic, medicine, religion, tradition, aur preservation me kaam me laawat rahin.&lt;ref name=ABCp14&gt;{{cite book |last=Murdock |first=Linda | title=A Busy Cook's Guide to Spices: How to Introduce New Flavors to Everyday Meals | publisher=Bellwether Books | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-9704285-0-9 | page=14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Indonesian ke merchants  China, India,  Middle East, aur [[Africa]] ke east coast me travel kare rahin. [[Arab]] merchants se  Middle East aur India se travel karaa jaawat rahaa. Iske kaaran  Egyptian [[Port of Alexandria]] masaala ke khaatir khaas port banaa rahaa. Sab se important discovery,   European spice trade ke suruu hoe se pahile [[monsoon]] winds (40 CE) rahaa. Eastern spice cultivators sail kar ke  Western European consumers ke lage jaawe lagin aur ii land-locked spice routes jiske Middle East Arab caravans control karat rahaa, ke replace kar diis.&lt;ref name=ABCp14/&gt;

Masaala, puraana dunia ke etna khaas chij rahaa ki iske baare me [[Old Testament]] me likha gais hae.  [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] me, [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] ke gulami me masaala ke merchants ke becha gais rahaa.  [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] me, [[manna]] ke dhania ke rakam, dekhe me, describe karaa gais hae.  [[Song of Solomon]] me, male narrator aapan premi ke dher kesar (saffron), daalchini (cinnamon), aur duusra masaala jaise describe kare hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Bible Gateway passage: Song of Songs 4:14 - New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Song+of+Solomon+4:14&amp;version=NIV |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=Bible Gateway |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Itihaas ke adhyan kare waale ii biswas kare hae ki jayfal (nutmeg), jon [[Southeast Asia]] ke [[Banda Islands]] se aawe hae, ke  Europe me  6th century BCE me introduce karaa gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkill |first=I.H. |title=A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula |publisher=Ministry of Agriculture and Co-Operatives |location=Kuala Lumpur |year=1966}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] ke lage 1st  CE me rahaa, kaaheki [[Pliny the Elder]] iske baare me likhis hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Duke 2002 p. 7&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Duke |first=J.A. |title=CRC Handbook of Medicinal Spices |publisher=CRC Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-4200-4048-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPTLBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA7 |access-date=May 9, 2017 |page=7 |archive-date=June 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115408/https://books.google.com/books?id=vPTLBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA7 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|&quot;The Mullus&quot;, pepper ke harvest karaa jaawe hae.  ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'' ke French edition me ke chhaapa.]]
[[Middle Ages]] me masaala beche waala chij me se sab se jaada mahangaa rahaa, Europe me,&lt;sup&gt;[[Spice#cite note-5|[5]]]&lt;/sup&gt; jisme se sab se common golmirch (black pepper), daalchini (cinnamon) (aur sastaa alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), jiira (cumin), jayfal (nutmeg), adrak, aur lawang). Jab  medieval medicine ke khaas theory me [[humorism]] rahaa, masaala aur jarri-buuti ke khaana me jaruri rahaa ,&lt;sup&gt;[[Spice#cite note-6|[6]]]&lt;/sup&gt; har din  [[pandemic]] ke time.  European ke raj kare waala log me masaala ke dher maang rahaa, ii biswas  kar ke  ki ii &quot;paradise&quot; se connect karat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |author=Schivelbusch, Wolfgang |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/24702170 |title=Tastes of paradise : a social history of spices, stimulants, and intoxicants |date=1992 |publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=0-394-57984-4 |oclc=24702170 |access-date=December 4, 2022 |archive-date=June 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115421/https://worldcat.org/title/24702170 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;  European aristocracy ke masaala ke demand ke ek namuuna   [[King of Aragon]] se aawe hae, jon dher paisa kharchaa karis rahaa masaala ke  [[Spain]] se 12th century me import kare ke khaatir. Uu aisan masaala ke khojat rahaa jiske wine me chhorraa jaae sake, aur dher aur Europe ke rtaja log yahii maangat rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Freedman|first=Paul|date=June 5, 2015|title=Health, wellness and the allure of spices in the Middle Ages|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|series=Potent Substances: On the Boundaries of Food and Medicine|volume=167|pages=47–53|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.065|pmid=25450779}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

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    <title>Arabic script</title>
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      <text bytes="11344" sha1="jupm5pchihjburgzjj2s8aw52xoedaz" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox writing system
| name        = Arabic script
| type        = [[Abjad]]
| typedesc    = primarily, [[alphabet]]
| languages   = See below
| time        = 3rd century CE to the present&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | title=The World's Writing Systems | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937 | year=1996 | editor1-first=Peter T. | editor1-last=Daniels | editor1-link=Peter T. Daniels | editor2-last=Bright | editor2-first=William | editor2-link=William Bright | publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc | isbn=978-0195079937 | page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/559 559]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| direction   = Right-to-left
| fam1        = [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]]
| fam2        = [[Proto-Sinaitic script|Proto-Sinaitic]]
| fam3        = [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]
| fam4        = [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]]
| fam5        = [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]]
| children    = [[N'Ko script|N'Ko]]&lt;br&gt;[[Hanifi Rohingya script|Hanifi script]]&lt;br&gt;[[Persian alphabet]]
| unicode     = {{ublist |class=nowrap |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0600.pdf U+0600–U+06FF] {{smaller|Arabic}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0750.pdf U+0750–U+077F] {{smaller|Arabic Supplement}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U08A0.pdf U+08A0–U+08FF] {{smaller|Arabic Extended-A}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0870.pdf U+0870–U+089F] {{smaller|Arabic Extended-B}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10EC0.pdf U+10EC0–U+10EFF] {{smaller|Arabic Extended-C}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFB50.pdf U+FB50–U+FDFF] {{smaller|Arabic Pres. Forms-A}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFE70.pdf U+FE70–U+FEFF] {{smaller|Arabic Pres. Forms-B}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1EE00.pdf U+1EE00–U+1EEFF] {{smaller|Arabic Mathematical...}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1EC70.pdf U+1EC70–U+1ECBF] {{smaller|Indic Siyaq Numbers}} 
|[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1ED00.pdf U+1ED00–U+1ED4F] {{smaller|Ottoman Siyaq Numbers}}
|[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10E60.pdf U+10E60–U+10E7F] {{smaller|Rumi Numeral Symbols}}}}
| iso15924    = Arab
| official script = {{Collapsible list
  |titlestyle = background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: left; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3em;
  |liststyle  = padding: 6px 0; background-color: none; text-align: left;
  |framestyle = line-height: 2.0em; border: none; padding: 0;
  |title = 20 sovereign states
 |{{flag|Afghanistan}}
 |{{flag|Algeria}}
 |{{flag|Bahrain}}
 |{{flag|Egypt}}
 |{{flag|Iran}}
 |{{flag|Iraq}}
 |{{flag|Palestine}}
 |{{flag|Jordan}}
 |{{flag|Kuwait}}
 |{{flag|Lebanon}}
 |{{flag|Mauritania}}
 |{{flag|Morocco}}
 |{{flag|Libya}}
 |{{flag|Oman}}
 |{{flag|Qatar}}
 |{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
 |{{flag|Sudan}}
 |{{flag|Syria}}
 |{{flag|Tunisia}}
 |{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
 |{{flag|Yemen}}
}}
Co-official script in:
{{Collapsible list
  |titlestyle = background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: left; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3em;
  |liststyle  = padding: 6px 0; background-color: none; text-align: left;
  |framestyle = line-height: 2.0em; border: none; padding: 0;
  |title      = 9 sovereign states
 |{{flag|Brunei}}
 |{{flag|Comoros}}
 |{{flag|Chad}}
 |{{flag|Djibouti}}
 |{{flag|Eritrea}}
 |{{flag|Pakistan}}
 |{{flag|Somalia}}
 |{{flag|Malaysia}}
|{{flag|Tanzania}}
}}
Official script at regional level in:
{{Collapsible list
  |titlestyle = background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: left; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3em;
  |liststyle  = padding: 6px 0; background-color: none; text-align: left;
  |framestyle = line-height: 2.0em; border: none; padding: 0;
  |title      = 2 sovereign states
 |{{flag|India}}
 |{{flag|China}}
}}
* {{flag|United Nations}}
| sample      = Arabic-script.png
| imagesize   = 300px
}}

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float:right; clear:right; font-size:85%; width:500px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#0a0;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| Worldwide use of the Arabic script
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | [[File:Arabic alphabet world distribution - four shades.png|center|400px|Arabic alphabet world distribution]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Des jisme Arbii akchhar hae:
|-
| style=&quot;width:10px; height:10px; background:#060;&quot;| || &amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp; || khaali ek sarkari script
|-
| style=&quot;width:10px; height:10px; background:#40b340;&quot;| || &amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp; || sarkari, duusra script ke saathe
|-
| style=&quot;width:10px; height:10px; background:#80ff80;&quot; | || &amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp; || sarkari provincial level me (China, India, Tanzania) nai to sarkari bhasa (Malaysia, Tajikistan) ke ek duusra recognized script hae 
|}

'''Arabic script''' likhe ke system hae jiske [[Arbii bhasa]]  ([[Arbii akchhar]]) aur dher aur  [[Asia]] aur [[Africa]] ke bhasa ke likha jaawe hae. Ii [[dunia]] ke duusra sab se jaada kaam me laawe waala   [[alphabet]]ic writing system hae ( [[Latin akchhar]]) ke baad,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Arabic Alphabet |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31666/Arabic-alphabet |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426185709/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31666/Arabic-alphabet |archive-date=26 April 2015 |access-date=2015-05-16 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica online}}&lt;/ref&gt; dunia ke duusra sab se jaada kaam me laawe waala writing system hae agar ketna des iske kaam me laawe hae ke dekha jaawe tab, (Latin and [[Chinese akchhar]]) ke baad.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The World's 5 Most Commonly Used Writing Systems|url=https://www.britannica.com/list/the-worlds-5-most-commonly-used-writing-systems|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729184024/https://www.britannica.com/list/the-worlds-5-most-commonly-used-writing-systems|access-date=2023-07-29|archive-date=2023-07-29|url-status=live|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|last=Vaughan|first=Don}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ii script ke sab se pahile Arbii bhasa ke likhe khaatir kaam me laawa gais rahaa, khaas kar ke [[Quran]],  [[Islam]] ke holy book. Jab Islam faila tab iske kaam me laae ke dher bhasa ke likha jaae lagaa, jiske kaaran isme aur nawaa akchhar aur chinh jorra gais rahaa. Aisan bhasa jon abhi talak ii akchhar ke kaam me laae hae me hae  [[Arbii bhasa|Arbii]], [[Persian bhasa|Persian]] ([[Farsi]] aur [[Dari]]), [[Urdu]], [[Uyghur bhasa|Uyghur]], [[Kurdish bhasa|Kurdish]], [[Pashto]], [[Punjabi bhasa|Punjabi]] (Shahmukhi), [[Sindhi bhasa|Sindhi]], [[Azerbaijani bhasa|Azerbaijani]] (Torki, Iran me), [[Malay bhasa|Malay]] (Jawi akchhar), [[Javanese bhasa|Javanese]], [[Sundanese bhasa|Sundanese]], [[Madurese language|Madurese]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (Pegon script), [[Balti bhasa|Balti]], [[Balochi bhasa|Balochi]], [[Luri bhasa|Luri]], [[Kashmiri bhasa|Kashmiri]], [[Cham bhasa|Cham]] (Akhar Srak),&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/cham_background.pdf Cham romanization table background. Library of Congress]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Hanifi Rohingya script|Rohingya]], [[Somali bhasa|Somali]], [[Mandinka bhasa|Mandinka]], aur [[Mooré]].&lt;ref&gt;Mahinnaz Mirdehghan. 2010. Persian, Urdu, and Pashto: A comparative orthographic analysis. ''Writing Systems Research'' Vol. 2, No. 1, 9–23.&lt;/ref&gt; 16th century talak iske, kuchh [[Aljamiado|Spanish]] texts , aur 1928 me Ataturk ke reform se pahile ii [[Turkish bhasa|Turkish]] ke writing system rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.bne.es/es/Micrositios/Exposiciones/MemoriaMoriscos/Obras/|title=Exposición Virtual. Biblioteca Nacional de España|publisher=Bne.es|access-date=2012-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218074945/http://www.bne.es/es/Micrositios/Exposiciones/MemoriaMoriscos/Obras/|archive-date=2012-02-18|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ii script ke  [[Right-to-left script|right to left]], [[cursive]] style me likha jaae hae, jisme jaada akchhar ke different rakam se likha jaawe hae, jon ispe nirbhar hae ki uu akele hae nai to aage waala nai to piichhe waala akchhar se joined hae. Ii script  [[unicase]] me likha jaae hae aur isme distinct [[letter case|capital or lowercase letters]] nai hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ahmad, Syed Barakat. |title=Introduction to Qur'anic script |date=11 January 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-11138-9 |oclc=1124340016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jaada cases me akchhar   [[consonant]]s ke transcribe kare hae, nai to consonants aur kuchh vowels, jiske kaaran Arabic alphabets [[abjad]]s hae, aur kuchh versions jisme kuch bhasa ke likha jaawe hae, jaise  [[Kurdish alphabets#Sorani alphabet|Sorani dialect of Kurdish]], [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet|Uyghur]], [[Xiao'erjing|Mandarin]], aur [[Arebica|Bosniak]],  [[alphabet]] hae. Ii [[Arabic calligraphy]] ke basis hae .

== Itihaas ==

Arabii akchhar, Nabataean akchhar se aais hae ]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gruendler |first=Beatrice |author-link=Beatrice Gruendler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65kOAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=origin |title=The Development of the Arabic Scripts: From the Nabatean Era to the First Islamic Century According to Dated Texts |date=1993 |publisher=Scholars Press |isbn=9781555407100 |pages=1 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fDohBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1|title=A Brief Introduction to The Arabic Alphabet|last1=Healey|first1=John F.|last2=Smith|first2=G. Rex|date=2012-02-13|publisher=Saqi|isbn=9780863568817|language=en|chapter=II - The Origin of the Arabic Alphabet}}&lt;/ref&gt; nai to (jiske kamti biswas karaa jaawe hae) sidhe Syriac akchhar se,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kc4xAlunCSEC&amp;pg=PA100|title=The Origins of Writing|last=Senner|first=Wayne M.|date=1991|publisher=U of  NebraskaPress|isbn=0803291671|pages=100|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; jon duuno  Aramaic akchhar se aais hae, jon, baad me, Phoenician akchhar se aais hae.  Phoenician akchhar se [[Greek akchhar]] aais hae (aur, tab, duuno [[Cyrillic akchhar]] aur [[Latin akchhar]] jiske [[North America]], ;;South America]]] aur jaada [[Europe]] ke des me kaam me laawa jaawe hae.

