1917 ke Russian Revolution

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    <title>1917 ke Russian Revolution</title>
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      <text bytes="10110" sha1="95nhucgzcew5cn7ph7fv12xytlk4wjn" xml:space="preserve">'''Russian Revolution of 1917''' dui revolution rahaa jisse Russia ke [[Tsar]]ist [[autocracy]] ke khalaas kar ke [[Soviet Union]] suruu karaa gais rahaa. Pahila revolution  February 1917 me rahaa. Iske baad Czar ke raj ke jagha ek Provisional government banawa gais rahaa. Duusra revolution October me rahaa jiske baad [[Bolshevik]]s log Provisional government ke hatae ke communist Russia banain.

==Background==
[[File:U Narvskikh vorot.jpg|thumb|Soldiers Narva Gate ke block kare hae,  Bloody Sunday ke roj]]
[[Revolution of 1905|Russian Revolution of 1905]] khaas kaaran rahaa Revolutions of 1917 ke. 1905 ke Bloody Sunday ke kaaran des bhar me log protest kare rahin aur sipahi log mutiny kare rahin. Ii garrbarri ke kaaran majuur log iske  ek majuur ke council, [[St. Petersburg Soviet]] ke banae rahin.{{Sfn|Wood|2004|page=18}} Jab 1905 Revolution ke aakhri me kuchal dewa gais rahaa, aur St. Petersburg Soviet ke neta log ke arrest kar lewa gais rahaa, jon baad ke [[Petrograd Soviet]] aur duusra revolutionary movements  1917 talak, ke groundwork lay karis rahaa. this laid the groundwork for the later  1905 Revolution ke kaaran [[Duma]] (parliament) bhi banaa rahaa jon baad me Provisional Government following February 1917 ke banais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Perfect |title=Reinventing Russia |last2=Ryan |last3=Sweeny |date=2016 |publisher=History Teachers Association of Victoria |isbn=978-1-8755-8505-2 |location=Collingwood}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Russia ke kharaab performance  1914–1915 me, ke kaaran  dher complaints  [[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar Nicholas II]]  aur the [[House of Romanov|Romanov family]], ke uppar directed rahaa. Khaali kuchh din ke [[Russian nationalism|patriotic nationalism]] khalaas hoe gais larrai me haar aur  [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front of World War I]] me kharaab conditions ke kaaran. Tsar prastithi ke aur kharaab kar diis jab uu   [[Imperial Russian Army]] ke 1915 me direct control le liis, ek kaam jiske khaatir uske koi hunnar nai rahaa. Ab uske log personally dos dewat rahin Russia ke continuing defeats aur losses ke khaatir. Iske alaawa, [[Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)|Tsarina Alexandra]], jon raaj karat rahii jab  Tsar  front pe rahaa, [[Germany]] me paida bhae rahii, jiske kaaran log uspe sak karat rahin, jon aur kharaab hoe gais jab rumors failaa ki uske  controversial mystic [[Grigori Rasputin]] se kuchh sambandh rahaa. Rasputin ke influence ke kaaran  kharaab ministerial appointments karaa gais rahaa aur corruption jaada bhais rahaa, jiske kaaran Russia ke bhittar ke prastithi aur kharaab hoe gais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;/&gt;

Jab [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Central Powers]] ke bagal se, October 1914 me larrai me bhaag le lagaa, tab Russia Russia ke khaas  trade route  [[Mediterranean Sea]] talakband hoe gais rahaa, jiske kaaran economic crisis aur munitions shortages aur kharaab hoe gais rahaa. Yahii time, Germany dher munitions banaawat rahaa aur  duuno two major battlefronts pe larrai karat rahaa.{{Sfn|Wood|2004|page=24}}
{{multiple image
| align       = right
| total_width = 300
| image1      = Lenin in 1920 (cropped).jpg
| caption1    = [[Vladimir Lenin]], jon [[Soviet Union]] ke suruu karis rahaa aur [[Bolshevik party]] ke neta.
| image2      = Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R15068, Leo Dawidowitsch Trotzki.jpg
| caption2    = [[Leon Trotsky]],  [[Red Army]] ke suruu kare waala aur   [[October Revolution]] ke ek khaas jan.
}}

Larrai ke time ke kharaa prastithi ke kaaran  morale Russian army aur general population me bahut niche gir gais rahaa. Ii cities me jaada dekhaawat rahaa, kaaheki khaana ke kami rahaa, disruption of agriculture ke kaaran. Khaana ke kami  Russia me ek khaas problem hoe gais rahaa, lekin iske kaaran kharaab fasal nai rahaa, jon larrai ke time bahut badla nai rahaa Iske khaas kaaran sarkar rahaa, ijon larrai ke  bhare ke khaatir  dher paisa chaapis rahaa, aur 1917 talak, inflation ke kaaran chij ke daam  chaar guna barr gais rahaa, 1914 ke mukaable me. Kisan ke bhi kharchaa jaada hoe gais rahaa, lekin aamdani me koi badlao nai rahaa.  Iske kaaran uu log  grain ke bacjae ke rakkhe lagin aur [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence farming]] pe laut gain. Ii rakam se city me sab time khaana ke kami rahaa. Yahii time, chij ke daam barrhe ke kaaran, majuur jin factory me kaam karat rahin aur jaada talab ke maang kare lage rahin aur January aur February 1916 me, revolutionary [[propaganda]], jon kuchh had talak Germany se fund karaa gais raha, ke kaaran dher strikes bhais rahaa. Iske kaaran sarkar ke burrai aur hoe lagaa, jisme increased participation of majuur revolutionary parties me bhi rahaa.

Liberal parties ke jaada platform mila aapan   complaints ke batae ke, kaaheki suruu me larrai ke popularity ke kaaaran  Tsarist sarkar variety of political organizations ke allow karis rahaa. July 1915 me, ek Central War Industries Committee ke banaawa gais rahaa chairmanship of prominent [[Union of October 17|Octobrist]], [[Alexander Guchkov]] (1862–1936) ke niche, jisme 10 majuur ke  representatives rahaa. Petrograd Mensheviks agree karin join hoe ke  despite the objections of their leaders abroad. Ii sab activity gave renewed encouragement to political ambitions, aur September 1915 me, ek combination of Octobrists aur [[Constitutional Democratic Party|Kadets]]  Duma me,  ek responsible government ke banae ke maang karin, jiske Tsar reject kar diiis.{{Sfn|Wood|2004|page=25}}

Ii sab kaaran se sarkar me biswas khalaas hoe gais rahaa, raaj kare waala class me bhi, aur ii larrai bhar aur kharaab hote rahaa.  1916 ke suruu me, [[Guchkov]] discuss karis rahaa senior army officers aur members of the Central War Industries Committee se, ki ek coup karaa jaae aur Tzar ke  pad se nikle ke majboor karaa jaae. December me,  nobles ke ek chhotaa gut [[Grigori Rasputin#Death|assassinated Rasputin]], aur January 1917 me  Tsar ke cousin, [[Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929)|Grand Duke Nicholas]], ke indirectly  [[Georgy Lvov|Prince Lvov]]  puchis ki ka uu rajgaddi aapan nephew, Tsar Nicholas II, se le ke taiyaar hae. Ii sab ghatna apne se  February Revolution ke kaaran nai rahaa, lekin ii sanjhae hae ki  monarchy survived only a few days after khaali kuchh din talak survive karis jab revolution suruu hoe gais rahaa. {{Sfn|Wood|2004|page=25}}

Yahii time Socialist Revolutionary leaders jon exile me rahin, jisme se dher [[Switzerland]] me rahat rahin, bath ke dekhat rahin  the collapse of international socialist solidarity. [[French Section of the Workers' International|French]] aur [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|German Social Democrats]] aapan sarkar ke larrai ke effort ke support kare rahin.  [[Georgi Plekhanov]], [[Paris]] me ek violently [[Anti-German sentiment|anti-German]] stand adopt karis rahaa, jab [[Alexander Parvus]]  ke samarthan karis rahaa , kaaheki uu sochat rahaa ki sab se achchhaa marg hae jisse Russia me  revolution ke endure karaa jaae sake. TMensheviks largely maintained ki Russia ke apne ke  Germany se defend kare ke right rahaa, jab [[Julius Martov]] (ek prominent Menshevik), jon aapan groip ke left me rahaa, demand karis ki larrai ke khatam karaa jaae aur ek samjhautaa on the basis of national self-determination, bina annexations aur indemnities ke.{{Sfn|Wood|2004|page=25}}

Martov rahaa jiske bichaar jaada rahaa  ek manifesto me jiske [[Leon Trotsky]] (at the time a Menshevik) likhis rahaa, ek  conference me, [[Zimmerwald]] me, jiske  35 Socialist leaders, September 1915 me attend kare rahin. Jaise sab sochat rahin, Vladimir Lenin jiske [[Grigory Zinoviev|Zinoviev]] aur [[Karl Radek|Radek]] support kare rahin, strongly contested them. Ii log ke attitudes ke [[Zimmerwald Conference|Zimmerwald Left]] ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa. Lenin, duuno  defence of Russia aur cry for peace, ke reject aris rahaa. 1914 ke autumn se, uu insist karis rahaa ki &quot;from the standpoint of the working class and of the labouring masses the lesser evil would be the defeat of the Tsarist Monarchy&quot;; larrai ke ek  civil war of the proletarian soldiers against their own governments me badal de ke chaahi, aur agar ek proletarian jiit bhais  Russia me, tab ii uulog ke duty hae ki ek  revolutionary war for the liberation of the masses Europe bhar me wage karaa jaae.{{Sfn|Wood|2004|page=26}}

===Economic aur samajik badlao===
[[File:Броневик и юнкера на Дворцовой площади 1917.jpg|thumb|[[Russian Provisional Government|Provisional Government]] ke volunteer sipaahi Petrograd ke [[Palace Square]] ke secure kare hae,  [[Austin Armoured Car]] se, 1917 ke summer me.]]

Ek sahaj theory of [[property]], jisme dher kisan log biswas kare hae, rahaa ki jammin ke uulog ke khaatir rahe ke chaahi jon uspe kaam kare hae.  Yahii time, kisan ke jindagi aur sanskriti badalte rahaa.  Badlao ke kaaran  rahaa jaada gaon ke kisan ke  to and from industrial aur urban jagha jaae ke, lekin city sanskriti ke gaon me faile se,   material goods, the press, aur word of mouth se.&lt;ref group=&quot;nb&quot;&gt;For recent research on peasants, see {{Cite book |author-link= Christine Worobec |first= Christine |last= Worobec |title=Peasant Russia: Family and Community in the Post Emancipation Period |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=1955}}; {{Cite book |editor-last=Frank |editor-first=Stephen P. |editor-last2=Steinberg |editor-first2=Mark D. |title=Cultures in Flux |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=1994}}; {{Cite book |author-link= Barbara Engel (historian) |first= Barbara Alpern |last= Engel |title=Between the Fields and the City: Women, Work, and Family in Russia, 1861–1914 |url= https://archive.org/details/betweenfieldscit0000enge |publisher=Cambridge |date=1994}}; {{Cite book |first=Jeffrey |last=Burds |title=Peasant Dreams and Market Politics |publisher=Pittsburgh |date=1998}}; {{Cite book |first=Stephen |last=Frank |title=Crime, Cultural Conflict and Justice in Rural Russia, 1856–1914 |publisher=University of California at Berkeley Press |date=1999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;


==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:R]]
[[Category:Itihaas]]
[[Category:Russia]]
[[Vibhag:1917]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Qing Dynasty</title>
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      <text bytes="10938" sha1="r5h676v66nq3goittnouenma5avtm3u" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Flag of China (1889–1912).svg|right|250px|thumb|Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1890–1912)]]
[[File:Qing china.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Territory of the Qing Dynasty (1892)]]
'''Qing Dynasty''' (Chinese bhasa: 清朝; pinyin: Qīng cháo) [[1644]] [[AD]] se [[1912]] [[AD]] talak [[China]] ke ek [[dynasty]] rahaa. Ii dynasty [[Manchu]] log suruu kare rahin aur yahii kaaran se iske pahile waala naam '''Manchu Dynasty''' rahaa.

==Naam==

Hong Taiji , ''Great Qing'' dynasty ke 1636 me proclaim karis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Yamamuro |first=Shin'ichi |title=Manchuria Under Japanese Domination |url=https://archive.org/details/manchuriaunderja0000yama |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0812239126 |page=[https://archive.org/details/manchuriaunderja0000yama/page/246 246] |translator-last=Fogel |translator-first=J.A.}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Chinese character]] {{zhi|c=清|p=Qīng|l=clear, pure|out=p}} ke matlab ke dher explanation hae. Ek theory  Ming character: the character {{zhi|c=明|p=Míng|l=bright|out=p}}  se contrast kare hae, aur ii aagi se taaluk rakkhe haeis  [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Chinese zodiacal system]] me, jab {{zhi|c=清|p=Qīng|out=p}}  water se associated hae, jon  Qing ke jiit ke dekhae hae, jisme aagi paani ke uppar vijay rahaa. Ii naam ke  Buddhist implications hoe sake hae, jisme ii perspicacity aur enlightenment hae, aur iske alaawa  bodhisattva [[Manjusri]] se connection rahaa.{{sfnp|Crossley|1997|pp=212–213}}
Pahile ke [[Europe]] ke lekhak &quot;Tartar&quot; sabd ke bina soche-samjhe sab  Northern Eurasia ke log ke khaatir kaam me laawat rahin  lekin [[17th century]] me Catholic missionary lekh me &quot;Tartar&quot; ke Manchus aur &quot;[[Tartary]]&quot; ke khaatir kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa, uu jagha ke khaatir jispe uulog raaj karat rahin  — jaise [[Manchuria]] aur bagal ke [[Inner Asia]] ke hissa,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Dong |first=Shaoxin |title=Foreign Devils and Philosophers Cultural Encounters between the Chinese, the Dutch, and Other Europeans, 1590–1800 |publisher=Brill |year=2020 |isbn=978-9004418929 |editor-last=Weststeijn |editor-first=Thijs |location=Leiden |pages=82–83 |chapter=The Tartars in European Missionary Writings of the Seventeenth Century |access-date=14 March 2021 |chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004418929/BP000004.xml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508232543/https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004418929/BP000004.xml |archive-date=8 May 2021 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Woolley |first=Nathan |title=Celestial Empire: Life in China 1644–1911 |pages=107 |year=2016 |publisher=National Library of Australia |isbn=9780642278760}}&lt;/ref&gt; jispe  Qing raaj karat rahin  [[Ming–Qing transition]] se pahile.

China ke khaas ilaaka pe kabjaa kare ke baad, Manchus aapan raajya ke  &quot;China&quot; bolat rahin, China  standard English translation   Chinese me aur {{tlit|mnc|Dulimbai Gurun}} Manchu me, ke rahaa. Qing ke emperor log  Qing state ke ilaaka (jisme aur jagha rahaa, abhi ke Northeast China, Xinjiang, Mongolia, aur Tibet) ke &quot;China&quot; maanat rahin, duuno Chinese aur Manchu bhasa me, jisme China ke ek multi-ethnic state maana jaawat rahaa, aur reject karat rahaa ii idea ki khaali Han ilaaka  &quot;China&quot; ke hissa rahaa. Sarkar &quot;China&quot; aur &quot;Qing&quot; ke adal-badal ke kaam me laaawat rahaa aapan official documents me,{{sfnp|Zhao|2006|pp=4, 7–10, 12–14 and 24 n. 4}} jisme Chinese-bhasa versions  treaties aur [[dunia]] ke map bhi rahaa.  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bilik |first=Naran |date=2007 |title=Names Have Memories: History, Semantic Identity and Conflict in Mongolian and Chinese Language Use |journal=Inner Asia |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=34 |doi=10.1163/146481707793646629}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sabd 'Chinese log' ({{zhi|t=中國人 |p=Zhōngguórén}} me; Manchu: sab Han log, Manchu, aur Mongols jon  Qing Empire ke subject rahin.{{sfnp|Zhao|2006|pp=4, 7–10, 12–14}} Jab Qing [[Ten Great Campaigns#The Zunghars and pacification of Xinjiang (1755–1759)|conquered Dzungaria in 1759]], tab uu Manchu-bhasa memorial me proclaim karis rahaa ki nawaa ilaaka ab &quot;China&quot; me hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dunnell2004&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Dunnell |first1=Ruth W. |url={{Google books|6qFH-53_VnEC|plainurl=yes}} |title=New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde |last2=Elliott |first2=Mark C. |last3=Foret |first3=Philippe |last4=Millward |first4=James A. |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-1134362226}}&lt;/ref&gt; Qing sarkar ii  ideology ke failais ki  &quot;outer&quot; non-Han log—jaise dher abaadi Mongolian ke, aur Tibetans bhi—ke ek saathe karnaa  &quot;inner&quot; Han Chinese ke saathe &quot;ek palwaar&quot; me, ektaa rahaa Qing state me. Phraseology jaise {{zhi|c=中外一家|p=Zhōngwài yījiā|out=p}} aur {{zhi|c=內外一家|p=nèiwài yījiā|out=p}}—duuno anuwaad how hae 'ghare aur pardes ek palwaar ke rakam'—ke kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa dekhae khaatir idea of Qing-mediated trans-cultural ektaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dunnell2004&quot; /&gt;