=== Origins ===
6th aur 5th centuries BCE me, northern Arab tribes migrate hoe ke  [[Petra]], [[Jordan]] ke lage ek  kingdom suruu kare rahin. Ii log (jiske abhi [[Nabataeans]] bola jaawe hae ) [[Nabataean Arabic]] , ek Arbii bhasa ke dialect, me baat karat rahin.   2nd nai to 1st centuries BCE me,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/nabataean.htm|title=Nabataean abjad|website=www.omniglot.com|access-date=2017-03-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://mushecht.haifa.ac.il/catalogues/Nabateans/Joseph_Naveh.pdf|title=Nabatean Language, Script and Inscriptions|last=Naveh|first=Joseph}}&lt;/ref&gt; pahila jaana gais  Nabataean akchhar ke  [[Aramaic|Aramaic language]] (jon communication aur trade ke bhasa rahaa) me likha gais rahaa, lekin isme kuchh  Arbii bhasa ke  features rahaa: Nabataeans aapan bhasa ke likhat nai rahin.  Uu log ek rakam ke  Aramaic akchhar me likhat rahin, jon evolve hote rahaa;  ii dui rakam ke hoe gais: ek [[inscription]]s ke khaatir (jiske &quot;monumental Nabataean&quot; bola jaawat rahaa) aur duusra, jaada cursive aur jiske jaldi likha jaawat rahaa akchhar ke jorr ke  [[papyrus]] ke likhe ke khaatir.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FcAoBq4_EnEC&amp;pg=PA152|title=Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans|last=Taylor|first=Jane|date=2001|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9781860645082|pages=152|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; II cursive dhire-dhire badal ke Arbii akchhar ban gais.

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    <title>Giotto</title>
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      <text bytes="3352" sha1="8wu1khri6vc8a7vs7l0p8b8x830885y" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox artist
| name          = Giotto di Bondone
| image         = Five Famous Men of the Florentine Renaissance, Giotto (cropped).jpg
| caption       = Giotto ke ek chhaapa, jiske  1490 aur 1550 ke&lt;br/&gt; biich me banaawa gais rahaa
| birth_name     = Giotto di Bondone
| birth_date     = {{circa|1267}}
| birth_place      = Florence, Republic of Florence&lt;br/&gt; {{small|(abhi ke Italy ke lage)}}
| death_date     = [[8 January]] [[1337]]
| death_place    = Florence, Republic of Florence
| nationality   = [[Italians|Italian]]
| field         = [[Painting]], [[fresco]], [[architecture]]
| movement      = {{ubl|[[Gothic art|Late Gothic]]|[[Italian Renaissance painting#Proto-Renaissance|Proto-Renaissance]]}}
| works         = [[Scrovegni Chapel]] frescoes, [[Giotto's Campanile|Campanile]]
}}

'''Giotto di Bondone''' ({{IPA|it|ˈdʒɔtto di bonˈdoːne|lang}}; {{circa|[[1267]]}} – [[8 January]] [[1337]]),&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Giotto's date of birth differs widely in the sources, but modern art historians consider 1267 to be the most plausible, although the years up to 1275 cannot be entirely discounted.&quot; Wolf, Norbert (2006). ''Giotto di Bondone, 1267–1337: The Renewal of Painting''. Cologne: Taschen. p. 92. {{ISBN|978-3822851609}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Britannica|234069}}&lt;/ref&gt; jiske   '''Giotto''' ke naam se bhi jaana jaawe hae&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160925105746/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/giotto &quot;Giotto&quot;] (US) and {{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Giotto |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303151410/https://www.lexico.com/definition/giotto |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-03-03 |title=Giotto |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Giotto|access-date=June 1, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Italy]] ke ek chitrkaar aur [[architect]] rahaa, jon late middle ages me  [[Florence]] me raht rahaa. Uu Gothic aur Proto-Renaissance jamaana me kaam karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;100art&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Hodge|first=Susie|title=Art in Detail: 100 Masterpieces|url=https://archive.org/details/artindetail100ma0000hodg|year=2016|publisher=Thames &amp; Hudson|location=New York|isbn=978-0-500-23954-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/artindetail100ma0000hodg/page/10 10]|edition=|quote=He worked during the period described as Gothic or Pre-Renaissance ...}}&lt;/ref&gt; Giotto ke jamaana ke   banker aur chronicler [[Giovanni Villani]], likhis hae ki Giotto rahaa &quot;the most sovereign master of painting in his time, who drew all his figures and their postures according to nature&quot; aur uske publically recognised &quot;talent and excellence&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;bartlett 37&quot;&gt;Bartlett, Kenneth R. (1992). ''The Civilization of the Italian Renaissance''. Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company. {{ISBN|0-669-20900-7}} (Paperback). p. 37.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Giorgio Vasari]]  Giotto ke baare me batais hae ki uu, uutime ke  Byzantine style se different chitr banais  aur suruu karis rahaa &quot;the great art of painting as we know it today, introducing the technique of drawing accurately from life, which had been neglected for more than two hundred years&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vasari&quot;&gt;Giorgio Vasari, ''[[Lives of the Artists]]'', trans. George Bull, Penguin Classics (1965), pp. 15–36.&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1267|1337|Giotti}}

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    <title>Sandro Botticelli</title>
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| name = Sandro Botticelli 
| image = Sandro Botticelli 083.jpg
| caption = Botticelli ke apne se banaawa gais chhaapa,&lt;br/&gt; uske ''Adoration of the Magi'' (1475) me.
| birth_name = Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi
| birth_date = {{circa|1445}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ettl&quot;&gt;Ettlingers, 7. Other sources give 1446, 1447 or 1444–45.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!-- Please do not change this because there is no reliable source for his date of birth. If you believe you have confirmable date, please present it at the article talk page first. --&gt;
| birth_place = [[Florence]], Republic of Florence {{small|(abhi ke Italy)}}
| death_date = {{death date |1510|5|17|1445|||mf=y}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Sandro Botticelli – Biography and Legacy |url=https://www.theartstory.org/artist/botticelli-sandro/life-and-legacy/ | website=theartstory.org}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Botticelli in the Florence of Lorenzo the Magnificent | first1=Bruce |last1=Edelstein |publisher=[[Sotheby's]] |date=Dec 21, 2020 | url=https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/botticelli-in-the-florence-of-lorenzo-the-magnificent}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
| death_place = Florence, Republic of Florence
| nationality = Italian
| field = Painting
| training = Filippo Lippi
| movement = [[Italian Renaissance]]
| works = ''Primavera'' &lt;br&gt; ''The Birth of Venus''&lt;br&gt;''The Adoration of the Magi'' &lt;br&gt; Duusra kaam
| patrons = 
| influenced = 
| awards = 
|module={{Infobox person|child=yes
| signature    = Botticelli Sandro 1444-1510 01 deWP.jpg}}
}}
[[File:Venus botticelli detail.jpg|thumb|245px|Botticelli ke sab se jaada famous kaam,&lt;ref&gt;Ettlingers, 134; Legouix, 118.&lt;/ref&gt; ''The Birth of Venus'' ({{circa|1484–1486}})]]

'''Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi''' ({{circa|[[1445]]}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Ettl&quot;/&gt; – [[17 May]], [[1510]]), jiske jaada kar ke '''Sandro Botticelli''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|b|ɒ|t|ɪ|ˈ|tʃ|ɛ|l|i}} {{respell|BOT|ih|CHEL|ee}}; {{IPA|it|ˈsandro bottiˈtʃɛlli|lang}}) nai to khaali '''Botticelli''' ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa, ek  Italian chitrkaar of the Early Renaissance rahaa. Botticelli ke mare ke baad uske kaam ke baare me koi jaanat nai rahaa   late 19th century talak, jab uske Pre-Raphaelites fir se paais rahaa, jiske kaaran uske kaam ke fir se dekha gais rahaa. 

Mythological subjects ke alaawa, jiske khaatir uske aaj jaana jaawe hae, Botticelli dher dharmik subject pe chitr banais hae (jisme darjano  ''Madonna and Child'' ke rendition hae, dher golaa [[tondo (art)|tondo]] shape) aur kuchh portraits hae. Uske sab se jaada jaana jawe waala kaam hae ''The Birth of Venus'' aur ''Primavera'', duuno [[Uffizi]] aur [[Florence]] me, jahan pe which Botticelli ke dher kaam ke rakkhaa gais hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;National Gallery of Art-2003&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |editor-last=Boskovits |editor-first=Miklós |title=Italian Paintings of the Fifteenth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/italianpaintings0000nati_u1i5 |date=2003 |publisher=National Gallery of Art |isbn=0-89468-305-5 |location=Washington |oclc=52687917}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Botticelli aapan jiandagi bhar  Florence me ek jagha rahis rahaa; uske duusra jagha jahaan pe uu kuchh time spend karis rahaa me rahaa [[Pisa]] 1474 me aur [[Sistine Chapel]] Rome me 1481–82 me.&lt;ref&gt;Ettlingers, 199; Lightbown, 53, on the Pisa work, which does not survive.&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1445|1510|Botticelli, Sandro}}

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    <title>Canaletto</title>
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| name          = Canaletto
| image         = Giovanni Antonio Canal.jpg
| birth_name    = Giovanni Antonio Canal
| birth_date    = {{birth date|1697|10|18|df=y}}
| birth_place   = [[Venice]], Venetian Republic
| death_date    = {{death date and age|1768|4|19|1697|10|17|df=y}}
| death_place   = [[Venice]], Venetian Republic (abhi ke Italy)
| nationality   = [[Venice|Venetian]]
| known_for     = [[Landscape art]], [[etching]]
| training      = [[Luca Carlevaris]]
| notable_works = ''[[The Stonemason's Yard]]''
| parents       = [[Bernardo Canal]]&lt;br&gt;Artemisia Barbieri
| patrons       = [[Owen Swiny]]&lt;br&gt;[[Joseph Smith (1682–1770)|Joseph Smith]]
| signature        = Canaletto autograph.png
}}

'''Giovanni Antonio Canal''' ([[18 October]] [[1697]]&amp;nbsp;– [[19 April]] [[1768]]),&lt;ref name=&quot;Pedrocco&quot;&gt;{{cite book| author = Filippo Pedrocco| title = Canaletto| url = https://archive.org/details/canaletto0000pedr| year = 1995| publisher = Giunti Editore| isbn = 978-88-09-76198-8 }}&lt;/ref&gt; jiske jaada kar ke '''Canaletto''' ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa({{IPA|it|kanaˈletto|lang}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dipionline.it/dizionario/ricerca?lemma=canaletto|title=Canaletto|work=DiPI Online|author=[[Luciano Canepari]]|access-date=17 March 2021|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt;), [[Italy]] ke ek chitrkaar,  Republic of Venice se rahaa, jiske  18th-century [[Venetian school (art)|Venetian school]] ke khaas member maana jaawe hae.

Canaletto, cityscapes ke chaapa banawat rahaa; [[Venice]], [[Rome]], aur [[London]] ke, uu banaawat chaapa bhi baanaat rahaa , lekin aslii aur banaawat chij ke chitr ke biich me koi antar nai dekhai de hae.&lt;ref name=oz&gt;Alice Binion and Lin Barton. &quot;Canaletto.&quot; Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 6 Jan. 2017&lt;/ref&gt; Uu ek printer bhi rahaa jon [[etching]] technique ke kaam me laawat rahaa. 1746 se 1756 talak uu, [[England]] me kaam karat rahaa, jahan pe uu dher jagha ke paint karis, jisme  [[Warwick Castle]] aur [[Alnwick Castle]] hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Constable|first1=William G|title=Canaletto|url=http://global.britannica.com/biography/Canaletto|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske  England me safaltaa milaa, jiske khaas kaaran  British merchant aur connoisseur [[Joseph Smith (1682–1770)|Joseph &quot;Consul&quot; Smith]] rahaa, jiske Canaletto ke kaam ke ek barraa collection ke   King [[George III]] ke 1762 me becha gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=oz/&gt;

{{BD|1697|1768|Canaletto}}

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| name             = Andrea Mantegna
| image            = Mantegna Bronze Bust San Andrea Mantua.png
| imagesize        = 
| caption          = Andrea Mantegna ke murti jiske Gian Marco Cavalli&lt;br/&gt; banais rahaa&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Decker |first=Heinrich |title=The Renaissance in Italy: Architecture • Sculpture • Frescoes |url=https://archive.org/details/renaissanceinita0000deck |year=1969 |orig-year=1967 |publisher=The Viking Press |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/renaissanceinita0000deck/page/109 109]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| birth_name       = Andrea Mantegna
| birth_date       = {{circa|1431|lk=no}}
| birth_place      = Isola di Carturo, Venetian Republic&lt;br/&gt; (abhi ke Italy)
| death_date       = {{death date |1506|9|13|1431||}}
| death_place      = [[Mantua]] (now Italy)
| spouse           = Nicolosia Bellini
| field            = [[Painting]], [[fresco]]
| training         = [[Francesco Squarcione]]
| movement         = [[Italian Renaissance]]
| works            = ''St. Sebastian'' &lt;br&gt; Camera degli Sposi &lt;br&gt; ''The Agony in the Garden'' &lt;br&gt; ''The Lamentation over the Dead Christ''
| patrons          = 
}}
[[File:Andrea Mantegna 014.jpg|thumb|''St. Sebastian'', 1480; panel; Musée du Louvre]]

'''Andrea Mantegna''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|m|æ|n|ˈ|t|ɛ|n|j|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|US|m|ɑː|n|ˈ|t|eɪ|n|j|ə}};&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20190601161444/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Mantegna,_Andrea &quot;Mantegna, Andrea&quot;] (US) and {{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Mantegna,+Andrea |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116174903/https://www.lexico.com/definition/mantegna,_andrea |url-status=dead |archive-date=2021-11-16 |title=Mantegna, Andrea |dictionary=Lexico UK English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{IPA|it|anˈdrɛːa manˈteɲɲa|lang}}; {{circa|[[1431]]}}{{snd}}[[13 September]], [[1506]]) ek [[Italian Renaissance painter]],  [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] archaeology ke student, aur [[Jacopo Bellini]] ke damaad rahaa.

{{BD|1431|1506|Mantegna, Andrea}}

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| name = Andrea del Sarto
| image = Sarto, Andrea del - Self-portrait - Uffizi.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = ''Apne se banaawa gais chhaapa,'' 1528, Uffizi, Florence
| birth_name = Andrea d'Agnolo di Francesco di Luca
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1486|7|16}}
| birth_place = [[Florence]], Republic of Florence {{small|(abhi ke [[Italy]])}}
| death_date = {{death date |df=y|1530|9|29|1486|7|16}}
| death_place = Florence, Republic of Florence {{small|(abhi ke Italy)}}
| nationality = [[Republic of Florence|Tuscan]]&lt;br /&gt;Italian
| field = [[Painting]]
| movement = [[High Renaissance]] &lt;br&gt; [[Mannerism]]
| works = ''Madonna of the Harpies'' &lt;br&gt; ''Nativity of the Virgin''
}}

'''Andrea del Sarto''' ({{IPAc-en|US|ɑː|n|ˌ|d|r|eɪ|ə|_|d|ɛ|l|_|ˈ|s|ɑːr|t|oʊ}}, {{IPAc-en|UK|æ|n|ˌ|-}}, {{IPA|it|anˈdrɛːa del ˈsarto|lang}}; [[16 July]] [[1486]] – [[29 September]] [[1530]]), [[Florence]] se ek [[List of Italian painters|Italian painter]] rahaa, jiske career  [[High Renaissance]] aur early [[Mannerism]] ke time flourish bhais rahaa. Sarto ke ek outstanding fresco decorator, altarpieces ke chitrkaar, portraitist, draughtsman, aur colorist se jaana jaawat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=Oxford Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Arts|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate00norw|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0198691372|location=USA|pages=16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sarto ke uske jindagi me ek chitrkaar bina mistake ke jaana jaawat rahaa, lekin uske maut ke baad duusra famous chitrkaar, jaise  [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]], aur [[Raphael]] ke jaada yaad karaa jaawe hae.