==Itihaas==

===Formation===

Qing dynasty ke [[Han Chinese]] , jiske des ke puuraa abaadi me bahumati rahaa, nai suruu kare rahin lekin [[Manchus]], ek sedentary kisan log jon  [[Jurchens]], ek Tungusic log jon uu ilaaka me rahat rahin jisme abhi e Chinese provinces  [[Jilin]] aur [[Heilongjiang]] hae, se descended rahin.{{sfnp|Ebrey|2010|p=220}}

====Nurhaci====
[[File:Minggunbattle.jpg|thumb|Manchu cavalry charging Ming infantry at the 1619 Battle of Sarhū me]]

Manchu state ke suruu waala style ke  [[Nurhaci]], jon ek chhotaa Jurchen tribe{{snd}} Aisin-Gioro{{snd}} [[Jianzhou Jurchens|Jianzhou]] me,  early [[17th century]] ke chief rahaa, suruu karis rahaa. Nurhaci saait Han household in me aapan jawani me rahaa hoi, aur  [[Chinese bhasa|Chinese]] aur [[Mongolian bhasa|Mongolian]] bhasa me achchhaa baat karat rahaa aur   Chinese novels ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' aur ''[[Water Margin]]'' ke parrhis rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Swope |first=Kenneth M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WRaoAgAAQBAJ&amp;q=three+kingdoms+nurhaci+romance&amp;pg=PA16 |title=The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44 |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-1134462094 |edition=Illustrated |page=16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Mair |first1=Victor H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agI7CwAAQBAJ&amp;q=three+kingdoms+nurhaci+romance&amp;pg=PT159 |title=Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization |last2=Chen |first2=Sanping |last3=Wood |first3=Frances |publisher=Thames &amp; Hudson |year=2013 |isbn=978-0500771471 |edition=Illustrated}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Ming emperors ke niche, uu apne ke officially ek guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of the Ming dynasty maanat rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peterson&quot; /&gt; Nurhaci ek intertribal larrai ke 1582 me suruu karis rahaa jon barr ke ek campaign to [[Jurchen unification|unify the nearby tribes]] hoe gais rahaa. Uu suruu karis rahaa organise kare [[Eight Banners]] military system jisme rahaa Manchu, Han, aur [[Mongols|Mongol]] log. 1616 talak, uu Jianzhou ke etna ek saathe kar liis rahaa, jisse uu apne ke [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the [[Later Jin (1616–1636)|Later Jin dynasty]] in reference to the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty]] proclaim karis rahaa.{{sfnp|Ebrey|2010|pp=220–224}}

Dui saal baad, Nurhaci announced karis &quot;[[Seven Grievances]]&quot; aur khule-aam renounce karis rahaa sovereignty of Ming overlordship  Jurchen tribes ke unification ke complete kare ke khaatir jon abhi talak  Ming emperor ke saathe rahin. Kuchh larrai me haar ke baad, uu aapan capital ke  [[Hetu Ala]] se hatae ke successively bigger captured Ming cities  Liaodong me: pahile [[Liaoyang]] 1621 me, fir [[Mukden]] (Shenyang) 1625 me, kar liis rahaa.{{sfnp|Ebrey|2010|pp=220–224}} Iske alaawa, Khorchin larrai me achchhaa ally rahin,  Jurchens ke aapan as  their expertise as cavalry archers dewat rahin. ii nawaa  alliance ke guarantee kare ke khaatir, Nurhaci suruu karis rahaa ek policy jisme inter-marriages Jurchen aur Khorchin nobilities ke biich me howat rahaa, aur jon iske nai maangat rahaa ke  military action ke saaman kare ke parrat rahaa. Ii ek typical example hae Nurhaci ke initiatives ke jon baad me   official Qing government policy ban gais rahaa. Qing jamaanake jaada hissa me, Mongols  military assistance  Manchus ke de rahin.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, Amir Harrak-Contacts between cultures, Vol. 4, p. 25&lt;/ref&gt;

====Hong Taiji====
Nurhaci 1626 me mar gais rahaa, aur uske aathwa larrka, [[Hong Taiji]] use succeed karis rahaa. Jab Hong Taiji ek experienced neta rahaa aur commander of two Banners rahaa, Jurchens  1627 ke larrai me haar gay rahin, jiske kaaran kuchh hissa talak  Ming ke nawaa lewa gais [[Hongyipao|Portuguese cannons]] rahaa. Ii technological aur numerical disparity ke address kare ke khaatir, Hong Taiji, 1634 me, aapan  artillery corps banais rahaa, jon apne se cannons ke banae rahin  European design pe,  ek defector Chinese metallurgist ke nadat se. Ek khaas ghatna  Hong Taiji ke reign ke rahaa, official adoption naam &quot;Manchu&quot; ke,  united Jurchen log ke,  November 1635 me. 1635 me,  Manchu ke Mongol allies ke puura incorporate kar lewa gais rahaa  ek alag Banner hierarchy,  direct Manchu command ke niche. April 1636 me, [[Mongol nobility]], Inner Mongolia ke, Manchu nobility aur Han [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarin]] recommended karin ki Hong, Baad ke Jin ke khan ke ruup me,  Great Qing ke emporer hoe ke chaahi.{{sfnp|Rawski|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&amp;pg=PA177 177]}}&lt;ref&gt;Tumen jalafun jecen akū: Manchu studies in honour of Giovanni Stary By Giovanni Stary, Alessandra Pozzi, Juha Antero Janhunen, Michael Weiers&lt;/ref&gt; Jab uske [[Imperial Seal of China|imperial seal]] of the [[Yuan dynasty]] ke dewa gais rahaa, aakhari [[Khagan]] of the Mongols ke harae ke baad, Hong Taiji aapan state ke naam ke &quot;Great Jin&quot; se badal ke &quot;Great Qing&quot; kar diis rahaa aur aapan position ke  Khan se uppar kar ke [[Emperor of China|Emperor]] kar diis rahaa, jon ii suggest kare hae ki uske imperial ambitions  unifying the Manchu territories se aur duur rahaa. Hong Taiji iske baad suruu karis rahaa [[Second Manchu invasion of Korea|invade Korea]] fir se, 1636 me.

[[File:Sura han ni chiha. Currency of the farther East. No.850.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Hong Taiji ke paisa Manchu script me]]