{{BD|1486|1530|Sarto, Andrea del}}

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| name             = J. M. W. Turner
| honorific_suffix = 
| image            = Joseph Mallord William Turner auto-retrato.jpg
| image_size       = 220
| caption          = ''Self-Portrait'', oil on canvas, {{circa|1799}}
| birth_name       = Joseph Mallord William Turner
| birth_date       = {{Birth date|1775|04|23|df=y}}
| birth_place      = London, England
| death_date       = {{Death date and age|1851|12|19|1775|04|23|df=yes}}
| death_place      = London, England
| field            = Paintings
| training         = [[Royal Academy of Arts]]
| movement         = [[Romanticism]]
| patrons          = 
| resting_place    = [[St Paul's Cathedral]]
| notable_works    = {{Unbulleted list|''The Fighting Temeraire''&lt;br/&gt;|''Rain, Steam and Speed''&lt;br/&gt;|''The Slave Ship''&lt;br/&gt;|''Snow Storm''}}
| module           = {{Infobox person|child=yes
| signature        = William turner.svg}}
}}

'''Joseph Mallord William Turner'''  ([[23 April]] [[1775]]{{snd}}[[19 December]] [[1851]]), jiske uske time '''William Turner''' ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa, ek [[England|English]] [[Romanticism|Romantic]] chitrkaar, [[Printmaking|printmaker]] aur [[Watercolor painting|watercolourist]] rahaa. Turner ke uske  expressive colouring, imaginative [[landscape painting|landscapes]] aur turbulent, jaada kar ke violent [[Marine art|marine]] chitrkaar ke khaatir jaana jaawe hae. Uske  artistic style, jiske uu jindagi bhar develop karis rahaa Romanticism se duur rahaa — [[Realism (art movement)|Realism]] ke bypass karis—aur, iske jagha, uske baad ke kaam  significant precursor of and presaging the later [[Impressionist]] and [[Abstract Art]] movements that arose in the decades after his death, rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title= Biographical Encyclopedia |url= https://archive.org/details/cambridgebiograp00davi |publisher= Cambridge University Press |editor=David Crystal|year=1998 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-521-63099-3 |language=en |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgebiograp00davi/page/943 943]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu aapan pichhe 550 oil paintings, 2,000 watercolours, and 30,000 works on paper chhorr gais hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Turner Society Homepage&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Turner Society Homepage |url=http://www.turnersociety.org.uk/ |access-date=27 November 2011 |archive-date=13 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113102534/http://www.turnersociety.org.uk/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske kaam ke  leading English art critic [[John Ruskin]] 1840 se promote karis rahaa, aur uske aaj-kal as having elevated landscape painting to an eminence rivaling [[history painting]], ke khaatir jaana jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine| quote=At the turn of the 18th century, history painting was the highest purpose art could serve, and Turner would attempt those heights all his life. But his real achievement would be to make landscape the equal of history painting.| last=Lacayo| first=Richard| title=The Sunshine Boy| magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1670528,00.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012172424/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1670528,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=12 October 2007| date=11 October 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1775|1851|Turner, J.M.W.}}

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    <title>Kazimir Malevich</title>
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| name             = Kazimir Malevich
| native_name      = {{nobold|Казимир Малевич}}
| native_name_lang = ru
| image            = Casimir Malevich photo.jpg
| image_upright    = 0.8
| caption          = Kazimir Malevich ke chhaapa, circa 1925
| birth_name       = 
| birth_date       = {{Birth date|1879|2|23|df=y}}
| birth_place      = Kiev, Russia&lt;br /&gt;(now [[Kyiv]], Ukraine)
| death_date       = {{Death date and age|1935|5|15|1879|2|23|df=y}}
| death_place      = [[Leningrad]], [[Russia]], Soviet Union 
| nationality      = {{ubl|Russian Empire (1879–1917)|Soviet Union (1922–1935)}}
| field            = 
| training         = Moscow School of Painting,&lt;br/&gt; Sculpture and Architecture
| movement         = [[Suprematism]]
| works            = ''An Englishman in Moscow'', 1914;&lt;br/&gt; ''Black Square'', 1915; ''White on White'', 1918
}}

'''Kazimir Severinovich Malevich'''{{#tag:ref| {{IPA|ru|kəzʲɪˈmʲir sʲɪvʲɪˈrʲinəvʲɪtɕ mɐˈlʲevʲɪtɕ|}};  {{IPA|uk|kɐzɪˈmɪr seweˈrɪnowɪtʃ mɐˈlɛwɪtʃ|}}.|}} [[23 February]] [[1879]]&lt;ref name=&quot;cdiak&quot;&gt;[https://archive.today/20180224120738/https://scontent.fiev6-1.fna.fbcdn.net/v/t1.0-9/28056606_1790253897693917_6692642840115314311_n.jpg?oh=a3effcc7af1b07734caef53705ae155b&amp;oe=5B0365CD Запись о рождении в метрической книге римско-католического костёла св. Александра в Киеве, 1879 год] // ЦГИАК Украины,  ф. 1268, оп. 1, д. 26, л. 13об—14.&lt;!--https://scontent.fiev6-1.fna.fbcdn.net/v/t1.0-9/28056606_1790253897693917_6692642840115314311_n.jpg?oh=a3effcc7af1b07734caef53705ae155b&amp;oe=5B0365CD--&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; – [[15 May]] [[1935]]) ek [[Russian avant-garde]]{{#tag:ref|Malevich's nationality has been a matter of scholarly dispute. However, most art historians consider Malevich—who was born in the Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine) and who worked in the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union for most of his life—a Russian avant-garde artist. For further information on recent debates regarding the artist's nationality, particularly in the aftermath of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, see the [[#Nationality and ethnicity|Nationality and ethnicity]] section.}} chitrkaar aur  [[Aesthetics|art theorist]] rahaa, jiske pioneering kaam aur lekh  [[abstract art]] ke 20th century me influence karis rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Schwartz p. 84&quot;&gt;Milner and Malevich 1996, p. X; Néret 2003, p. 7; Shatskikh and Schwartz, p. 84.&lt;/ref&gt; Uske janam [[Kyiv|Kiev]] me, abhi ke [[Ukraine]] me, ek [[Polish people|ethnic Polish]] palwaar me bhais rahaa. Uske [[Suprematism]] ke concept sought to develop a form of expression that moved as far as possible from the world of natural forms (objectivity) and subject matter in order to access &quot;the supremacy of pure feeling&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Malevich Non&quot;&gt;Malevich, Kazimir. ''The Non-Objective World'', Chicago: Theobald, 1959.&lt;/ref&gt; and spirituality.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Chave|first1=Anna|title=Mark Rothko: Subjects in Abstraction|year=1989|url=https://archive.org/details/markrothkosubjec0000chav|publisher=Yale University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/markrothkosubjec0000chav/page/191 191]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Hamilton|first1=George|title=Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1880–1940, Volume 29|publisher=Yale University Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; Malevich jaada kar ke Russia me kaam karis rahaa aur   [[UNOVIS]] artist collective ke suruu kare waala rahaa. Uske kaam ke kabhi-kabhi Russian avant-garde ke rakam aur kabhi-kabhi [[Ukrainian avant-garde]] ke rakam bataawa gais rahaa, aur uu Central and Eastern Europe ke modern art ke khaas jan hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Schulz |first=Bernhard |date=2014-05-31 |title=It's complicated: Tate on Kazimir Malevich and the West |url=https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2014/06/01/its-complicated-tate-on-kazimir-malevich-and-the-west |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=The Art Newspaper |archive-date=19 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319000405/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2014/06/01/its-complicated-tate-on-kazimir-malevich-and-the-west |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1879|1935|Malevich, Kazimir}}

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    <title>Grant Wood</title>
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| name          = Grant Wood
| image         = Grant Wood.jpg
| image_upright = 1
| caption       = ''Apne ke chhaapa'', 1932
| birth_name    = Grant DeVolson Wood
| birth_date    = {{birth date|1891|2|13}}
| birth_place   = [[Anamosa, Iowa]], U.S.
| death_date    = {{death date and age|1942|2|12|1891|2|13}}
| death_place   = [[Iowa City, Iowa]], U.S.
| relatives     = [[Nan Wood Graham]] (sister)
| field         = Painting, architect
| training      = [[School of the Art Institute of Chicago]]
| movement      = [[Regionalism (art)|Regionalism]]
| works         = ''[[American Gothic]]''
| signature     = Wood Grant autograph.png
}}

'''Grant DeVolson Wood''' ([[13 February]], [[1891]]{{spnd}}[[12 February]], [[1942]]) ek [[America]]n chitrkaar rahaa aur Regionalism ke represent karat rahaa, ke khaas kar ke jaana jaawe hae uske painting jon  rural American [[Midwest]] ke dekhae hae. Uske aur jaada ''[[American Gothic]]'' (1930) khaatir jaana jaawe hae, jon 20th century ke suruuwaat ke American [[art]] ke ek iconic example maana jaawe hae.

==Jawaani ke din==
[[File:Grant wood boyhood home.jpg|thumb|Grant Wood ke bachpan ke ghar Cedar Rapids, [[Iowa]] me, jiske most endangered historic sites in Iowa me listed hae.&lt;ref&gt;[[Preservation Iowa]], [http://www.preservationiowa.org/programs/endangeredArchive.php?endangered_year=2008 2008 Most Endangered Properties] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105095015/http://www.preservationiowa.org/programs/endangeredArchive.php?endangered_year=2008 |date=January 5, 2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;|left]]
Wood ke janam rural [[Iowa]], 4&amp;nbsp;mi (6.43&amp;nbsp;km) Anamosa ke east me , on February 13, 1891 me bhais rahaa. Uu Hattie DeEtte Wood (''[[née]]'' Weaver) aur Francis Maryville Wood ke larrka rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/444481|doi = 10.1086/444481|title = Grant Wood's Family Album|year = 2005|last1 = Taylor|first1 = Sue|journal = American Art|volume = 19|issue = 2|pages = 48–67|s2cid = 222326516|url-access = subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://uipress.lib.uiowa.edu/bdi/DetailsPage.aspx?id=416|title = Details Page - the Biographical Dictionary of Iowa - the University of Iowa Libraries}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hattie aapan palwaar ke Cedar Rapids lae gais jab 1901 me  Francis mar gais rahaa. Iske thorraa din baad, Wood ek local metal shop me apprentiship suruu karis rahaa. Washington High School se graduate hoe ke baad, uu The Handicraft Guild, ek art school jiske [[Minneapolis]]  me puura aurat log chalaawat rahin, me enrol bhais rahaa. 

1913 me, Wood , School of the Art Institute of Chicago me bbharti bhais rahaa, jahaan pe uu   1913 se 1916 talak parrhis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=A History of Influence {{!}} School of the Art Institute of Chicago |url=https://www.saic.edu/why-saic/history-influence |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=www.saic.edu |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Wood, kuchh silversmith ke kaam bhi karis rahaa.  

==Career==
[[World War I]] ke khalaas hoe talak, Wood, [[United States]] army ke join kar liis rahaa, jisme uu chitrkaar ke ke kaam karat rahaa aur  camouflage scenes aur duusra art ke design karat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Artist Info|url=https://www.nga.gov/collection/artist-info.1982.html|access-date=2021-07-02|website=www.nga.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1919 se 1925 talak, Wood junior high school students ke,  Cedar Rapids public school system, me art parrhais rahaa. Ii kaam se uske financial stability milaa, aur ii seasonal kaam ke kaaran uu summer me [[Europe]] jaawat rahaa, art ke study kare ke khaatir.   1923–1924 school year me, Wood chhutti lae ke puura saal Europe me rahaa.  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Dennis |first=James M |title=Grant Wood; A Study in American Art and Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/grantwoodstudyin0000denn |publisher=Viking Press |year=1975 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/grantwoodstudyin0000denn/page/27 27]–28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jab uu parrhaat rahaa, tab  Wood  woodworking aur metalworking se experiment karis rahaa. Jaise, uu ek bench banais rahaa jisme larrkan bauth ke Principal se punishment ke wait karat rahin, jiske Woos ''Mourner's Bench'' naam diis rahaa, ek humorous reference mourner's bench ke jiske   [[Methodist]] churches me kaam me laawa jaae hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Shunnarah |first1=Mandy |title=10 Pieces of Unexpected Art from Historic Artists' Homes and Studios |url=https://savingplaces.org/stories/10-unexpected-art-hahs |publisher=National Trust for Historic Preservation |date=April 29, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

1924 se 1935 talak, Wood aapan maiyaa ke saathe rahat rahaa ek carriage house in Cedar Rapids me ke hayloft me, jiske uu badal ke uske  personal studio at &quot;5 Turner Alley&quot; (ii sudio ke koi address nai rahaa, jab tak Wood ek ke banais nai rahaa) banais rahaa.

{{BD|1891|1941|Wood, Grant}}

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    <title>Christopher Wren</title>
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      <text bytes="4412" sha1="7otlvqdwnoenjw65w6jewk92xp8o1mz" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox scientist
| honorific_prefix  = [[Sir]]
| name              = Christopher Wren
| honorific_suffix  = {{postnominals|country=GBR|PRS|size=100%}}
| image             = Christopher_Wren_by_Godfrey_Kneller_1711.jpg
| caption           = ''[[Portrait of Sir Christopher Wren]]'' (1711)
| birth_date        = [[30 October]] [[1632]]
| birth_place       = [[East Knoyle]], Wiltshire, England
| death_date        = [[8 March]] [[1723]]&lt;br&gt;(aged&lt;!-- All discussions on his age are here: Talk:Christopher_Wren/Archive_2#Age_at_death_discrepancy --&gt; 90)
| death_place       = [[St James's]], London, England
| resting_place     = St Paul's Cathedral, London
| field             = [[Architecture]], [[physics]], [[astronomy]], [[mathematics]]
| academic_advisors = [[William Oughtred]]
| notable_students  = 
| workplaces        = [[All Souls' College, Oxford]]
| alma_mater        = [[Wadham College, Oxford]]
| party             = [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]]
| known_for         = Designer of [[List of Christopher Wren churches in London|54 London churches]], including [[St Paul's Cathedral]], as well as many notable secular buildings in London after the [[Great Fire of London|Great Fire]]
| spouse            = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Faith Coghill|1669|1675|end=died}}
* {{marriage|Jane Fitzwilliam|1677|1680|reason=died}}
}}
| children          = 4
| parents           = [[Christopher Wren (priest)|Christopher Wren the Elder]] &lt;br/&gt; Mary Cox
| module            = {{Infobox officeholder| embed = yes
 | office           = [[Surveyor of the King's Works]]
 | term_start       = 1669
 | term_end         = 1718
 | predecessor      = [[John Denham (poet)|John Denham]]
 | successor        = [[William Benson (architect)|William Benson]]
 | office2          = President of the Royal Society
 | order2           = 3rd
 | term_start2      = 1680
 | term_end2        = 1682
 | predecessor2     = [[Joseph Williamson (English politician)|Joseph Williamson]]
 | successor2       = [[Sir John Hoskyns, 2nd Baronet|John Hoskyns]]
 | office3          = Member of the [[English Parliament]]
  | suboffice3      = [[Weymouth and Melcombe Regis (UK Parliament constituency)|Weymouth and Melcombe Regis]]
  | subterm3        = 1701–1702
  | suboffice4      = [[New Windsor (UK Parliament constituency)|New Windsor]]
  | subterm4        = {{daterangedash|6 March 1690|17 May 1690|dmy}}&lt;br &gt;{{daterangedash|11 January 1689|14 May 1689|dmy}}
  | suboffice5      = [[Plympton Erle (UK Parliament constituency)|Plympton Erle]]
  | subterm5        = 1685–1687
}}
}}