Yahii time, Hong Taiji ek rudimentary bureaucratic system ke suruu karis rahaa, jon  Ming model pe based rahaa.Uu suruu karis rahaa six boards nai to  executive level ministries, 1631 me  finance, personnel, rites, military, punishments, aur public works ke dekhe ke khaatir. Lekin, ii administrative organs suruu me bahut kaamil nai rahaa, aur khaali das saal baad, jab uu aapan ke khalaas kare waala rahaa jab ii system achchhaa se chale lagaa rahaa.{{sfnp|Li|2002|pp=60–62}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Q]]
[[Category:China ke itihaas]]
[[Vibhag:1644 establishments]]
[[Vibhag:1892 disestablishments]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Vietnam War</title>
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      <comment>Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260923)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="27819" sha1="2byg76urflyii077fcxtbawuasvmqoi" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict    = Vietnam War
| part_of     = the [[Indochina wars|Indochina Wars]] and the [[Cold War]]
| image       = {{Multiple image
| image1      = U.S. Army UH-1H Hueys insert ARVN troops at Khâm Đức, Vietnam, 12 July 1970 (79431435).jpg
| caption1    = American [[Bell UH-1 Iroquois|Huey]] helicopters inserting South Vietnamese [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam|ARVN]] troops, 1970
| image2      = Pavnbattle.jpg
| caption2    = North Vietnamese [[People's Army of Vietnam|PAVN]] troops in action, {{circa|1966}}
| image3      = Hue Massacre Interment.jpg
| caption3    = Burial of civilians killed in the [[Massacre at Huế|Huế massacre]], 1968
| image4      = Flame Thrower. Operation New Castle. - NARA - 532488.tif
| caption4    = [[United States Marine Corps|American marines]] using a [[flamethrower]], 1967
| image5      = Bombing in Vietnam (rotated).jpg
| caption5    = Aerial bombing in [[Operation Rolling Thunder]]
| image6      = Saigon Execution.jpg
| caption6    = ''[[Saigon Execution]]'': South Vietnamese general [[Nguyễn Ngọc Loan]] summarily executes [[Viet Cong]] captain Lê Công Nà during the [[Tet Offensive]], 1968
| width       = 180
| perrow      = 1/2/2/1
| border      = infobox
| total_width = 300
}}
| date        = circa 1955&lt;ref group=A name=&quot;start date&quot; /&gt;{{snd}}30 April 1975
| location    = {{flatlist|
* [[South Vietnam]]
* [[North Vietnam]]
* [[Kingdom of Laos|Laos]]
* [[Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–1970)|Cambodia]]
* [[South China Sea]]
* [[Gulf of Thailand]]
}}
| territory   = {{bulleted list | Reunification of [[North Vietnam]] and [[Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam|South Vietnam]] into the [[Vietnam|Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] in 1976 |Chinese control of the [[Paracel Islands]] }}
| result      = [[North Vietnam]]ese victory
| combatant2  = {{Plainlist|
* {{Flag|South Vietnam}}
* {{Flag|United States|1960}}
* {{Flagcountry|Third Republic of Korea}}
* {{Flag|Australia}}
* {{Flag|New Zealand}}
* {{Flagcountry|Kingdom of Laos}} (from 1959)
* {{Flagcountry|Khmer Republic}}
* {{Flag|Thailand|1932}}
* {{Flagcountry|Fourth Philippine Republic}}
* {{Flag|Taiwan}}
}}
| combatant1  = {{Plainlist|
* {{Flag|North Vietnam}}
* {{Flagcountry|Viet Cong}} and [[Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam|PRG]]
* {{Flagdeco|Laos}} [[Pathet Lao]]
* {{Flagdeco|Cambodia|1975}} [[Khmer Rouge]]
* {{Flagdeco|Cambodia|1973}} [[GRUNK]]
* {{Flag|China}}
* {{Flag|Soviet Union|1955}}
* {{Flag|North Korea|1948}}
}}
| strength1   = '''≈860,000''' (1967)
{{Plainlist|
* {{Flagdeco|North Vietnam}} North Vietnam:&lt;br&gt;690,000 (1966, including [[People's Army of Vietnam|PAVN]] and Viet Cong){{Refn|group=&quot;A&quot;|According to Hanoi's official history, the Viet Cong was a branch of the People's Army of Vietnam.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Military History Institute of Vietnam|2002|p=182}}. &quot;By the end of 1966 the total strength of our armed forces was 690,000 soldiers.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;}}
* {{Flagdeco|Republic of South Vietnam}} Viet Cong:&lt;br&gt;~200,000 (estimated, 1968)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Doyle |first1=Edward |title=The Vietnam Experience The North |last2=Lipsman |first2=Samuel |last3=Maitland |first3=Terence |publisher=Time Life Education |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-939526-21-5 |pages=45–49}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|China|1949}} China:&lt;br&gt;170,000 (1968)&lt;br&gt;320,000 total&lt;ref name=&quot;Toledo Blade 320,000 Chinese troops&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |date=16 May 1989 |title=China admits 320,000 troops fought in Vietnam |work=Toledo Blade |agency=Reuters |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&amp;dat=19890516&amp;id=HkRPAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3769,1925460 |access-date=24 December 2013 |archive-date=2 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702034430/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&amp;dat=19890516&amp;id=HkRPAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3769,1925460 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Roy&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Denny |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasforeignrel0000royd/page/27 |title=China's Foreign Relations |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8476-9013-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasforeignrel0000royd/page/27 27]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Womack&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Womack |first=Brantly |title=China and Vietnam |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-61834-2 |page=[{{GBurl|id=GaZvX2BzeegC|p=176}} 179]|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|Cambodia|1975}} Khmer Rouge:&lt;br&gt;70,000 (1972)&lt;ref name=&quot;Tucker&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C |title=The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-85109-960-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Rp|376}}
* {{Flagdeco|Laos}} Pathet Lao:&lt;br&gt;48,000 (1970)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Area Handbook Series Laos |url=http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/laos/la_glos.html#Lao |access-date=1 November 2019 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307033933/http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/laos/la_glos.html#Lao |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|USSR}} Soviet Union: 10,359+&lt;ref name=&quot;LMN&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Lê Minh Nam |date=2025 |title=Chuyên gia quân sự Liên Xô và hành trình 10 năm hỗ trợ Việt Nam chống Mỹ, cứu nước |url=https://vietnamnet.vn/chuyen-gia-quan-su-lien-xo-va-10-nam-ho-tro-viet-nam-chong-my-cuu-nuoc-2389949.html |website=VietnamNet |quote=Theo thống kê của Tổng cục Tác chiến Bộ Tổng Tham mưu Các lực lượng vũ trang Liên Xô, từ ngày 11/7/1965 đến ngày 31/12/1974, có 6.359 sĩ quan, tướng lĩnh và hơn 4.500 binh sĩ, hạ sĩ quan Liên Xô đã tham gia chiến đấu, trong đó, có 13 chuyên gia đã hy sinh do bom đạn Mỹ, 3 chuyên gia mất tại Việt Nam vì bệnh tật |trans-quote=According to statistics from the [[Main Operational Directorate of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces|Main Operational Directorate of the General Staff]] of the Soviet Armed Forces, between 11 July 1965 and 31 December 1974, 6,359 Soviet officers and generals and over 4,500 Soviet soldiers and non-commissioned officers took part in combat activities, including 13 specialists who died due to US bombs and 3 specialists who died in Vietnam from illness.}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|North Korea|1948}} North Korea: 200&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Pham Thi Thu Thuy |date=1 August 2013 |title=The colorful history of North Korea-Vietnam relations |work=[[NK News]] |url=https://www.nknews.org/2013/08/the-colorful-history-of-north-korea-vietnam-relations/ |access-date=3 October 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424055821/http://www.nknews.org/2013/08/the-colorful-history-of-north-korea-vietnam-relations/|archive-date=24 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
| strength2   = '''≈1,420,000''' (1968)
{{Plainlist|
* {{Flagdeco|South Vietnam}} South Vietnam:&lt;br&gt;850,000 (1968)&lt;br&gt;1,500,000 (1974–1975)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Le Gro |first=William |url=https://history.army.mil/html/books/090/90-29/CMH_Pub_90-29.pdf |title=Vietnam from ceasefire to capitulation |publisher=US Army Center of Military History |year=1985 |isbn=978-1-4102-2542-9 |page=28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202012033/https://history.army.mil/html/books/090/90-29/CMH_Pub_90-29.pdf|archive-date=2 February 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|US|1960}} United States:&lt;br&gt;2,709,918 serving in Vietnam total&lt;br&gt;Peak: 543,400 (April 1969)&lt;ref name=Tucker/&gt;{{Rp|xlv}}
* {{Flagdeco|Cambodia|1970}} Khmer Republic:&lt;br&gt;200,000{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}
* {{Flagdeco|Laos|1952}} Laos:&lt;br&gt;72,000 (Royal Army and [[Hmong people|Hmong]] militia)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The rise of Communism |url=http://www.footprinttravelguides.com/c/4999/the-rise-of-communism |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101117114707/http://footprinttravelguides.com/c/4999/the-rise-of-communism/ |archive-date=17 November 2010 |access-date=31 May 2018 |website=www.footprinttravelguides.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hmong rebellion in Laos |url=http://members.ozemail.com.au/~yeulee/Topical/Hmong%20rebellion%20in%20Laos.html |access-date=11 April 2021 |website=Members.ozemail.com.au|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404230156/http://members.ozemail.com.au/~yeulee/Topical/Hmong%20rebellion%20in%20Laos.html|archive-date=4 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|Third Republic of Korea}} South Korea:&lt;br&gt;48,000 per year (1965–1973, 320,000 total)
* {{Flagdeco|Thailand|1939}} Thailand: Peak: 11,570 (1969)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Vietnam War Allied Troop Levels 1960–73 |url=http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwatl.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160802134052/http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwatl.htm |archive-date=2 August 2016 |access-date=2 August 2016}}, accessed 7 November 2017&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|Australia}} Australia: 50,190 total (Peak: 8,300 combat troops)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last1=Doyle |first1=Jeff |last2=Grey |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Pierce |first3=Peter |date=2002 |title=Australia's Vietnam War – A Select Chronology of Australian Involvement in the Vietnam War |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/14206/3/14206_Doyle_et_al_2002_Back_Pages.pdf |publisher=[[Texas A&amp;M University Press]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110165929/https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/14206/3/14206_Doyle_et_al_2002_Back_Pages.pdf|archive-date=10 November 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|New Zealand}} New Zealand: Peak: 552 in 1968&lt;ref name=Blackburn&gt;{{cite book|last=Blackburn|first=Robert M.|title=Mercenaries and Lyndon Johnson's &quot;More Flage&quot;: The Hiring of Korean, Filipino, and Thai Soldiers in the Vietnam War|url=https://archive.org/details/mercenarieslyndo0000blac|publisher=McFarland|year=1994|isbn=0-89950-931-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|158}}
* {{Flagdeco|Fourth Philippine Republic}} Philippines: 2,061
}}
| commander1  = {{Plainlist|
* {{Flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]]{{Natural Causes}}
* {{Flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Lê Duẩn]]
* {{Flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Lê Đức Thọ]]
* {{Flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Phạm Văn Đồng]]
* {{Flagdeco|South Vietnam|1975}} [[Nguyễn Chí Thanh]]{{Natural Causes}}
* {{Flagdeco|South Vietnam|1975}} [[Trần Văn Trà]]
* ''...{{Nbsp}}[[Leaders of the Vietnam War#Communist forces|and others]]''
}}
| commander2  = {{Plainlist|
* {{Flagicon|South Vietnam}} [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm]]{{Assassinated|Arrest and assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem}}
* {{Flagicon|South Vietnam}} [[Nguyễn Văn Thiệu]]
* {{Flagicon|South Vietnam}} [[Nguyễn Cao Kỳ]]
* {{Flagicon|US|1960}} [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Dwight Eisenhower]]
* {{Flagicon|US|1960}} [[John F. Kennedy]]{{Assassinated|Assassination of John F. Kennedy}}
* {{Flagicon|US|1960}} [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
* {{Flagicon|US|1960}} [[Richard Nixon]]
* {{Flagicon|US|1960}} [[Robert McNamara]]
* {{Flagicon|US|1960}} [[Melvin Laird]]
* {{Flagicon|US|1960}} [[William Westmoreland|W. C. Westmoreland]]
* {{Flagicon|US|1960}} [[Creighton Abrams]]
* ''...{{Nbsp}}[[Leaders of the Vietnam War#Anti-communist forces|and others]]''
}}
| casualties1 = {{Plainlist|
* {{Flagdeco|North Vietnam}}{{Flagdeco|Republic of South Vietnam}} North Vietnam and Viet Cong:
* 30,000–182,000 civilian dead&lt;ref name=Tucker/&gt;{{Rp|176}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Hirschman&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hirschman |first1=Charles |last2=Preston |first2=Samuel |last3=Loi |first3=Vu Manh |title=Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_population-and-development-review_1995-12_21_4/page/783 |journal=Population and Development Review |date=1995 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=783–812 |doi=10.2307/2137774 |jstor=2137774 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Lewy/&gt;{{Rp|450–453}}&lt;ref name=bfvietnam&gt;{{Cite web |title=Battlefield:Vietnam – Timeline |url=http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/timeline/index2.html |publisher=[[PBS]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604101618/http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/timeline/index2.html|archive-date=4 June 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 849,018 military dead (per Vietnam; 1/3 non-combat deaths)&lt;ref name=&quot;Moyar, Mark&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Chuyen&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |year=2015 |orig-year=2013 |title=Chuyên đề 4 CÔNG TÁC TÌM KIẾM, QUY TẬP HÀI CỐT LIỆT SĨ TỪ NAY ĐẾN NĂM 2020 VÀ NHỮNG NĂM TIẾP THEO |trans-title=Special Subject 4: The Work of Locating and Recovering the Remains of Martyrs From Now Until 2020 and Later Years |url=http://datafile.chinhsachquandoi.gov.vn/Qu%E1%BA%A3n%20l%C3%BD%20ch%E1%BB%89%20%C4%91%E1%BA%A1o/Chuy%C3%AAn%20%C4%91%E1%BB%81%204.doc |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404230151/http://datafile.chinhsachquandoi.gov.vn/Qu%E1%BA%A3n%20l%C3%BD%20ch%E1%BB%89%20%C4%91%E1%BA%A1o/Chuy%C3%AAn%20%C4%91%E1%BB%81%204.doc |archive-date=4 April 2023}}&lt;br /&gt; In {{Cite web |year=2015 |orig-year=2013 |title=Tập huấn công tác chính sách |trans-title=Training on Policy Affairs |url=http://chinhsachquandoi.gov.vn/tinbai/309/Tap-huan-cong-tac-chinh-sach |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217065036/http://chinhsachquandoi.gov.vn/tinbai/309/Tap-huan-cong-tac-chinh-sach |archive-date=17 December 2018 |access-date=11 June 2018 |publisher=[[Ministry of Defence (Vietnam)|Ministry of Defence]], Government of Vietnam |language=vi}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 666,000–950,765 dead (US estimated 1964–1974){{Refn|Upper figure initial estimate, later thought to be inflated by at least 30% (lower figure)&lt;ref name=Hirschman/&gt;&lt;ref name=Lewy/&gt;{{Rp|450–453}}|name=USclaim|group=A}}&lt;ref name=Hirschman/&gt;&lt;ref name=Lewy/&gt;{{Rp|450–451}}
* 232,000+ military missing (per Vietnam)&lt;ref name=&quot;Moyar, Mark&quot;&gt;Moyar, Mark. &quot;Triumph Regained: The Vietnam War, 1965–1968&quot;. Encounter Books, December 2022. Chapter 17 index: &quot;Communists provided further corroboration of the proximity of their casualty figures to American figures in a postwar disclosure of total losses from 1960 to 1975. During that period, they stated, they lost 849,018 killed plus approximately 232,000 missing and 463,000 wounded. Casualties fluctuated considerably from year to year, but a degree of accuracy can be inferred from the fact that 500,000 was 59% of the 849,018 total and that 59% of the war's days had passed by the time of Fallaci's conversation with Giap. The killed in action figure comes from &quot;Special Subject 4: The Work of Locating and Recovering the Remains of Martyrs From Now Until 2020 And Later Years,&quot; downloaded from the Vietnamese government website datafile on 1 December 2017. The above figures on missing and wounded were calculated using Hanoi's declared casualty ratios for the period of 1945 to 1979, during which time the Communists incurred 1.1 million killed, 300,000 missing, and 600,000 wounded. Ho Khang, ed, ''Lich Su Khang Chien Chong My, Cuu Nuoc 1954–1975, Tap VIII: Toan Thang'' (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Chinh Tri Quoc Gia, 2008), 463.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joseph Babcock |date=29 April 2019 |title=Lost Souls: The Search for Vietnam's 300,000 or More MIAs |url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/lost-souls-search-vietnams-300000-or-more-mias |access-date=28 June 2021 |website=Pulitzer Centre|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110165934/https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/lost-souls-search-vietnams-300000-or-more-mias|archive-date=10 November 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 600,000+ military wounded{{sfn|Hastings|2018|p=739}}
*{{Flagdeco|Cambodia|1975}} Khmer Rouge: unknown
*{{Flagicon|Laos}} Pathet Lao: unknown
*{{Flagu|China|1949}}: ~1,100 dead and 4,200 wounded&lt;ref name=Womack/&gt;
*{{Flagu|Soviet Union}}: 16 dead&lt;ref name=&quot;LMN&quot; /&gt;
*{{Flagu|North Korea|1948}}: 14 dead&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=31 March 2000 |title=North Korea fought in Vietnam War |work=[[BBC News Online]] |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/696970.stm |access-date=18 October 2015|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312063506/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/696970.stm|archive-date=12 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/NKIDP_eDossier_2_North_Korean_Pilots_in_Vietnam_War.pdf|title=North Korean Pilots in the Skies over Vietnam|last=Pribbenow|first=Merle|publisher=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]]|date=November 2011|access-date=3 March 2023|page=1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605173651/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/NKIDP_eDossier_2_North_Korean_Pilots_in_Vietnam_War.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
{{Plainlist|
* '''Total military dead:'''
* ≈1,100,000
* '''Total missing:'''
* ≈300,000
* '''Total military wounded:'''
* ≈604,200
* (excluding [[Khmer Rouge]] and [[Pathet Lao]])
}}
| casualties2 = {{Plainlist|
* {{Flagu|South Vietnam}}:
* 195,000–430,000 civilian dead&lt;ref name=Hirschman/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lewy&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Lewy |first=Guenter |title=America in Vietnam |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-19-987423-1 |author-link=Guenter Lewy}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Rp|450–453}}{{sfn|Thayer|1985|p={{page needed|date=May 2025}}}}
* Military dead: 313,000 (total)&lt;ref name=&quot;Rummel&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Rummel |first=R. J. |title=Vietnam Democide |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB6.1A.GIF |work=Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War, University of Hawaii System |year=1997 |format=GIF|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313125242/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB6.1A.GIF|archive-date=13 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
1,170,000 military wounded&lt;ref name=Tucker/&gt;{{Rp|}}
* ≈1,000,000 captured&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Hosmer |first1=Stephen T. |last2=Jenkins |first2=Brian Michael |last3=Kellen |first3=Konrad |title=The Fall of South Vietnam: Statements by Vietnamese Military and Civilian Leaders |date=1978 |publisher=Rand |isbn=978-0-8330-0045-3 |oclc=855302546 |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R2208.html }}{{page needed|date=May 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagu|United States|1960}}:
* 58,281 dead&lt;ref name=&quot;2new&quot;&gt;{{Cite press release |title=2021 NAME ADDITIONS AND STATUS CHANGES ON THE VIETNAM VETERANS MEMORIAL |date=4 May 2021 |url=https://www.vvmf.org/News/2021-Name-Additions-and-Status-Changes-on-the-Vietnam-Veterans-Memorial/ |author=Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429132111/https://www.vvmf.org/News/2021-Name-Additions-and-Status-Changes-on-the-Vietnam-Veterans-Memorial/|archive-date=29 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; (47,434 from combat)&lt;ref name=&quot;NARACasualties&quot;&gt;{{Citation |title=National Archives–Vietnam War US Military Fatal Casualties |date=15 August 2016 |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/military/vietnam-war/casualty-statistics#hostile |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526173917/https://www.archives.gov/research/military/vietnam-war/casualty-statistics#hostile |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NARACasualties&quot;/&gt;
* 303,644 wounded&lt;ref name=&quot;USd&amp;w&quot; group=&quot;A&quot; /&gt;
* {{Flagu|Laos|1952}}: 15,000 army dead&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lomperis |first1=Timothy J. |title=From People's War to People's Rule: Insurgency, Intervention, and the Lessons of Vietnam |url=https://archive.org/details/frompeopleswarto0000lomp_g5z3 |date=1996 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-2273-9 }}{{page needed|date=May 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|Cambodia|1970}} Khmer Republic: unknown
* {{Flagdeco|Third Republic of Korea}} South Korea: 5,099 dead; 10,962 wounded; 4 missing
* {{Flagu|Australia}}: 526 dead; 3,129 wounded&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dva.gov.au/news/latest-stories/remembering-those-who-served-in-the-vietnam-war |title=Remembering those who served in the Vietnam War |access-date=18 August 2025 |year=2025 |publisher=Australian Government - Department of Veterans' Affairs}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Australian casualties in the Vietnam War, 1962–72 |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/vietnam/statistics |access-date=29 June 2013 |publisher=Australian War Memorial|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214111653/https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/encyclopedia/vietnam/statistics|archive-date=14 February 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagu|Thailand|1939}}: 351 dead&lt;ref name=Tucker/&gt;{{Rp|}}
* {{Flagu|New Zealand}}: 37 dead&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 July 1965 |title=Overview of the war in Vietnam |url=http://vietnamwar.govt.nz/resources |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726010609/http://vietnamwar.govt.nz/resources |archive-date=26 July 2013 |access-date=29 June 2013 |publisher=New Zealand and the Vietnam War}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagu|Taiwan}}: 25 dead;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2 October 2013 |title=America Wasn't the Only Foreign Power in the Vietnam War |url=http://militaryhistorynow.com/2013/10/02/the-international-vietnam-war-the-other-world-powers-that-fought-in-south-east-asia/ |access-date=10 June 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418045659/http://militaryhistorynow.com/2013/10/02/the-international-vietnam-war-the-other-world-powers-that-fought-in-south-east-asia/|archive-date=18 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 17 captured&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |id={{ProQuest|115866424}} |title=Vietnam Reds Said to Hold 17 From Taiwan as Spies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/07/13/archives/vietnam-reds-said-to-hold-17-from-taiwan-as-spies.html |work=The New York Times |date=13 July 1964 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307170856/https://www.nytimes.com/1964/07/13/archives/vietnam-reds-said-to-hold-17-from-taiwan-as-spies.html |archive-date=7 March 2023 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Flagdeco|Fourth Philippine Republic}} Philippines: 9 dead;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Larsen |first1=Stanley Robert |last2=Collins, Jr. |first2=James Lawton |title=Allied Participation in Vietnam |date=2005 |url=https://history.army.mil/Portals/143/Images/Publications/Publication%20By%20Title%20Images/A%20Titles%20PDF/CMH_Pub_90-5-1.pdf?ver=kNA54nobZmjnmnuA6dNRng%3d%3d }}{{page needed|date=May 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; 64 wounded&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=March 1970 |title=Asian Allies in Vietnam |url=http://175thengineers.homestead.com/Philcav.pdf |access-date=18 October 2015 |publisher=Embassy of South Vietnam|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521032045/http://175thengineers.homestead.com/Philcav.pdf|archive-date=21 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
{{Plainlist|
* '''Total military dead:'''
* 392,369
* '''Total military wounded:'''
* ≈1,340,000&lt;ref name=Tucker/&gt;{{Rp|}}
* (excluding [[Khmer National Armed Forces|FANK]])
* '''Total military captured:'''
* ≈1,000,000
}}
| casualties3 = {{Plainlist|
* Vietnamese civilian dead: 405,000–2,000,000&lt;ref name=Lewy/&gt;{{Rp|450–453}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Shenon&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Shenon |first=Philip |date=23 April 1995 |title=20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/23/world/20-years-after-victory-vietnamese-communists-ponder-how-to-celebrate.html |access-date=24 February 2011 |quote=The Vietnamese government officially claimed a rough estimate of 2 million civilian deaths, but it did not divide these deaths between those of North and South Vietnam |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527230912/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/23/world/20-years-after-victory-vietnamese-communists-ponder-how-to-celebrate.html|archive-date=27 May 2023 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Obermeyer&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Obermeyer |first1=Ziad |last2=Murray |first2=Christopher J. L. |last3=Gakidou |first3=Emmanuela |date=23 April 2008 |title=Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-medical-journal_2008-06-28_336_7659/page/n43 |journal=[[British Medical Journal]] |volume=336 |issue=7659 |pages=1482–1486 |doi=10.1136/bmj.a137 |pmc=2440905 |pmid=18566045 |quote=From 1955 to 2002, data from the surveys indicated an estimated 5.4 million violent war deaths{{Nbsp}}... 3.8 million in Vietnam}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Vietnamese total dead''': 966,000&lt;ref name=Hirschman/&gt;–3,010,000&lt;ref name=Obermeyer/&gt;
* '''Cambodian Civil War dead''': 275,000–310,000&lt;ref name=&quot;Heuveline&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Heuveline |first=Patrick |title=Forced Migration and Mortality |url=https://archive.org/details/forcedmigrationm0000unse_t3v0 |publisher=[[National Academies Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-309-07334-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/forcedmigrationm0000unse_t3v0/page/102 102]–104, 120, 124 |chapter=The Demographic Analysis of Mortality Crises: The Case of Cambodia, 1970–1979 |quote=As best as can now be estimated, over two million Cambodians died during the 1970s because of the political events of the decade, the vast majority of them during the mere four years of the 'Khmer Rouge' regime.{{Nbsp}}... Subsequent reevaluations of the demographic data situated the death toll for the [civil war] in the order of 300,000 or less.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Banister&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Banister |first1=Judith |url=https://archive.org/details/genocidedemocrac00kier |title=Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community |last2=Johnson |first2=E. Paige |publisher=Yale University Southeast Asia Studies |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-938692-49-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/genocidedemocrac00kier/page/97 97] |quote=An estimated 275,000 excess deaths. We have modeled the highest mortality that we can justify for the early 1970s. |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sliwinski&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Sliwinski |first=Marek |title=Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique |publisher=[[L'Harmattan]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-2-7384-3525-5 |pages=42–43, 48 |trans-title=The Khmer Rouge genocide: A demographic analysis}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''Laotian Civil War dead''': 20,000–62,000&lt;ref name=Obermeyer/&gt;
* '''Non-Indochinese military dead''': 65,494
* '''Total dead''': 1,326,494–3,447,494
* {{Crossreference|For more information see [[Vietnam War casualties]] and [[List of aircraft losses of the Vietnam War|Aircraft losses of the Vietnam War]]}}
}}
| notes       = {{flagicon image|Flag of FULRO.svg}} [[FULRO]] fought an [[FULRO insurgency|insurgency]] against both [[South Vietnam]] and [[North Vietnam]] with the [[Viet Cong]], and was supported by [[Cambodia]].
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Indochina Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Vietnam War}}
{{Campaignbox Vietnam War massacres}}
}}