'''Sir Christopher Wren''' &lt;small&gt;[[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] &lt;/small&gt; ({{IPAc-en|r|ɛ|n}};&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Wells |first=John C. |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia0000unse |publisher=Longman |edition=3rd |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia0000unse/page/908 908] |isbn=9781405881180}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[30 October]] [[1632]] – [[8 March]] [[1723]])&lt;ref name=&quot;britannica&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sir Christopher Wren {{!}} English architect |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christopher-Wren |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=31 August 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; ek English architect, astronomer, mathematician aur physicist rahaa, jon one of the most highly acclaimed architects in the [[history of England]] rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;britannica&quot;/&gt; Wren ke uske [[English Baroque architecture|English Baroque]] style ke khaatir jaana jaawat rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;britannica&quot;/&gt; Uske 1666 me London ke Great Fire ke baad  [[List of Christopher Wren churches in London|52 churches]]  ke banae ke responsibility dew gais rahaa.aur [[St Paul's Cathedral]],  [[Ludgate Hill]] pe, jiske 1710 me khalaas karaa gais rahaa, ke ek masterpiece jaana jaawat rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.stpauls.co.uk/6-western-towers-c-1685-1710 |title=6. The western towers, c.1685–1710 – St Paul's Cathedral |website=Stpauls.co.uk |access-date=23 January 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Sir Christopher Wren (1632–1723) |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/wren_christopher.shtml |language=en-GB |access-date=31 August 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BD|1632|1723|Wren, Christopher}}

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  <page>
    <title>Maratha Samrajya</title>
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      <text bytes="16013" sha1="ralm9lssxfe8h3ri7cdykwwjrcdycwr" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox country
| image_flag             = Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg
| alt_flag               = [[Bhagwa Dhwaj|Flag]]
| flag_border            = no
| image_coat             = Seal of Shivaji.png
| symbol_type            = [[Shivaji I]] ke royal seal
| conventional_long_name = Maratha Empire&lt;br&gt;{{small|Maratha Confederacy}}
| native_name            = 
| common_name            = Marathas
| year_start             = 1674
| year_end               = 1818
| date_event6            = 5 November 1817 – 9 April 1819
| event_end              = Dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy
| event_start            = Coronation of [[Shivaji]]
| date_start             = 6 June
| event1                 = [[Deccan Wars]]
| date_event1            = 1680–1707
| event2                 = Recognition of [[Shahu I]] as the legitimate ruler by {{nowrap|[[Bahadur Shah I]]}}
| date_event2            = 3 August 1707
| event3                 = Appointment of [[Balaji Vishwanath]] as hereditary [[Peshwa]]
| date_event3            = 16 November 1713&lt;ref&gt;Kincaid &amp; Parasnis, p.156&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Haig L|first1=t-Colonel Sir Wolseley|title=The Cambridge History of India|volume= 3 (III). Turks and Afghans|date=1967|publisher=Cambridge University press|location=Cambridge UK|isbn=9781343884571|pages=394|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoI8AAAAIAAJ&amp;q=%22SAyYID+BROTHERS%22+balaji+vishwanath&amp;pg=PA1|access-date=12 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| event4                 = [[Treaty of Bhopal]]
| date_event4            = 7 January 1738
| event5                 = [[Afghan–Maratha War]]
| date_event5            = 8 March 1758 – 14 January 1761
| event6                 = [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]
| p1                     = Mughal Empire
| p2                     = Adil Shahi dynasty{{!}}Bijapur Sultanate
| s1                     = Company Raj
| today                  = {{ubl|[[India]] | [[Pakistan]]}}
| image_map              = India1760 1905.jpg
| map_width              = 250px
| image_map_caption      = The Maratha Empire in 1760
| motto                  =[[Hara Hara Mahadeva|Har Har Mahādēv]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Madan |first=T. N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_qMH9PY9fQC&amp;pg=PA360 |title=Way of Life: King, Householder, Renouncer : Essays in Honour of Louis Dumont |date=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-0527-9 |page=360 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Chattopadhyaya |first=Sudhakar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CmaewdodLZQC&amp;pg=PA75 |title=Reflections on the Tantras |date=1978 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0691-7 |page=75 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| englishmotto           = ([[English language|English]]: &quot;Praises to [[Shiva|Mahādēv (Shiva)]]&quot;)
| capital                = '''Royal seat:'''{{plainlist|
*[[Raigad Fort|Raigad]] (1674–1708, {{nowrap|''de jure''}})
*[[Gingee Fort|Jinji]] (1691–1698, {{nowrap|''de facto''}})
*[[Satara (city)|Satara]] (1708–1818)}}&lt;hr&gt;'''Peshwa's seat:'''&lt;br&gt;[[Poona]] (1728–1818)
| official_languages     = {{plainlist|
*[[Marathi language|Marathi]] (court language, literature)
*[[Sanskrit]] (religious)}}
| religion               = '''State religion:'''&lt;br /&gt;[[Hinduism]]
----'''Other:'''&lt;br /&gt;[[Religion in South Asia|Other religions in South Asia]]
| status                 = 
| government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]] (1674–1731)&lt;br /&gt;[[Federation|Federal]] [[aristocracy]] with a restricted monarchial [[figurehead]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesFarEast/India_EarlyModern_Marathas11.htm | title=Maratha Aristocracy: The Scindias of Gwalior }}&lt;/ref&gt; (1731–1818)
| title_leader           = [[Chhatrapati]]
| leader1                = [[Shivaji I]]
| year_leader1           = 1674–1680 &lt;small&gt;(first)&lt;/small&gt;
| leader3                = [[Pratap Singh, Raja of Satara|Pratap Singh]]
| year_leader3           = 1808–1818 &lt;small&gt;(last)&lt;/small&gt;
| title_deputy           = [[Peshwa]]
| deputy1                = [[Moropant Trimbak Pingle|Moropant Pingle]]
| year_deputy1           = 1674–1683 &lt;small&gt;(first)&lt;/small&gt;
| deputy2                = [[Baji Rao II]]
| year_deputy2           = 1803–1818 &lt;small&gt;(last)&lt;/small&gt;
| year_deputy3           = 1858–1859
| deputy3                = [[Nana Saheb Peshwa II|Nana Saheb]] (claimed titular)
| legislature            = [[Ashta Pradhan]]
| stat_area1             = 2500000
| stat_year1             = 1760
| ref_area1              = &lt;ref name=&quot;OxfordArea&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last1=Bang|first1=Peter Fibiger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mkLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA92|title=The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience|last2=Bayly|first2=C. A.|last3=Scheidel|first3=Walter|year=2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-977311-4|pages=92–94|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| currency               = [[Rupee]], [[Paisa]], [[Mohur]], [[Shivrai]], Hon
}}
'''Maratha Samrajya''',&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Upton |first1=Clive |title=The Routledge dictionary of pronunciation for current English |last2=Kretzschmar |first2=William A. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-12566-7 |edition=2nd |location=London; New York |pages=803}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Pronouncing dictionary of proper names: pronunciations for more than 28,000 proper names, selected for currency, frequency, or difficulty of pronunciation |url=https://archive.org/details/pronouncingdicti00boll |date=1998 |publisher=Omnigraphics |isbn=978-0-7808-0098-4 |editor-last=Bollard |editor-first=John K. |edition=2nd |location=Detroit, Mich |pages=[https://archive.org/details/pronouncingdicti00boll/page/633 633]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Upton |first1=Clive |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm46433686 |title=The Oxford dictionary of pronunciation for current English |last2=Kretzschmar |first2=William A. |last3=Konopka |first3=Rafal |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-863156-9 |location=Oxford |pages=622 |oclc=ocm46433686}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{IPA|mr|məˈɾaːʈʰaː}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=O'Hanlon |first=Rosalind |title=Maratha Empire |date=2016 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire |pages=1–7 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe357 |access-date= |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd |language=en |doi= 10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe357|isbn=978-1-118-45507-4|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Guha |first=Sumit |title=The Maratha Empire |date=2019-12-23 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History |url=https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-356 |access-date= |language=en |doi= |isbn=978-0-19-027772-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Vendell |first=Dominic |date=2021-11-26 |title=Transacting Politics in the Maratha Empire: An Agreement between Friends, 1795 |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=64 |issue=5–6 |pages=826–863 |doi=10.1163/15685209-12341554 |issn=1568-5209 |quote=The secretaries Sridhar Lakshman and Krishnarao Madhav managed the communications of the Maratha ruler at Nagpur, while their partner, the merchant-moneylender Baburao Viswanath Vaidya, was the envoy of the Pune-based Peshwa, a powerful Brahmin minister and leader of the allied states comprising the Maratha Empire. |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/125607}}&lt;/ref&gt; jiske '''Maratha Confederacy''' ke naam se bhi jaana jaawe hae, ek [[early modern India|early modern]] samrajya  [[Indian subcontinent]] me rahaa. Isme [[Peshwa]] ke ilaaka aur chaar khaas ajaad [[List of Maratha dynasties and states|Maratha states]] rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Western India in the Nineteenth Century: A Study in the Social History of Maharashtra|first=Ravinder|last=Kumar|date=2013|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-03146-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1djYAQAAQBAJ|quote=Prominent among these chiefs were the Bhonsles who established themselves in Nagpur; the Scindhias who gained control of Gwalior; the Gaekwads who set themselves up in Baroda; and the Holkars who seized hold of Indore. Between the Peshwas and the Maratha chiefs there subsisted a relationship which it is most difficult to define. The chiefs were to all intents and purposes independent, yet they recognised the Peshwa as the head of the Maratha polity}}&lt;/ref&gt; jon sab Peshwa ke  nominal leadership ke niche rahaa.

Marathas log [[Marathi bhasa|Marathi]]- me baat kare waala  western [[Deccan Plateau]] (abhi ke [[Maharashtra]])  ke rahin jon  [[Shivaji]] (17th century) ke niche,  [[Bijapur Sultanate]] aur [[Mughal Empire]] se revolt kar ke  &quot;[[Hindavi Swarajya]]&quot; banae rahin. [[Aurangzeb|Emperor Aurangzeb]] ke attitude non-Muslims ke bagal ke kaaran dher [[Kafir|non-Muslim]]s khusi nai rahin, aur  [[Deccan wars|Maratha insurgency]] suruu bhais rahaa jisse des pe dhan aur aadmi ke dher kharchaa rahaa. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Osborne |first=Eric W. |date=2020-07-03 |title=The Ulcer of the Mughal Empire: Mughals and Marathas, 1680–1707 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711 |journal=Small Wars &amp; Insurgencies |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=988–1009 |doi=10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711 |s2cid=221060782 |issn=0959-2318|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Clingingsmith |first1=David |last2=Williamson |first2=Jeffrey G. |date=2008-07-01 |title=Deindustrialization in 18th and 19th century India: Mughal decline, climate shocks and British industrial ascent |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014498307000447 |journal=Explorations in Economic History |language=en |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=209–234 |doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2007.11.002 |issn=0014-4983|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; Maratha sarkar me   warriors, administrators, aur duusra [[Marathi people|Marathi]] groups ke nobles rahin.&lt;ref name=&quot;kantak78&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Kantak |first=M.R.|title=The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of the Shivaji's Swarajya |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |date=1978 |volume=38 |issue=1 |page=44 |jstor=42931051}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shivaji ke monarchy, ke Maratha Samrajya, bola jaawe hae&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-kanqrtVhYC&amp;dq=%22maratha+kingdom%22&amp;pg=PA1 |title=Anglo-Maratha Relations, 1785–96|volume= 2 |date= 1994 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-789-0 |quote=While the distracted Maratha kingdom of Aurangzeb's later ycars was fighting for survival, none could foresee that the insignificant British settlements of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta would one day become the political and economic bases of a vast empire.}}&lt;/ref&gt; jon [[18th century]] me dher barr gais rahaa,  Peshwa [[Bajirao I]] neta ke niche. Marathas,   [[Shahu I]] ke time se  [[Mughal emperor]] ke aapan neta maane rahin, uutime ke duusra  Indian states ke rakam, lekin asliyat me, [[Government of the Mughal Empire|Mughal politics]] were ke jaada kar ke Maratha log 1737 aur 1803 ke biich me control karat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Raj and the Rajas : Money and Coinage in Colonial India|last=Garg|first=Sanjay|date=2022|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|isbn=978-1-000-82889-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0MudEAAAQBAJ|quote=From the Mughal point of view, the hostilities between the Company Bahadur and the Marathas could appear as a troublesome contest for power between the Imperial Diwan of Bengal and the Vakil-i Mutlaq or Imperial Regent. The actual participants of course were considerably more cynical of the position of the Emperor, both the English and Scindia treating their suzerain lord with scant respect..The paramount position of the Mughal within the rituals of supreme and sovereign authority may be amply demonstrated by reference to the coins of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Following the doctrine of khutba and sikka, new claimants to hegemony could be expected to be revealed on the coins of different jurisdictions. Yet for much of India they are not to be found. Reference to the graph at the end of this paper will confirm that both the Marathas and the British coined in the name of the Mughal.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mehta|2005|}}: &quot;Vishwanath consolidated the Maratha power in the Deccan and led an expeditionary force to Delhi (1718–19) as an ally of the Sayyad brothers. He made the Maratha presence felt at the metropolis for the first time, secured the release of Shahu's family members from Mughal captivity, and obtained the confirmation of the Mughal-Maratha Treaty of 1718 from the emperor. This treaty, by which Shahu accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Mughal Crown in return for his right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from all the six provinces of 'the Mughal Deccan'...Delhi became the hub of Maratha political and military activities with effect from 1752, and they used the Mughal emperor as a mere tool in their hands to wield the imperial powers in his name and under his nominal suzerainty.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author1=Vincent A. Smith |title=The Oxford History of India, Edited by Percival Spear |date=1981 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=492 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eev7zQEACAAJ |quote=&quot;We have seen that the Marathas rather than the Persians or Afghans were the successors of the Mughuls as the holders of imperial power. The Persian attempt proved to be nothing more than a high-sounding raid while the Afghans of Ahmad Shah Abdali lacked the resources to sustain and the genius to exploit their victory. The Maratha succession proved to be an abortive one, but they controlled a larger part of India for a longer period than anyone else during the Anglo-Mughul interregnum&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;