'''Vietnam ke Larrai''' [[1959]] se [[1975]] talak chalaa. Ii larrai [[North Vietnam]] aur [[South Vietnam]] ke biich me rahaa. North Vietnam ke [[Soviet Union|USSR]] aur [[China]] support karat rahaa, jab ki South Vietnam ke [[United States]], [[South Korea]], [[Thailand]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], aur [[Philippines]] support karat rahaa. Ii larrai jon ki communists aur pro-American des ke biich me rahaa ke [[Cold War]] ke naam se jaana jaawat rahaa.

== Larrai ke kaaran ==
[[World War II]] se pahile, Vietnam, French colony [[Indochina]] ke ek hissa rahaa. World War II ke time, Japanese Indochina ke occupy kar liis rahaa. Larrai ke baad jab French logan Vietnam ke fir se aapan niche kare ke kosis karis tab uske virod Vietminh karis. Vietminh 1941 me communist party suruu karis rahaa aur iske leader [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]] rahaa. July 1954 me France aur Vietminh [[Geneva Peace Accord]] sign karin jiske niche Vietminh North Vietnam ke sarkar banis aur anti-communist Vietnamese, jaada kar ke Catholics, &quot;regrouped&quot; South me, Bao Dai ke niche, jon ki pahile ke emperor rahaa ke niche sarkar banaa.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Duusra websites ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3798581.stm The herbicide Agent Orange has left a lasting legacy on Vietnam]