1707 me, Aurangzeb ke maut ke baad, Shivaji ke potaa [[Shahu I|Shahu]]  Peshwa Bajirao ke leadership ke niche,  Maratha taagat ke revive kar diis aur dher authority   Bhat palwaar ke diis rahaa, jon  hereditary [[peshwa]]s ([[prime minister]]s) ban gain. 1749 me uske maut ke baad, Bhatt palwaar raaj kare lagin. Agwai kare waala Maratha palwaar{{snd}}Scindia, Holkar, Bhonsle, aur Gaekwad{{snd}} aapan ilaake ke  northern aur me barrhain aur ajaad hoe gay rahin.   Marathas log ke jor se aage barrnaa ke uutime roka gais jab  [[Third Battle of Panipat|defeat of Panipat]] 1761 me,  [[Durrani Empire]] ke agaianr uulog ke haar hoe gais rahaa. Jawaan Peshwa [[Madhavrao I]] ke maut ke baad  Peshwa’s effective authority empire ke duusra chiefs ke uppar se khalaa hoe gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ghosh |first=D.K. Ed |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.149767 |title=A Comprehensive History Of India Vol. 9 |pages=512–523}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=New Cambridge History of India |url=http://archive.org/details/the-marathas-1600-1818-cambridge-history-of-india-vol.-2-part-4 |title=The Marathas – Cambridge History of India (Vol. 2, Part 4)}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Maratha confederacy {{!}} Maratha Empire, Peshwa, Shivaji {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maratha-confederacy |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |quote=The effective control of the peshwas ended with the great defeat of Panipat (1761) at the hands of the Afghans and the death of the young peshwa Madhav Rao I in 1772. Thereafter the Maratha state was a confederacy of five chiefs under the nominal leadership of the peshwa at Poona (now Pune) in western India. Though they united on occasion, as against the British (1775–82), more often they quarreled.}}&lt;/ref&gt; 1802 me jab  Holkar raaj-kul uulog ke harae diis rahaa,  Peshwa [[Baji Rao II]]  British [[East India Company]] se sahaetaa maangis, jiske kaaran Maratha confederacy 1818 me, [[Second Anglo-Maratha War|Second]] aur [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]s ke baad khalaas hoe gais rahaa.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[vibhag:M]]
[[vibhag:India ke samrajya]]
[[vibhag:1674 establishments]]
[[vibhag:1818 disestablishments]]</text>
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    <title>Pooja Misrra</title>
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      <text bytes="1777" sha1="6t11l8uzgqk544vgis35xj7h87l7mqn" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person|name=Pooja Misrra|image=Pooja Missra at The Aap Ki Awaz Award 2012 (6).jpg|caption=|birth_name=Pooja Misrra|birth_date=22 March 1984|birth_place=Munger, Bihar, India|nationality=Indian|occupation=Model, Television personality, VJ, Social Media Influencer|years_active=2010–present}}
'''Pooja Misra''' is an Indian model, television and media personality. She is known for appearing in various television shows in the 2010s such as [[:en:Bigg_Boss_(Hindi_TV_series)_season_5|''Bigg Boss 5'']] (2011). Known for her outspoken and aggressive behaviour, Misra is subject to various online controversies and her online posts and videos frequently spawn various viral memes worldwide over all social media platforms.&lt;ref&gt;https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/pooja-misrra-banned-from-entering-house/articleshow/50529895.cms&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://thecitycarnival.com/pooja-misra-global-impact-coachella/&lt;/ref&gt;

== Career ==
Pooja Misrra ne apna career modelling se shuru kiya. Baad me unhone Indian television ke kai reality shows me hissa liya. ''Bigg Boss 5'' me unki appearance ke baad wo media aur social media par kaafi popular ho gayin.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.pinkvilla.com/tv/updates/throwback-when-bigg-boss-5s-pooja-mishra-opened-up-about-family-reacting-on-pooja-what-is-this-behavior-meme-mother-was-like-1338001&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversies ==
''Bigg Boss 5'' ke dauran Pooja Misrra apne fellow contestants ke saath arguments aur confrontations ke liye jaani gayin, jiske kaaran unhe show se early eviction ka samna karna pada.&lt;ref&gt;https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/pooja-mishra-slaps-rs-100-cr-defamation-case-against-sunny-leone/&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==

* bigg boss 
* bhosdaverse

== References ==
{{reflist}}{{Authority control}}</text>
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      <text bytes="2311" sha1="lx8hcojdf4axo2dyjc4zd4rm6ids4mf" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox writer
| name             = Allen Ginsberg
| image            = Allen Ginsberg 1979 - cropped.jpg
| caption          = Ginsberg in 1979
| birth_name       = Irwin Allen Ginsberg
| birth_date       = {{Birth date|1926|6|3}}
| birth_place      = [[Newark, New Jersey]], U.S.
| death_date       = {{death date and age|1997|4|5|1926|6|3}}
| death_place      = New York City, U.S.
| education        = [[Montclair State University]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Columbia University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])&lt;br /&gt;[[University of California, Berkeley]]
| partner          = [[Peter Orlovsky]] (1954–1997)
| occupation       = {{hlist|Writer|poet}}
| movement         = [[Beat Generation|Beat literature]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Confessional poetry]]
| awards           = [[National Book Award]] (1974)&lt;br /&gt;[[Robert Frost Medal]] (1986)
| notablework     = &quot;[[Howl (poem)|Howl]]&quot;
| signature        = Allen Ginsberg signature.svg
}}
'''Irwin Allen Ginsberg''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ɪ|n|z|b|ɜːr|ɡ}}; [[3 June]], [[1926]]&amp;nbsp;– [[15 April]], [[1997]]) ek [[America]]n kavi aur lekhak rahaa. Jab uu [[Columbia University]] ke student rahaa, [[1940s]] me, uuu  [[Lucien Carr]], [[William S. Burroughs]] aur [[Jack Kerouac]] ke saathe dosti suruu karis rahaa, jisse [[Beat Generation]] ke jarr banaawa gais rahaa. Uu jor se [[militarism]], [[economic materialism]] aur [[sexual repression]] ke virod karis rahaa aur uu ii [[counterculture]] me biswas karat rahaa, jahaab pe uske nichaar   drugs, sex, [[multiculturalism]], hostility to [[bureaucracy]] aur openness to [[Eastern religions]] ke barrhaawa milaa rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;glbtq.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ginsberg, Allen (1926–1997) |url=http://www.glbtq.com/literature/ginsberg_a.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313003635/http://www.glbtq.com/literature/ginsberg_a.html |archive-date=March 13, 2007 |access-date=August 9, 2015 |website=[[glbtq.com]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ginsberg |first=Allen |title=Howl, Kaddish and Other Poems |url=https://archive.org/details/howlkaddishother0000unse |year= 2009 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] Ltd. |isbn=978-0-14-119016-7 |location=London |page=}}{{page needed|date=May 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1926|1997|Ginsberg, Allen}}

[[Vibhag:G]]
[[Vibhag: United States ke kavi]]
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    <title>Du Fu</title>
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      <text bytes="1912" sha1="css22hnwo002y6635fxiq76cl5z53qp" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox writer &lt;!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] --&gt;
| name             = Du Fu
| image            = Dufu.jpg
| image_size       = 250px
| alt              = Later portrait of Du Fu with a goatee, a mustache, and black headwear
| caption          = Posthumous portrait
| birth_date       = 712
| birth_place      = possibly [[Gongyi|Gong County]], Henan&lt;!-- DO NOT LINK, see [[MOS:GEOLINK]] for further guidance --&gt;, Tang China
| death_date       = 770 (aged 57–58)
| death_place      = [[Tan Prefecture (Hunan)|Tan Prefecture]], Tang China
| occupation       = Poetry, politician
| genre            = 
| movement         = 
| period           = 
| influences       = 
| influenced       = 
| children         = {{Hlist|Zongwen|Zongwu|Feng'er}}
| relatives        = {{Plainlist|
* [[Du Shenyan]] (grandfather)
* Du Xian (father)
}}
}}

'''Du Fu''' ({{zh|c=杜甫|p=Dù Fǔ|w=Tu Fu}}; [[712]]–[[770]]) ek [[China|Chinese]] kavi aur politician [[Tang dynasty]] ke time rahaa. Uu aapan aur barraa contemporary aur dost [[Li Bai]] ke saathe, aapan jamaana ke sab se  mashuur Chinese kavi maana jaawe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;ebrey2006&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Ebrey|first1=Patricia Buckley|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History|url=https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0|last2=Walthall|first2=Anne |last3=Palais|first3=James|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=2006|isbn=978-0-618-13384-0|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0/page/104 103]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske sab se barraa ambition rahaa ki uu aapan des ke ek achchhaa civil servant ke ruup me yogdaan de, lekin Du ii nai kare paais rahaa. Uske jindagi, China bhar ke rakam 755 ke [[An Lushan rebellion]] se barbaad hoe gais rahaa, aur uske aakhri 15 saal was a time of almost constant unrest.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|712|770|Fu, Du}}

[[Vibhag:F]]
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    <title>Bhutan ke vastr</title>
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      <comment>Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="4954" sha1="5pq8hcl41p4r18sk1my7hphrkyg18zg" xml:space="preserve">'''Bhutan ke vastr''' se matlab hai [[Bhutan]] me chalata paramparik aur rashtriya kapda, je desh ke sanskritik pehchan, samajik riti-riwaj aur parampara ke darshawat hai. Bhutan sarkar ke niyam [[Driglam Namzha]] ke under ee vastr sarkari samaroha, school aur anya official occasion me pehanna jaruri hai. Ee kapda sirf daily wear tak limited na hai, balki Bhutan society me class, samajik pratishtha aur sanskritik virasat ke expression ka important medium hai.

== Dumdyam ==
'''Dumdyam''' ([[:en:Dumdyam|Dumdyam]]) [[Lepcha janjati|Lepcha]] mahila ke traditional kapda hai. Ee ankle tak lamba kapda hota, mostly smooth cotton ya silk se ek hi piece me banela aur aksar single color me hota. Pehnat samay kapda ek kandha par fold karke dusre kandha par pin se bandhela aur kamar par belt ya '''Tego''' se tight kar dewa jawe. Oopar extra cloth lilt rahata. Neeche opposite color ke long sleeve blouse pehna jaa sakta. Formal aur festival me modern style me pehnat hai.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Plaisier |first=Heleen |year=2007 |title=A Grammar of Lepcha |volume=5 |series=Tibetan studies library: Languages of the greater Himalayan region |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=Leiden; Boston |isbn=978-90-04-15525-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpCXEc_9RWcC |page=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ACBAAAAMAAJ |title=Family, marriage, and social change on the Indian fringe |first=S. M |last=Dubey |editor=S. M. Dubey |editor2=P. K. Bordoloi |editor3=B. N. Borthakur |publisher=Cosmo |year=1980 |pages=53, 56}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Lepcha female, aboriginal, Sikhim.jpg|thumb|1860 me Dumdyam pehne Lepcha mahila]]

== Dumpra ==
'''Dumpra''' ([[:en:Dumpra|Dumpra]]) Lepcha purush ke traditional kapda hai. Ee multi-color hand-woven cloth hai, ek kandha par pin se bandhela aur '''Gyatomu''' naam ke kamarband se tight hota. Mostly white shirt aur pant ke upar pehna jawe. Sath me purush '''Theaktuk''' naam ke flat round cap pehenta, jiska edge stiff black silk jaisa aur upar multi-color design hota. Kabhi kabhi bamboo aur cane ke cone-shape traditional cap bhi pehna jawe.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Plaisier |first=Heleen |year=2007 |title=A Grammar of Lepcha |volume=5 |series=Tibetan studies library |publisher=Brill |page=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-S-02-08-14, Tibetexpedition, Lepscha.jpg|thumb|Dumpra pehne Lepcha purush]]

== Gho ==
'''Gho''' ([[:en:Gho|Gho]]) Bhutan me purush ke traditional aur national dress hai. 17th century me Zhabdrung Rinpoche Ngawang Namgyal ne Ngalop community ke liye ee style start karal. Ee knee-tak lamba loose robe hai, kamar par '''Kera''' se bandh ke rakha jawe. Festivals aur formal occasions me '''Kabney''' ke sath pehna jawe.&lt;ref name=LP&gt;{{cite book|title=Bhutan |url=https://archive.org/details/bhutan0000brow_m9s0 |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bhutan0000brow_m9s0/page/49 49]–52}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Bhutan sarkar sab purush ke liye official office aur school me Gho pehnna mandatory kar dihal. Ee rule modern form me 1989 me lagu bhail, lekin Driglam Namzha dress code bahut purana hai.

[[File:Boys in Bhutan national dress.jpg|thumb|Punakha me festival ke dauran Gho pehne Bhutan ke ladka, November 2006]]

== Kabney ==
'''Kabney''' ([[:en:Kabney|Kabney]]) Bhutan me purush ke national dress '''Gho''' ke sath pehna silk scarf hai.

[[File:King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck (edit).jpg|thumb|Bhutan ke Raja [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], Kabney pehne]]

== Kera ==
'''Kera''' ([[:en:Kera (clothing)|Kera]]) cloth ki belt hai, Gho aur Kira ko bandh ke rakhe ke liye. Mostly cotton, wool ya silk rectangular cloth hota, dono end par tassels hota. Width 30–45 cm aur length 180–240 cm.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barker |first=David K. |title=Designs of Bhutan |url=https://archive.org/details/designsofbhutan0000bark |year=1985 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/designsofbhutan0000bark/page/121 121]–122}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Kira ==
'''Kira''' ([[:en:Kira (Bhutan)|Kira]]) Bhutan mahila ke national dress hai. Ee ankle-tak lamba rectangular woven cloth hai, body ke charo taraf lapet ke shoulder par '''Koma''' silver brooch se bandhela aur kamar par belt tight hota. Sath me '''Wonju''' aur '''Toego''' pehna jawe.&lt;ref name=Schicklgruber&gt;{{cite book|title=Bhutan: Mountain Fortress of the Gods |year=1998 |page=263}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Bhutanese women at festival wearing Kira and Tego.jpg|thumb|Kira pehne Bhutan mahila]]

== Toego ==
'''Toego''' ya '''Tego''' ([[:en:Toego|Toego]]) short jacket jaise kapda hai, Kira ke upar pehna jawe. Ee Driglam Namzha dress code ke part hai.

== Wonju ==
'''Wonju''' ([[:en:Wonju (Bhutan)|Wonju]]) long-sleeve blouse hai, Kira ke niche pehna jawe aur national dress code me included hai.