{{commons}}

[[Category:V]]
[[Category:Vietnam]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Epic of Gilgamesh</title>
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      <text bytes="5349" sha1="koggg9m6r4scxndtk8oc3yt4ziofde6" xml:space="preserve">'''''Epic of Gilgamesh''''' ek [[epic poetry|epic poem]] prachin [[Mesopotamia]] se aais hae. 
[[File:GilgameshTablet.jpg|thumb|220px|The [[Deluge]] tablet of the Gilgamesh epic in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]]]


== Bibliography ==
=== Editions ===
* {{cite book | author=George, Andrew R., trans. &amp; edit. | title=The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=England | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-19-814922-0}}
* {{cite book | author=George, Andrew R., trans. &amp; edit. | title=The Epic of Gilgamesh | location= | publisher=Penguin Books| year=1999, reprinted with corrections 2003 | id=ISBN 0-14-044919-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Foster, Benjamin R., trans. &amp; edit. | title=The Epic of Gilgamesh | location=New York | publisher=W.W. Norton &amp; Company | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-393-97516-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Kovacs, Maureen Gallery, transl. with intro. | title=The Epic of Gilgamesh | location=Stanford University Press | publisher=Stanford, California | year=1985,1989 | id=ISBN 0-8047-1711-7}} Glossary, Appendices, Appendix (Chapter XII=Tablet XII). A line-by-line translation (Chapters I-XI).
* {{cite book | author=Jackson, Danny | title=The Epic of Gilgamesh | location=Wauconda, IL | publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-86516-352-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Mason, Herbert | title=Gilgamesh: A Verse Narrative | location=Boston | publisher=Mariner Books | year=1970 | id=ISBN 978-0-618-27564-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Mitchell, Stephen | title=Gilgamesh: A New English Version | url=https://archive.org/details/gilgameshnewengl0000mitc | location=New York | publisher=Free Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7432-6164-X}}
* Sandars, N. K. (2006). ''The Epic of Gilgamesh (Penguin Epics)''. ISBN 0-14-102628-6 - re-print of the Penguin Classic translation (in prose) by N. K. Sandars 1960 (ISBN 0-14-044100-X) without the introduction.
* {{cite book | author=Parpola, Simo, with Mikko Luuko, and Kalle Fabritius | title=The Standard Babylonian, Epic of Gilgamesh | publisher=''The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project'' | year=1997 | id=ISBN 951-45-7760-4 (Volume 1) in the original Akkadian cuneiform and transliteration; commentary and glossary are in English }}
* {{cite book | author=Ferry, David | title=Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse | url=https://archive.org/details/gilgameshnewrend00ferr | year=1993 | publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux | location=New York | isbn=0374523835}}

=== Other ===
* Damrosch, David (2007) ''The Buried Book: The Loss and Rediscovery of the Great Epic of Gilgamesh''. Henry Holt and Co, ISBN 0-8050-8029-5
* Jacobsen, Thorkild (1976) ''The Treasures of Darkness, A History of Mesopotamian Religion'', New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-01844-4
* West, Martin (1997) ''The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth'', New York: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-815042-3

== Other websites ==
* Translations for several legends of Gilgamesh in the [[Sumer]]ian language can be found in Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Fluckiger-Hawker, E, Robson, E., and Zólyomi, G., ''The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature'' ([http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/ http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/]), Oxford 1998-.
* Babylonian (Akkadian) texts: [http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=c.1.8.1* ETCSL]
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1815.htm Gilgamesh and Huwawa], version A - (the adventure of the cedar forest)
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr18151.htm Gilgamesh and Huwawa], version B
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1812.htm Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven]
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1811.htm Gilgamesh and Aga]
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1814.htm Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the nether world]
** [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1813.htm The death of Gilgamesh]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11000 The Project Gutenberg eBook, An Old Babylonian Version of the Gilgamesh Epic, by Anonymous, Edited by Morris Jastrow, Translated by Albert T. Clay]
* [http://mcgoodwin.net/pages/otherbooks/gilgamesh.html Epic of Gilgamesh], summary by M. McGoodwin
* [http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM Gilgamesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230123112/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM |date=2005-12-30 }} by Richard Hooker (wsu.edu)
* [http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/world/mideast/mi-wtst.htm The Epic of Gilgamesh: A Spiritual Biography] (theosophy-nw.org)

;Tablets
* [http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/tab11.htm Tablet XI (The Flood Chapter)]

;Flood
* [http://www.noahs-ark-flood.com/parallels.htm Comparison of equivalent lines in six ancient versions of the flood story] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829004437/http://www.noahs-ark-flood.com/parallels.htm |date=2006-08-29 }} (noahs-ark-flood.com)
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/noah_com.htm Comparison of The Epic of Gilgamesh to the Genesis flood] (religioustolerance.org)
* [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/gilgy09.html Comparison of the Flood in Genesis to the Epic of Gilgamesh and related literature] (Christian-thinktank.com)

{{Commons|Category:Gilgamesh}}

[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Literature]]
[[Category:Mesopotamia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bhautik vigyan</title>
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      <text bytes="11084" sha1="rjyovu2lnuahk837awgec5gk299i38r" xml:space="preserve">[[File:CollageFisica.jpg|right|200px]]
'''Bhautik vigyan  (Physics)''' ek [[vigyan]] hae jisme [[matter]] aur space aur [[samay]] kaise interact kare hae, ke baare me parrha jaawe hae. Ii [[energy]] aur [[force]] ke bhi adhyan kare hae. &quot;Physics&quot; sabd [[Greek bhasa]] se aais hae, jisme iske matlab &quot;nature&quot; hae. 

Bhautik vigyan, [[engineering]] aur nawaa technology, jaise [[aviation]], [[electronics]] aur hatyaar ke banae me jaruri hae. [[Mathematics]] me calculus ke ii kaaran se suruu karaa gais rahaa ki ii [[machanics]], bahutik vigyan ke ek hissa, me kaam me laawa jaae sake. Bhautik vigyan ek sab se puraana parrhe waala subject hae, aur kaaheki isme [[astronomy]] bhi hae, saait sab se puraana hae.

==Bhautik vigyan ke hissa==
===Classical mechanics===
Classical mechanics me [[force]] ke adhyan karaa jaae hae aur [[solid]], [[liquid]] aur [[gas]] ke behaviour ke bhi adhyan karaa jaae hae. Iske jaada kar ke &quot;Newtonian mechanics&quot; bhi bolaa jaae hae, kaaheki [[Isaac Newton]],, [[laws of motion]] ke banais rahaa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Perot&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Perot, Pierre |title=A to Z of Thermodynamics |url=https://archive.org/details/tozofthermodynam0000perr |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-856552-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Clark, John O.E. |title=The Essential Dictionary of Science |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialdiction0000unse_d8d8 |publisher=Barnes &amp; Noble Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7607-4616-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Iske aur chhotaa hissa me bhi karaa jaae hae, jaise ki [[statics]], [[dynamics]], [[kinematics]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Clausius |first=Rudolf |title=On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat |chapter=LXXIX | publisher=Dover Reprint |year=1850 |isbn=978-0-486-59065-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Thermodynamics===
Isme [[temperature]], [[pressure]] aur [[volume]] ke effect ke adhyan karaa jaae hae, aur energy kaise [[heat]] se transfer hoe hae. Thermodynamics ii kaaran se aage barrha  ki log [[steam engine]] ke aur achchhaa kare ke kosis karat rahin.