[[File:Bhutanese Girls in National Dress.jpg|thumb|Wonju dikhai deti Kira pehne Bhutan ladkiya]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Bhutan]]
[[Category:Bhutani society]]
[[Category:Culture]]</text>
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    <title>Truman Capote</title>
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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="2732" sha1="rdf5qlmokcx2kndv441ch7qa33ltmme" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name               = Truman Capote
| image              = Truman Capote by Jack Mitchell.jpg
| caption            = Capote in 1980 by [[Jack Mitchell (photographer)|Jack Mitchell]]
| birth_name         = Truman Streckfus Persons
| birth_date         = {{birth date|1924|09|30}}
| birth_place        = [[New Orleans]], Louisiana, U.S.
| death_date         = {{death date and age|1984|08|25|1924|09|30}}
| death_place        = [[Los Angeles]], California, U.S.
| resting_place      = [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]]
| education          = &lt;!-- Per MOS:INFOEDU, this is only for post-secondary education (i.e. colleges/universities, not high schools --&gt;
| partner            = [[Jack Dunphy]] (1948–1975)
| other_names        = Truman Garcia Capote
| occupation         = {{hlist|Novelist|playwright|screenwriter|actor}}
| movement           = {{hlist | Southern Gothic | True crime}}
| notable_works      = {{unbulleted list|''[[Other Voices, Other Rooms (novel)|Other Voices, Other Rooms]]'' (1948)|''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's (novella)|Breakfast at Tiffany's]]'' (1958)|''[[In Cold Blood]]'' (1966)}}
| years_active       = 1942–1984
| signature          = Truman Capote signature.svg
}}
'''Truman Garcia Capote'''&lt;ref name=&quot;biography.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web|website=Biography.com|url=http://www.biography.com/people/truman-capote-9237547#early-life|title=Truman Capote: Early Life|access-date=February 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218140454/http://www.biography.com/people/truman-capote-9237547#early-life|archive-date=February 18, 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|p|oʊ|t|i}} {{respell|kə|POH|tee}};&lt;ref name=ClarkeBio&gt;{{cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Gerald |title=Capote: a biography |url=https://archive.org/details/capote00gera |date=2005 |publisher=Carroll &amp; Graf |location=New York |isbn=9780786716616 |edition=2nd Carroll &amp; Graf}}&lt;/ref&gt; janam '''Truman Streckfus Persons'''; [[30 September]], [[1924]] – [[25 August]], [[1984]]) ek [[America]]n novelist, screenwriter, playwright, aur actor rahaa. Uske dher chhotaa khissa, novel, aur play ke barrai karaa gais hae as  literary classics, aur uske [[New Journalism]] ke founder,  [[Gay Talese]], [[Hunter S. Thompson]], [[Norman Mailer]], [[Joan Didion]], aur [[Tom Wolfe]] ke saathe, maana jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/New-Journalism |title= New Journalism |last=Fakazis |first=Liz |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=December 14, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske kaam aur jeewan kahaani ke 20 ada films aur television productions me dekhaawa gais hae.

{{BD|1924|1984|Capote, Truman}}

[[Vibhag:United States ke lekhak]]
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    <title>Aristophanes</title>
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      <text bytes="2188" sha1="5st6805ybvwuexndblz5n7s4cguerpt" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox person
| name               = Aristophanes
| native_name        = 
| native_name_lang   = 
| image              = Bust of Aristophanes.jpg
| image_size         = 
| caption            = Bust with the inscription &quot;Aristophanes, (son) of Philippides, the Athenian&quot;, 1st century AD
| birth_name         = 
| birth_date         = {{circa|446 BC}}
| birth_place        = [[Classical Athens|Athens]], Greece
| death_date         = {{circa|386 BC}} (aged c. 60)
| death_place        = 
| occupation         = Playwright (comedy)
| years_active       = 427 BC – 386 BC
| known_for          = Playwright and director of [[Old Comedy]]
| notable_works      = {{plainlist|
* ''[[The Knights]]'' &lt;small&gt;(424 BC)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[The Clouds]]'' &lt;small&gt;(423 BC)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[The Wasps]]'' &lt;small&gt;(422 BC)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[The Birds (play)|The Birds]]'' &lt;small&gt;(414 BC)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Lysistrata]]'' &lt;small&gt;(411 BC)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Thesmophoriazusae|Women at the Thesmophoria]]'' &lt;small&gt;(411 BC)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[The Frogs]]'' &lt;small&gt;(405 BC)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Assemblywomen]]'' &lt;small&gt;(392 BC)&lt;/small&gt;}}|
}}

'''Aristophanes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ær|ɪ|ˈ|s|t|ɒ|f|ə|n|iː|z}};&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=Jones, Daniel|author2=Roach, Peter|editor1=James Hartman|editor2=Jane Setter|title=Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani|edition=17th|publisher=Cambridge UP|year=2006}}.&lt;/ref&gt; {{IPA|el|aristopʰánɛːs|}}; {{circa|446|386 BC}}) ek [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] [[Ancient Greek comedy|comic playwright]], [[Athens]] se rahaa. Uu chaalis plays likhis rahaa, jisme se gyrah abhi talak puura hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Thorburn|2005|pp=66-67}}; {{harvnb|Roman|Roman|2010|p=82}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske bachaa play me se jaada  comic drama ke genre ke hae jiske  [[Old Comedy]] bola jaawe hae aur ii sab ke ii genre ke sab se kimti play maana jaawe hae.{{sfn|Dover|1970|p=x}} Aristophanes ke play ke athens ke dharmik utsao me perform karaa jaawat rahaa, jaada kar ke [[City Dionysia]] aur [[Lenaia]] me, aur isme se dher ii competition me pahila prize milaa rahaa. {{sfn|Thorburn|2005|p=67}}

{{BD|-0446BC|-0386BC|Aristophanes}}

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    <title>Pliny the Elder</title>
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| name               = Pliny the Elder
| native_name        = Gaius Plinius Secundus
| native_name_lang   = la
| image              = Grande Illustrazione del Lombardo Veneto Vol 3 Plinio Secondo 300dpi.jpg
| caption            = 19th-century portrait of Pliny the Elder
| birth_date         = AD 23 or 24
| birth_place        = [[Como|Novum Comum]], Roman Empire
| death_date         = [[25 August]]] [[79]]
| death_place        = [[Stabiae]], Roman Empire
| occupation         = Lawyer, author, [[Natural history|naturalist]], {{nowrap|military commander,}} {{nowrap|provincial governor}}
| children           = [[Pliny the Younger]], nephew adopted in the Elder's will
| notable works      = {{lang|la|[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis Historia]]}}
}}
'''Gaius Plinius Secundus''' ([[Como]], 23 AD – [[Stabiae]], [[25 August]] [[79]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Siegfried |first=Tom |date=2023-02-02 |title=Pliny the Elder's radical idea to catalog knowledge |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/society/2023/pliny-elder-first-encyclopedia |journal=[[Knowable Magazine]] |language=en |doi=10.1146/knowable-020223-1|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; jiske [[English bhasa]] me '''Pliny the Elder''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|l|ɪ|n|i}} {{respell|PLIN|ee}}),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-last=Wells |editor-first=John |editor-link=John C. Wells |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia0000unse |publisher=Pearson Longman |edition=3rd |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite podcast|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/b00sxjlz|title=Pliny the Elder|website=In Our Time|publisher=BBC Radio 4|host=Melvyn Bragg|date=8 July 2010|access-date=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; ke naam se jaana jaawe hae, ek [[Roman Empire|Roman]] lekhak, [[Natural history|naturalist]], vigyanik, naval aur sena ke commander [[Roman Empire]]me , [[procurator (Roman)|procurator]], aur [[Roman emperor|emperor]] [[Vespasian]] ke dost rahaa. Pliny [[encyclopedic]] {{lang|la|[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis Historia]]}} (''Natural History''), ek thirty-seven-volume kaam, jon dher topics ke cover karis rahaa,   human knowledge aur natural world me likhis rahaa, jon ek editorial model  encyclopedias khaatir ban gais rahaa. He aapan spare time study kare me, likhe me, aur natural aur geographic phenomena ke adhyan me lagais rahaa.

{{BD|0023|0079|Elder, Pliny the}}

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  <page>
    <title>Mary Shelley</title>
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| image            = Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley Rothwell.tif
| image_upright    = 1
| caption          = [[Richard Rothwell (painter)|Richard Rothwell]]'s portrait of Shelley was shown at the [[Royal Academy]] in 1840, accompanied by lines from [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Percy Shelley]]'s poem ''[[The Revolt of Islam]]'' calling her a &quot;child of love and light&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Seymour, 458.&lt;/ref&gt;
| alt              = Half-length portrait of a woman wearing a black dress sitting on a red sofa. Her dress is off the shoulder. The brush strokes are broad.
| birth_name       = Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin
| birth_date       = {{birth date|1797|8|30|df=y}}
| birth_place      = [[London]], England
| death_date       = {{death date and age|1851|2|1|1797|8|30|df=y}}
| death_place      = [[London]], England
| occupation       = Writer
| notableworks     = ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818), {{nowrap|''[[Mary Shelley bibliography|see more...]]''}}
| parents          = {{plainlist|
* [[William Godwin]]
* [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]
}}
| spouse           = {{marriage|[[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]|1816|1822|end=died}}
| children         = 4, including [[Sir Percy Shelley, 3rd Baronet|Percy Florence]]
| relatives        = {{plainlist|
* [[Fanny Imlay]] (half-sister)
* [[William Godwin the Younger]] (half-brother)
* [[Claire Clairmont]] (stepsister)
}}
| signature        = Mary Shelley signature.svg
}}

'''Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley''' (née '''Godwin'''}}; [[30 August]] [[1797]] – [[1 February]] [[1851]]), [[England]] ke ek lekhak rahii jon  [[Gothic novel]] ''[[Frankenstein|Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus]]'' (1818) ke likhe rahii, jiske [[History of science fiction#Shelley and Europe in the early 19th century|early example of science fiction]] maana jaawe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Aldiss&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Aldiss |first=Brian |author-link=Brian Aldiss |title=Billion Year Spree: The True History of Science Fiction |url=https://archive.org/details/billionyearspree0000aldi |publisher=Doubleday |edition=first |year=1973 |isbn=978-0385088879}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu aapan admii, [[Romantic poet]] aur philosopher [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] ke kaam ke edit aur promote kare rahii. Uske pitaji [[political philosopher]] [[William Godwin]] rahaa aur maiyaa   philosopher aur women's rights advocate [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] rahii.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{stub}}

{{BD|1797|1851|Shelley, Mary}}

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  <page>
    <title>Harriet Beecher Stowe</title>
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| name             = Harriet Beecher Stowe
| image            = Beecher-Stowe.jpg
| alt              = 
| caption          = Stowe {{circa|1870}}
| pseudonym        = Christopher Crowfield
| notable_works    = ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]''
| birth_name       = Harriet Elisabeth Beecher
| birth_date       = {{birth date|1811|6|14|mf=y}}
| birth_place      = [[Litchfield, Connecticut]], U.S.
| death_date       = {{death date and age|1896|7|1|1811|6|14|mf=y}}
| death_place      = [[Hartford, Connecticut]], U.S.
| spouse           = {{marriage|[[Calvin Ellis Stowe]]|1836|1886|end=d.}}
| children         = 7
| relatives        = [[Beecher family]]
| signature        = Harriet Beecher Stowe signature.svg
}}

'''Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe''' ({{IPAc-en|s|t|oʊ}}; [[14 June]] [[1811]]&amp;nbsp;– [[1 July]] [[1896]]) ek [[America]]n lekhak aur abolitionist rahii. Uu Beecher palwaar se aae rahii aur ek jaana-maana  novel ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' (1852) ke likhe rahii, jisme uu enslaved [[African Americans]] ke stithi ke baare me likhe hae. Ii book ke dher million log parrhe rahin [[United States]] aur [[Great Britain]] me , aur ii  anti-slavery forces ke [[American North]] me barrhaawa diis rahaa, lekin isse America ke south me log bahut gussa me rahin. Stowe, 30 books se jaada book likhe rahii, jisme novels, tiin travel memoirs, aur  articles aur chitthii ke sanghraa rahaa. Uske  influence duuno uske lekh aur public stances and bahas on social issues of the day, me rahaa.

==Jindagi aur kaam==
Harriet Elisabeth Beecher ke janam [[Litchfield, Connecticut]] me, on June 14, 1811 me bhais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;McFarland, Philip. ''Loves of Harriet Beecher Stowe''. New York: Grove Press, 2007: 112. {{ISBN|978-0-8021-4390-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Uu 11 larrkan me se 6th rahii.{{Sfn|Hedrick|1994|p=6}} Uske pitaji  outspoken Calvinist preacher [[Lyman Beecher]] rahaa. Harriet ke maiyaa  Beecher ke pahila aurat, Roxana (Foote) rahii, jin ekdam dharmik rahii aur jon  September 25, 1816 me mar gay rahii, jab Harriet khaali paanch saal ke rahii.&lt;ref&gt;McFarland 2007, p. 125.&lt;/ref&gt; Roxana ke naana  General Andrew Ward rahaa, jon [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] me larre rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Kelley |first=Mary |title=Private Woman, Public Stage: Literary Domesticity in Nineteenth-Century America |url=https://archive.org/details/privatewomanpubl00kell |date=1984 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-503351-9 |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; Harriet ke siblings me rahaa, ek bahini, [[Catharine Beecher]], jon ek teacher aur lekhak bane rahii, aur bhaiyaa log  jon ministers bane rahin, jisme famous preacher aur abolitionist [[Henry Ward Beecher]], aur [[Charles Beecher]] aur [[Edward Beecher]] rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;[[Debby Applegate|Applegate, Debby]] (2006). ''The Most Famous Man in America: The Biography of Henry Ward Beecher''. Doubleday Religious Publishing Group. {{ISBN|978-0-307-42400-6}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Harriet  [[Hartford Female Seminary]] me bharti bhay rahii jiske uske barraa bahini  Catharine chalaawat rahii, jahaan pe uske ek traditional academic sikchaa rahaan&amp;nbsp;– jon utime ke women ke khaatir uncommon rahaa&amp;nbsp;– jisme focus [[classics]], bhasa, aur mathematics rahaa. Uske classmate me  Sarah P. Willis rahii, jon baad me pseudonym [[Fanny Fern]] ke niche likhe rahii.&lt;ref&gt;Warren, Joyce W. ''Fanny Fern: An Independent Woman''. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992: 21. {{ISBN|0-8135-1763-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{stub}}

{{BD|1811|1896|Stowe&lt; Harriet Beecher}}

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    <title>Joseph Conrad</title>
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| name             = Joseph Conrad
| image            = Joseph Conrad-remastered to black and white.png
| alt              = Head shot with moustache and beard
| caption          = Conrad in 1904 
| birth_name       = Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski
| birth_date       = {{Birth date|df=y|1857|12|3}}
| birth_place      = [[Berdychiv]], [[Kiev Governorate]], [[Russian Empire]]&lt;!-- Please do not add &quot;in Ukraine&quot; -- it is already mentioned in the main body of text. --&gt;
| death_date       = {{Death date and age|df=y|1924|8|3|1857|12|3}}
| death_place      = [[Bishopsbourne]], Kent, England
| resting_place    = Canterbury Cemetery, [[Canterbury]]
| occupation       = [[Novel]]ist, [[short story|short-story writer]], [[essay]]ist
| nationality      = [[Poles in the United Kingdom|Polish]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Brownstone|Franck|1994|p=397}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[United Kingdom|British]]
| education        = 
| alma_mater       = 
| period           = 1895–1923
| genre            = Fiction
| subject          = 
| movement         = {{hlist|[[Impressionism (literature)|Literary impressionism]]|[[Literary modernism|Modernism]]|[[Neo-romanticism]]}}
| notableworks     = ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' (1899)&lt;br /&gt;''[[Lord Jim]]'' (1900)&lt;br /&gt;''[[Nostromo]]'' (1904)&lt;br /&gt;''[[The Secret Agent]]'' (1907)
| spouse           = {{marriage|Jessie George|24 March 1896}}
| partner          = 
| children         = 2
| parents          = [[Apollo Korzeniowski]]&lt;br /&gt;Ewa Bobrowska
| relatives        = 
| awards           = 
| signature        = Joseph Conrad signature 1925.svg
| signature_alt    = 
| website          = 
| portaldisp       = 
}}

'''Joseph Conrad''' (janam ke naam: '''Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski''', {{IPA|pl|ˈjuzɛf tɛˈɔdɔr ˈkɔnrat kɔʐɛˈɲɔfskʲi|lang|Pl-Jozef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski-noiserm.ogg}}; [[3 December]] [[1857]]&amp;nbsp;– [[3 August]] [[1924]]) ek Polish-British novelist aur chhotaa khissa ke lekhak rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brownstone |first1=David M. |last2=Franck |first2=Irene M. |title=Timelines of the Arts and Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8oRUAAAAMAAJ|publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-062-70069-8 |page=397}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{NoteTag|Tim Middleton writes: &quot;Referring to his dual Polish and English allegiances he once described himself as 'homo-duplex'&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last1=Conrad|first1=Joseph|title=The collected letters of Joseph Conrad|last2=Moore|first2=Gene M.|last3=Knowles|first3=Owen|last4=Stape|first4=John Henry|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1983|isbn=978-0-521323871|volume=3|location=|page=89}}&lt;/ref&gt;—the double man.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Middleton|first=Tim|title=Joseph Conrad|url=https://archive.org/details/josephconrad0000midd|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415268523|page=xiv}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} Uske English bhasa ke ek sab se barraa lekhak maana jaawe hae aur – jab uu Ebglish bhasa me fluently baat nai kare sakat rahaa jab talak uu aapan  twenties me rahaa (always with a strong foreign accent) – uu ek master prose stylist rahaa jon non-English sensibility [[English literature]] me laais rahaa.{{NoteTag|[[Rudyard Kipling]] felt that &quot;with a pen in his hand he was first amongst us&quot; but that there was nothing English in Conrad's mentality: &quot;When I am reading him, I always have the impression that I am reading an excellent translation of a foreign author.&quot;{{sfnp|Meyers|1991|p=209}} Cf. [[Zdzisław Najder]]'s similar observation: &quot;He was [...] an English writer who grew up in other linguistic and cultural environments. His work can be seen as located in the borderland of auto-translation.&quot;{{sfnp|Najder|2007|p=ix}}}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{stub}}

{{BD|1857|1924|Conrad, Joseph}}

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    <title>W. H. Auden</title>
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| name             = W. H. Auden
| image            = AudenVanVechten1939.jpg
| caption          = Auden in 1939
| birth_name       = Wystan Hugh Auden
| birth_date       = {{Birth date|1907|2|21|df=yes}}
| birth_place      = [[York]], England
| death_date       = {{Death date and age|1973|9|29|1907|2|21|df=yes}}
| death_place      = [[Vienna]], Austria
| resting_place    =
| resting_place_coordinates = &lt;!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|display=inline,title}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- |residence     = [[York]], Birmingham, [[Oxford]] (UK); Berlin (Germany); [[Helensburgh]], [[Colwall]], London (UK); New York City, [[Ann Arbor]], [[Swarthmore, Pennsylvania|Swarthmore]] (US); [[Ischia]] (Italy); [[Kirchstetten]] (Austria); Oxford (UK) --&gt;
| citizenship      = {{unbulleted list|United Kingdom &lt;!-- (birth) --&gt;|United States (from 1946)}}
| education        = [[Christ Church, Oxford]] ([[MA (Oxon)|MA]])
| alma_mater       =
| occupation       = Poet
| spouse           = {{marriage|[[Erika Mann]]|1935|reason=[[marriage of convenience|of convenience]]&lt;!-- (unconsummated marriage, to provide her with a [[British passport]]) --&gt;}}
|language =English
| relations        = {{unbulleted list|[[George Augustus Auden]] (father)|[[Constance Rosalie Bicknell Auden]] (mother)|[[John Bicknell Auden]] (brother)|[[George Bernard Auden]] (brother)}}
}}

'''Wystan Hugh Auden''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|w|ɪ|s|t|ən|_|ˈ|h|juː|_|ˈ|ɔː|d|ən}} {{respell|WIST|ən|_|HYOO|_|AWD|ən}}; [[21 February]] [[1907]] – [[29 September]] [[1973]]&lt;ref&gt;The date on the death certificate; the 28 September date on his grave was an error.&lt;/ref&gt;) ek [[British-American]] kavi rahaa. Auden ke kavita ke uske stylistic aur technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion, and its variety in [[tone (literature)|tone]], [[poetic form|form]], aur [[content (media)|content]] khaatir jaana jaawe hae. Uske kuch sab se jaada jaana - maana kavita pyaar, jaise &quot;[[Funeral Blues]]&quot;; opolitical aur social themes pe, jaise &quot;[[September 1, 1939]]&quot; aur &quot;[[The Shield of Achilles]]&quot;; cultural aur psychological themes pe, jaise ''[[The Age of Anxiety]]''; aur dharmik themes themes, jaise &quot;[[For the Time Being]]&quot; aur &quot;[[Horae Canonicae]]&quot; rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
| last = Auden
| first = W.&amp;nbsp;H.
| editor-first = Edward
| editor-last = Mendelson
| editor-link=Edward Mendelson
| title = Prose, Volume II: 1939–1948
| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]
| location = Princeton
| year = 2002
| page = 478
| isbn = 978-0-691-08935-5}} Auden used the phrase &quot;Anglo-American Poets&quot; in 1943, implicitly referring to himself and [[T. S. Eliot]].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OEDdef&quot;&gt;The first definition of &quot;Anglo-American&quot; in the ''OED'' (2008 revision) is: &quot;Of, belonging to, or involving both England (or Britain) and America.&quot;{{cite web
| title = Oxford English Dictionary (access by subscription)
| url = http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50008500?single=1&amp;query_type=word&amp;queryword=Anglo-American&amp;first=1&amp;max_to_show=10
| access-date = 25 May 2009
}} See also the definition &quot;English in origin or birth, American by settlement or citizenship&quot; in {{cite book
| title = Chambers 20th Century Dictionary
| year = 1969
| page = 45 | title-link = Chambers 20th Century Dictionary
}} See also the definition &quot;an American, especially a citizen of the United States, of English origin or descent&quot; in {{cite book
| title = Merriam Webster's New International Dictionary, Second Edition
| year = 1969
| page = 103 }} See also the definition &quot;a native or descendant of a native of England who has settled in or become a citizen of America, esp. of the United States&quot; from ''The Random House Dictionary'', 2009, available online at {{cite web
| title = Dictionary.com
| url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Anglo-American
| access-date = 25 May 2009
| archive-date = 4 March 2016
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002757/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/anglo-american
| url-status = live
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Companion&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | editor-last = Smith
 | editor-first = Stan
 | title = The Cambridge Companion to W. H. Auden
 | url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_a0j0
 | year = 2004
 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location = Cambridge
 | isbn = 978-0-521-82962-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1907|1973|Auden, W. H.}}

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    <title>Alan Moore</title>
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      <text bytes="3603" sha1="fplgci30tmtv9hupmug0mc7lcc4ydvt" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox writer
| name             = Alan Moore
| image            = Alan Moore (2).jpg
| caption          = Moore in 2008
| pseudonym        = {{hlist|Curt Vile|Jill de Ray|Translucia Baboon|Brilburn Logue|The Original Writer}}
| birth_name       =
| birth_date       = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1953|11|18}}
| birth_place      = [[Northampton]], England
| death_date       =
| death_place      =
| occupation       = [[Comics writer]], novelist,&lt;br/&gt;short story writer, musician, cartoonist, [[Magician (paranormal)|magician]], occultist
| genre            = Science fiction, fiction,&lt;br/&gt;non-fiction, superhero, horror
| notableworks     = {{Unbulleted indent list|''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]''|''[[From Hell]]''|''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]''|''[[The Ballad of Halo Jones]]''|''[[Miracleman|Marvelman/Miracleman]]''|''[[Promethea]]''|''[[Swamp Thing (comic book)|Swamp Thing]]''|''[[V for Vendetta]]''|''[[Watchmen]]''|''[[Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?]]''|''[[For the Man Who Has Everything]]''}}
| spouse           = {{Plainlist|
* Phyllis Moore
* [[Melinda Gebbie]] (m. 2007)
}}
| children         = {{Plainlist|
* Amber Moore
* [[Leah Moore]]
}}
}}
'''Alan Moore''' (janam [[18 November]] [[1953]]) [[England]] ke ek lekhak hae, jiske jaada kar ke uske kaam  comics me, jisme hae  ''[[Watchmen]]'', ''[[V for Vendetta]]'', ''[[The Ballad of Halo Jones]]'', [[Swamp Thing (comic book)|''Swamp Thing'']], ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'', ''[[Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?]]'' aur ''[[From Hell]]''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alan Moore Bibliography&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.enjolrasworld.com/HTML%20Bibliographies/Alan%20Moore%20Bibliography.htm |title=Alan Moore Bibliography |work=Enjolrasworld.com |access-date=13 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228214900/http://enjolrasworld.com/HTML%20Bibliographies/Alan%20Moore%20Bibliography.htm |archive-date=28 February 2009 |url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske aapan peers aur critics me pahchaana jaawe hae  [[comics writer|comic book writers]] in the English language ke sab se achchhaa lekhak ke ruup me.&lt;ref name=&quot;Khoury, George&quot;&gt;{{cite book | last=Khoury | first=George | author-link=George Khoury (author) | title=The Extraordinary Works of Alan Moore | url=https://archive.org/details/extraordinarywor0000khou | date=25 August 2003 | location=Raleigh, North Carolina| publisher=[[TwoMorrows Publishing]] | isbn=978-1-893905-24-5}}{{rp|page=10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Parkin, Lance&quot;&gt;{{cite book | last=Parkin | first=Lance | author-link=Lance Parkin | title=Alan Moore: The Pocket Essential | date=January 2002 | location=[[Hertfordshire]], England | publisher=[[Trafalgar Square Publishing]] | isbn=978-1-903047-70-5}}{{rp|page=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Moore kabhi-kabhi pseudonyms jaise '''Curt Vile''', '''[[Gilles de Rais|Jill de Ray]]''', '''Brilburn Logue''' aur '''Translucia Baboon''' ke kaam me laais hae; aur uske kaam ke reprints '''The Original Writer''' ke credit dewa gais hae jab Moore maangis ki uske naam ke hatae dewa jaae. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/why-alan-moore-has-become-650954|title=Why Alan Moore Has Become Marvel's 'Original Writer'|last=McMillan|first=Graeme|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|date=25 October 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170810092627/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/why-alan-moore-has-become-650954|archive-date= 10 August 2017|url-status = live|access-date=17 March 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1953||Moore, Alan}}

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    <title>Percy Bysshe Shelley</title>
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| image            = Percy Bysshe Shelley by Alfred Clint.jpg
| caption          = Shelley in 1819
| birth_date       = {{Birth date|1792|8|4|df=y}}
| birth_place      = [[Field Place, Warnham|Field Place]], Sussex, England
| death_date       = {{Death date and age|1822|7|8|1792|8|4|df=y}}
| death_place      = [[Gulf of La Spezia]], Kingdom of Sardinia
| occupation       = Author
| education       = [[University College, Oxford]]
| movement         = [[Romanticism]]
| spouse           = {{unbulleted list|{{marriage|Harriet Westbrook|1811|1816|end= d.}}|{{marriage|[[Mary Shelley]]|1816}}}}
| children         = 6, including [[Sir Percy Shelley, 3rd Baronet|Sir Percy, 3rd Baronet]]
| parents          = [[Timothy Shelley]]&lt;br /&gt;Elizabeth Pilfold
| signature        = Percy Bysshe Shelley SVG signature.svg
| birth_name       = &lt;!-- only use if different from name --&gt;
}}

'''Percy Bysshe Shelley''' ( {{respell|BISH}};&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Shelley |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/shelley |website=[[Collins English Dictionary]] |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |access-date=7 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Merriam-Webster |Shelley |access-date=7 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[4 August]] [[1792]] – [[8 July]] [[1822]]), [[England]] ke ek lekhak rahaa jiske ek khaas  English [[Romantic poetry|Romantic kavi]] maana jaawe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite ODNB |title=Shelley, Percy Bysshe (1792–1822), poet |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-25312 |access-date=8 February 2021 |year=2004 |language=en |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/25312 |isbn=978-0-19-861412-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uu aapan kavita aur jiwan me ek radical rahaa. Uu aapan jindagi me famous nai bhais rahaa, lekin uske maut ke baad uske kaam mashuur hoe gais rahaa.  Uske khaas asar baad ke generation ke kavi log , jaise  [[Robert Browning]], [[Algernon Charles Swinburne]], [[Thomas Hardy]], aur [[W. B. Yeats]] pe rahaa. American literary critic [[Harold Bloom]] uske describe karis hae as &quot;a superb craftsman, a lyric poet without rival, and surely one of the most advanced sceptical intellects ever to write a poem.&quot;&lt;ref name = &quot;Bloom410&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Harold|title=The Best Poems of the English Language, From Chaucer through Frost|url=https://archive.org/details/bestpoemsofeng00bloo|publisher=Harper Collins|year=2004|isbn=0-06-054041-9|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bestpoemsofeng00bloo/page/410 410]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1792|1822|Shelley, Percy Bysshe}}

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    <title>Hildegard of Bingen</title>
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| honorific_prefix = [[Canonization|Saint]]
| name             = Hildegard of Bingen
| honorific_suffix = [[Order of Saint Benedict|OSB]]
| birth_name       = Hildegard von Bingen
| birth_date       = {{circa|1098}}
| death_date       = {{death date and age|df=yes|1179|9|17|1098|9|16}}
| feast_day        = 17 September
| patronage        = &lt;!-- WARNING: patronages MUST CORRESPOND to a reliable secondary source, per WP:RS --&gt;
| venerated_in     = [[Catholic Church]], [[Anglican Communion]], some Lutherans
| image            = Hildegard von Bingen.jpg
| caption          = Illumination from Hildegard's {{lang|la|[[Scivias]]}} (1151) showing her receiving a vision and dictating to teacher [[Volmar (monk)|Volmar]]
| birth_place      = [[Bermersheim vor der Höhe]], [[Electorate of the Palatinate|County Palatine of the Rhine]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_place      = [[Bingen am Rhein]], County Palatine of the Rhine, Holy Roman Empire
| titles           = [[Virgin (title)|Virgin]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Doctor of the Church]]
| beatified_date   = 26 August 1326 (Formal confirmation of Cultus)
| beatified_place  = 
| beatified_by     = [[Pope John XXII]]
| canonized_date   = 10 May 2012 ([[equivalent canonization]])
| canonized_place  = [[Vatican City]]
| canonized_by     = [[Pope Benedict XVI]]
| attributes       = 
| major_shrine     = [[St. Hildegard, Eibingen]]&lt;!--[[Eibingen Abbey]], Germany -monastery but not shrine--&gt;
| suppressed_date  = 
| issues           = 
| prayer           = 
| prayer_attrib    = 
| module           =
{{Infobox philosopher
|embed            = yes
|region           = [[Western philosophy]]
|era              = [[Medieval philosophy]]
|notable_ideas    = [[Microcosm–macrocosm analogy]], Eternal predestination of Christ, [[viriditas]], [[Lingua ignota]], [[humoral theory]], [[morality play]]
|main_interests   = [[mystical theology]], medicine, [[botany]], [[natural history]], music, literature
|notable_works    = {{ubl|{{lang|la|[[Scivias]]}}|{{lang|la|[[Liber Divinorum Operum]]}}|{{lang|la|[[Ordo Virtutum]]}}}}
|school_tradition = [[Neoplatonism and Christianity|Neoplatonism]]
}}}}

'''Hildegard of Bingen''' {{post-nominals|post-noms=[[Benedictines|OSB]]}} ( {{IPA|de|ˈhɪldəɡaʁt fɔn ˈbɪŋən|pron}};  {{circa|[[1098]]}}{{snd}}[[17 September]] [[1179]]), jiske '''&quot;Sibyl of the Rhine&quot;''' ke naam se bhi jaana jaawat, [[Germany]] ke ek [[Benedictines|Benedictine]] [[abbess]] aur [[polymath]], jon [[High Middle Ages]] ke time active rahaa, ek lekhak, sangeetkaar, philosopher, [[Christian mysticism|mystic]], [[visionary]], aur ek medical writer aur practitioner  [[Catholic Church]] ke rahii.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bennett, Judith M 2001&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Judith M. |last2=Hollister |first2=Warren C. |title=Medieval Europe: A Short History |url=https://archive.org/details/medievaleuropesh00holl_1 |place=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |date=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/medievaleuropesh00holl_1/page/325 317]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;post97&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Worl |first=Gayle |date=1997-03-09 |title=WOMEN OF HISTORIC NOTE |language=en-US |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/style/1997/03/09/women-of-historic-note/259adb97-9eaf-41ef-94e7-d92b7ca54f04/ |access-date=2023-11-22 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=7 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407152305/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/style/1997/03/09/women-of-historic-note/259adb97-9eaf-41ef-94e7-d92b7ca54f04/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Uske sab se jaada jaana-maana  composer of sacred [[monophony]] ke ruup me jaana jaawe hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Gaynor G. |title=Grout, Donald J(ay) |last2=Palisca |first2=Claude V. |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford Music Online |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11845 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Dher scholars uske founder of scientific [[natural history]], Germany me, maane hae.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jöckle |first=Clemens |title=Encyclopedia of Saints |publisher=Konecky &amp; Konecky |year=2003 |page=204}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1098|1179|Bingen, Hildegard of}}

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    <title>Edvard Grieg</title>
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| name               = Edvard Grieg
| image              = File:Edvard Grieg portrait (cropped).jpg
| caption            = Grieg in 1888
| birth_date         = {{Birth date|1843|06|15|df=y}}
| birth_place        = [[Bergen]], Norway
| death_date         = {{Death date and age|1907|09|04|1843|06|15|df=y}}
| death_place        = Bergen, Norway
| occupation         = {{hlist|Composer|pianist}}
| works              = [[List of compositions by Edvard Grieg|List of compositions]]
| spouse             = {{marriage|[[Nina Grieg]]|1867}}
}}
'''Edvard Hagerup Grieg''' ({{IPAc-en|ɡ|r|iː|ɡ}} {{respell|GREEG}}, {{IPA|no|ˈɛdvaʁd ˈhɑ̀ːɡəʁʉp ˈɡʁɪgː|lang}}; [[15 June]] [[1843]]{{spaced ndash}}[[4 September]] [[1907]]) [[Norway]] ke ek sangeetkaar aur [[pianist]] rahaa. Uske jaada kar ke ek leading [[Romantic music|Romantic era]] sangeetkaar maana jaawe hae, aur uske sangeet  standard classical repertoire worldwide, ke ek hissa hae. Uske [[Music of Norway|Norwegian folk music]] ke kaam me laana, aapan sangeet me,   Norway ke music ke famous karis rahaa, aur [[Norwegian romantic nationalism|national identity]] ke develop kare me madat karis rahaa, jaise [[Jean Sibelius]] [[Finland]] ke aur  [[Bedřich Smetana]] [[Bohemia]] me.&lt;ref name=&quot;isbn1-84383-210-0&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Daniel M. Grimley |title=Grieg: Music, Landscape and Norwegian Identity |url=https://archive.org/details/griegmusiclandsc0000grim |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Ipswich |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84383-210-2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{BD|1843|1907|Grieg, Edvard}}

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-- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 14:35, 23 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2025</title>
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      <comment>Panna jisme &quot;{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=225 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;'''Champion versus Champion&lt;/big&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|115px]] | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | Image:FFALogo.jp...&quot; hae ke banae dewa gais hae.</comment>
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      <text bytes="2136" sha1="tqw9vn2uwoqhn69kixxx9kv9ouhsdus" xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=225 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Champion versus Champion&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|115px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:FFALogo.jpg|50px]]
|}
|-
| width=&quot;50px&quot;|'''Number:''' || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;175px&quot;|'''33'''
|-
| '''Jagha:''' || [[Ratu Cakobau Park]], [[Nausori]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Subrail Park|Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]]
|-
| '''Tarik:''' || [[8 February]] [[2026]]&lt;br/&gt;[[14 February]] [[2026]]
|-
| '''Winner:''' || [[Rewa Soccer Association|Rewa]]
|-
| '''Runner-up:''' || [[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]]
|-
| '''Goals:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:Rewa-1, Labasa-0&lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:Rewa-0, Labasa-0&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Goal banae waala:''' || 
|-style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot;  |'''[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2024|&lt;&lt; CVC 2024]] 
|}
2025 ke '''Pillay Garments Champions League''' Rewa aur Labasa ke biich me, Labasa ke Subrail Park aur Nausori ke Ratu Cakobau Park me khela gais rahaa. Rewa isme National League ke jiit ke qualify bhais aur Labasa isme IDC ke jiitis rahaa.  Pahila game Rewa 1-0 se jiitis rahaa aur duusra game 0-0 se baraabar rahaa. Tab Rewa CVC super cup ke tiisra dafe jiitis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.fijifootball.com.fj/cvc-dates-confirmed-2/|website=Fiji Football Association|title=CVC dates confirmed|access-date=14 March 2024}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/fiji2024.html#cvc |website=Rec. Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation|title=Champion vs Champion 2023/24|access-date=14 March 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{winners|fb|2025 Champion versus Champion|Rewa|3rd}}


== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Champion versus Champion - Fiji|2025]]</text>
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|+&lt;big&gt;'''Champion versus Champion&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|115px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:FFALogo.jpg|50px]]
|}
|-
| width=&quot;50px&quot;|'''Number:''' || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;175px&quot;|'''33'''
|-
| '''Jagha:''' || [[Ratu Cakobau Park]], [[Nausori]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Subrail Park|Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]]
|-
| '''Tarik:''' || [[8 February]] [[2026]]&lt;br/&gt;[[14 February]] [[2026]]
|-
| '''Winner:''' || [[Rewa Soccer Association|Rewa]]
|-
| '''Runner-up:''' || [[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]]
|-
| '''Goals:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:Rewa-1, Labasa-0&lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:Rewa-0, Labasa-0&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Goal banae waala:''' || 
|-style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot;  |'''[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2024|&lt;&lt; CVC 2024]] 
|}
2025 ke '''Pillay Garments Champions League''' Rewa aur Labasa ke biich me, Labasa ke Subrail Park aur Nausori ke Ratu Cakobau Park me khela gais rahaa. Rewa isme National League ke jiit ke qualify bhais aur Labasa isme BOG aur FACT ke jiitis rahaa.  Pahila game Rewa 1-0 se jiitis rahaa aur duusra game 0-0 se baraabar rahaa. Tab Rewa CVC super cup ke tiisra dafe jiitis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.fijifootball.com.fj/cvc-dates-confirmed-2/|website=Fiji Football Association|title=CVC dates confirmed|access-date=14 March 2024}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/fiji2024.html#cvc |website=Rec. Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation|title=Champion vs Champion 2023/24|access-date=14 March 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{winners|fb|2025 Champion versus Champion|Rewa|3rd}}


== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Champion versus Champion - Fiji|2025]]</text>
      <sha1>6e9n2qrx7b2obdw2hrlqqoysrck1owz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>337710</id>
      <parentid>337705</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-24T10:46:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KaiRewa</username>
        <id>33465</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>337710</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2284" sha1="bxcozpwgon66e4d7dztzgf8o955t7jr" xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=225 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Champion versus Champion&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|115px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:FFALogo.jpg|50px]]
|}
|-
| width=&quot;50px&quot;|'''Number:''' || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;175px&quot;|'''33'''
|-
| '''Jagha:''' || [[Ratu Cakobau Park]], [[Nausori]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Subrail Park|Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]]
|-
| '''Tarik:''' || [[8 February]] [[2026]]&lt;br/&gt;[[14 February]] [[2026]]
|-
| '''Winner:''' || [[Rewa Soccer Association|Rewa]]
|-
| '''Runner-up:''' || [[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]]
|-
| '''Goals:''' || &lt;small&gt;Pahila khel:Rewa-1, Labasa-0&lt;br/&gt;Duusra khel:Rewa-0, Labasa-0&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Goal banae waala:''' || Mosese Nabose &lt;ref&gt;[https://fijilive.com/rewa-wins-first-leg-of-champion-v-champion/ Rewa wins first leg of champion versus champion]&lt;/ref&gt;
|-style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot;  |'''[[Champion versus Champion (Fiji) 2024|&lt;&lt; CVC 2024]] 
|}
2025 ke '''Pillay Garments Champions League''' Rewa aur Labasa ke biich me, Labasa ke Subrail Park aur Nausori ke Ratu Cakobau Park me khela gais rahaa. Rewa isme National League ke jiit ke qualify bhais aur Labasa isme BOG aur FACT ke jiitis rahaa.  Pahila game Rewa 1-0 se jiitis rahaa aur duusra game 0-0 se baraabar rahaa. Tab Rewa CVC super cup ke tiisra dafe jiitis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.fijifootball.com.fj/cvc-dates-confirmed-2/|website=Fiji Football Association|title=CVC dates confirmed|access-date=14 March 2024}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesf/fiji2024.html#cvc |website=Rec. Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation|title=Champion vs Champion 2023/24|access-date=14 March 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{winners|fb|2025 Champion versus Champion|Rewa|3rd}}


== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[Category:Champion versus Champion - Fiji|2025]]</text>
      <sha1>bxcozpwgon66e4d7dztzgf8o955t7jr</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2026</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>69550</id>
    <revision>
      <id>337713</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-24T11:58:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KaiRewa</username>
        <id>33465</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Panna jisme &quot;{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;'''Fiji Football Association Cup&lt;/big&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|115px]] | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | Image:FFALo...&quot; hae ke banae dewa gais hae.</comment>
      <origin>337713</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4565" sha1="294fgf2pw81xbqkcv0sha3eoffv7u0c" xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Fiji Football Association Cup&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|115px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90px&quot; | [[Image:FFALogo.jpg|50px]]
|}
|-
| width=&quot;75px&quot;|'''Number:''' || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;175px&quot;|'''35'''
|-
| '''Jagha:''' || Subrail Park, Labasa
|-
| '''Tarik:''' || 19 June - 21 June &amp; 27, 28 June
|-
| '''Winner:''' || Ba
|-
| '''Runner-up:''' || Navua
|-
| '''Goals:''' || 3 - 1 (aet, pen)
|-
| '''Goal banae waala:''' || 
|-

|-style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;2&quot;  |'''[[Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament 2024|&lt;&lt;FACT 2024]] 
|}

[[Fiji]] ke '''35th (Digicel) Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament''', [[19 June]] - [[21 June]] aur [[27 June]] - [[28 June]] [[2026]] talak [[Labasa]] ke [[Subrail Park]] me khela gais rahaa.

2025 ke jiite waala team Ba rahaa.

== Pool Stage ==
Tournament ke 8 team ke dui pool me baata gias rahaa. Duuno pool ke team, aapan pool me se aur sab team se ek dafe khelis. Ii sab game HFC Bank Stadium me  khela gais rahaa. Jeete waala team ke 3 point mila, draw khatir 1 point aur haare waala team ke 0 point.

=== Group A ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
!width=175                        |Team
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Played&quot;          |Pld
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Won&quot;             |W
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Drawn&quot;           |D
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Lost&quot;            |L
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Goals for&quot;       |GF
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Goals against&quot;   |GA
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Points&quot;          |Pts
|- bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;
|align=left|[[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]]&amp;nbsp; [[file:LabasaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|3||1||2||0||5||3||+2||5
|- bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;
|align=left| [[Navua Soccer Association|Navua]]&amp;nbsp; [[file:NavuaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|3||1||1||1||3||2||+1||4
|-
|align=left|[[Rewa Soccer Association|Rewa]]&amp;nbsp; [[file:RewaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|3||1||1||1||5||6||-1||4
|-
|align=left|[[Suva Soccer Association|Suva]]&amp;nbsp; [[file:SuvaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|3||0||2||1||2||4||-2||2
|}

=== Group B ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
!width=175                        |Team
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Played&quot;          |Pld
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Won&quot;             |W
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Drawn&quot;           |D
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Lost&quot;            |L
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Goals for&quot;       |GF
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Goals against&quot;   |GA
!width=30  abbr=&quot;Points&quot;          |Pts
|- bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;
|align=left|[[Lautoka Football Association|Lautoka]]&amp;nbsp; [[file:LautokaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|3||3||0||0||8||1||+7||9
|- bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;
|align=left| [[Ba Football Association|Ba]]&amp;nbsp; [[file:BaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|3||2||0||1||10||3||+7||6
|- 
|align=left| [[Nadroga Soccer Association|Nadroga]]&amp;nbsp;[[file:NadrogaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|3||1||0||2||5||6||-1||3
|-
|align=left|[[Nasinu Football Association|Nasinu]]&amp;nbsp;[[file:NasinuLogo.jpg|20px]]
|3||0||0||3||1||14||-13||0

|}

=== Semi finals ===
{{footballbox
|date = [[27 June]] [[2026]]
|time = 
|team1 = [[Ba Football Association|Ba]]&amp;nbsp; [[file:BaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|score = 1 &amp;ndash; 0 (aet)
|report =  
|team2 = [[file:LabasaLogo.jpg|20px]]&amp;nbsp; [[Labasa Soccer Association|Labasa]] 
|goals1 = 
|goals2 =  
|stadium = [[Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]]
|attendance = 
|referee =  
}}
{{footballbox
|date = [[27 June]] [[2026]]
|time = 
|team1 = [[Lautoka Football Association|Lautoka]]&amp;nbsp; [[file:SuvaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|score = 1 &amp;ndash; 2 (aet)
|report =  
|team2 = [[file:NavuaLogo.jpg|20px]]&amp;nbsp; [[Navua Soccer Association|Navua]] 
|goals1 = 
|goals2 =  
|stadium = [[Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]]
|attendance = 
|referee =  
}}

=== Final ===
{{footballbox
|date = [[28 June]] [[2026]]
|time = 
|team1 = [[Ba Football Association|Ba]]&amp;nbsp; [[file:BaLogo.jpg|20px]]
|score = 3 &amp;ndash; 1 (aet, pen)
|report =  
|team2 = [[file:NavuaLogo.jpg|20px]]&amp;nbsp; [[Navua Soccer Association|Navua]] 
|goals1 = 
|goals2 =  
|stadium = [[Subrail Park]], [[Labasa]]
|attendance = 
|referee =  
}}

{{winners|fb|2026 Fiji FACT|Ba|10th}}

== References ==

* [http://www.rsssf.com/tablesf/fiji2025.html The Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation]

&lt;references/&gt;

== Aur dekho ==
* [[Fiji me football]]
{{portal|Fiji me football|Soccer ball.svg|size=50|left=yes}}
&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
----
{{FFATOURNAMENTS2}}

[[vibhag:B]]
[[vibhag:2026]]
[[vibhag:Fiji Football Association Cup Tournament|2026]]</text>
      <sha1>294fgf2pw81xbqkcv0sha3eoffv7u0c</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
</mediawiki>