==Itihaas==
===Puraana astronomy===
[[File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG|right|200px|thumb|Egypt ke puraana astronomy ke Pharoah ke tomb me paawa gais rahaa]]
Astronomy, natural sciences me ke ke sab se puraana hae. Sumerians aur puraana Egyptians, taara ke adhyan kare rahin, jisse future ke baare me jaana jaae sake aur dhra ke khaatir. Babylon ke pahila taara ke map 1200 BC puraana hae. Babylonians ii bji paawe rahin ki astronomy ke ghatna repeat hoe hae.&lt;ref&gt;Aaboe A. 1991. ''Mesopotamian mathematics, astronomy, and astrology''. The Cambridge Ancient History. Volume III (2nd ed). Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-22717-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Uulog ke ii samajhnaa scientific nai, ii observation baad ke astronomy ke influence karis rahaa. Dher astronomy [[Mesopotamia]], [[Babylon]], [[Ancient Egypt]], aur [[Ancient Greece]] se aais hae. Egypt ke astronomer log imaarat ke banae rahin jon ii dekhais ki aasmaan ke chij gaise ghume hae aur constellations ke jaada naam Greek astronomers se aais hae.

===Aristotle aur Greece ke bhautik vigyan===
[[File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg|right|thumb|[[Aristotle]] (384-322 BCE)]]
6th, 5th aur 4th centuries BCE me aur Hellenistic jamaana me, Greece me Aristotle, jon [[Plato]] ke student rahaa, bhautik vigyan ke baare me likhis rahaa, jisme 2000 saal talak log biswas karat rahin. Uu motion aur gravity ke samjhais rahaa aur chaar classical elemenys ke, jon [[hawaa]], [[aagi]], [[paani]] aur [[dharti]] rahaa, jiske nature me aapan jagha rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Daily 40 no. 2 – Aristotle and the Four Simple Bodies and Elements |website=Cal State LA |url=https://www.calstatela.edu/sites/default/files/dept/chem/09summer/158/daily40-aristotle.pdf |access-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106231001/https://www.calstatela.edu/sites/default/files/dept/chem/09summer/158/daily40-aristotle.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ii chaaro ke different density ke kaaran koi ek element apne se aapan jagha pe chal de hae..&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=tbcaldwe |title=Natural Philosophy: Aristotle {{!}} Physics 139 |date=14 October 2012 |url=https://blogs.umass.edu/p139ell/2012/10/14/natural-philosophy-aristotle/ |access-date=17 December 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209043612/https://blogs.umass.edu/p139ell/2012/10/14/natural-philosophy-aristotle/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Iske matlab hae ki iske wajan ke kaaran, aagi sab se uppar rahii, iske niche hawaa, fir paani aur tab dharti.

===Bhautik vigyan medieval Islamic dunia me===
Islamik vigyanik, [[Islamic Golden Age]] ke time Aristotel ke bhutik vigyan ke adhyan kare rahin. Iske ek khaas yogdaan dekhae waala astronomy rahaa. Kuchh, jaise [[Ibn Sahl]], [[Al-Kindi]], [[Alhazen|Ibn al-Haytham]], [[Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī|Al-Farisi]] aur[[Avicenna]],  [[optics]] aur [[vision]] me kaam kare rahin. ''[[Book of Optics]]'' me Ibn al-Haytham puraana Greek ideas ke reject karis aur nawaa theory propose karis.  Uu ii adhyan karis ki  [[roshni]] kaise [[aankhi]] ke bhittar jaawe hae, aur [[camera obscura]] ke develop karis rahaa. Europe ke vugyanik baad me chasma, magnifying glasses, telescopes, aur camera ke ii book se banae rahin.

===Classical bhutik vigyan===
[[Scientific revolution]] ke baad bhautik vigyan ek alag adhyan ke field hoe gais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Dijksterhuis E.J. 1986. ''The mechanization of the world picture: Pythagoras to Newton''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-08403-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Galileo Galilei]] ke ke experiment ke madat se classical bhautik vigyan suruu bhais rahaa. Jab ki uu telescope ke invent nai karis rahaa, uu telescope se raat ke aasmaan ke adyan karis rahaa. Uu Copernicus ke idea ki [[dunia]], [[suraj]] ke parikrama kare hae, ke support karis rahaa. Uu gravity ke baare me bbhi khoj karis rahaa. [[Isaac Newton]], Galileo ke ideas ke kaam me laae ke  [[Newton's laws of motion|three laws of motion]] aur uske [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|law of universal gravitation]] ke banais rahaa. Ii sab niyam ek saathe dunia ke niche ke gire waala body aur dunia aur duusra ke motion ke samjhais rahaa.&lt;ref&gt;Ben-Chaim M. 2004. ''Experimental philosophy and the birth of empirical science: Boyle, Locke and Newton''. Aldershot: Ashgate. {{ISBN|0-7546-4091-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Kuchh century baad, [[Industrial Revolution]] bhais, aur vigyan me aur dher chij paawa gais rahaa. Classical bhutik vigyan ke niyam uu chij jon shire cjale hae aur dher chhota nai hae, ke samjhaawa jaae sake hae. Jab vigyanik [[qantum meuchanics]] ke pahila dafe adhyan kare rahin, tab uu log ke nawaa niyam ke banae ke parraa rahaa, jon aadhmik bhautik vigyan ke suruu rahaa.

=== Aadhmik bhautik vigyan ===
Jab vigyanik chhota-chhota  particles ke adhyan karin tab uu logan paain ki kon chij ke  classical mechanics explain nai kare paawat rahaa. Classical  mechanics ii predict karis rahaa ki [[speed of light]] badle hae, lekin experiments dekhais ki speed of light nai badle hae. Iske  [[Albert Einstein]] ke theory of [[special relativity]] predict karis rahaa. Einstein ii predict karis rahaa ki  [[electromagnetic radiation]] ke speed empty space me nai badle hae. Uske ii  [[space-time]] ke view puraana idea ki space aur time ek duusre se separate hae, ke replace karis. 

[[Max Planck]], [[quantum mechanics]] ke kaam me laae ke ii samjhais ki  [[Photoelectric effect|sab dhaatu (metal)  electrons ke release kare hae jab uspe batti chamkaawa jaawe hae]], aur kaaheke [[Black-body radiation|matter radiation ke emit kare hae]]. Quantum mechanics chhota-chhota chij, jaise  electrons, protons, aur neutrons ke apply kare hae, jisse ek [[atom]] banaa rahe hae. Log, jaise [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]], aur [[Paul Dirac]]  quantum mechanics me kaam karte rahin aur aakhri me   [[Standard Model]] bhais.&lt;ref&gt;Einstein, Albert and Infeld, Leopold 1938. ''The evolution of physics: from early concept to relativity and quanta''. Cambridge University Press. A non-mathematical account.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Feynman R.P; Leighton R.B. &amp; Sands M. 1963. ''The Feynman Lectures on Physics''. 1. {{ISBN|0-201-02116-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Jaana-maana bhautik vigyanik==
{{div col|rules=yes|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Galileo Galilei]] (1564–1642)
*[[Christiaan Huygens]] (1629–1695)
*[[Isaac Newton]] (1643–1727)
*[[Leonhard Euler]] (1707–1783)
*[[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] (1736–1813)
*[[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] (1749–1827)
*[[Joseph Fourier]] (1768–1830)
*[[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]] (1796–1842)
*[[William Rowan Hamilton]] (1805–1865)
*[[Rudolf Clausius]] (1822–1888)
*[[James Clerk Maxwell]] (1831–1879)
*[[J. Willard Gibbs]] (1839–1903)
*[[Ludwig Boltzmann]] (1844–1906)
*[[Hendrik A. Lorentz]] (1853–1928)
*[[Henri Poincaré]] (1854–1912)
*[[Nikola Tesla]] (1856–1943)
*[[Max Planck]] (1858–1947)
*[[Albert Einstein]] (1879–1955)
*[[Milutin Milanković]] (1879–1958)
*[[Emmy Noether]] (1882–1935)
*[[Max Born]] (1882–1970)
*[[Niels Bohr]] (1885–1962)
*[[Erwin Schrödinger]] (1887–1961)
*[[Louis de Broglie]] (1892–1987)
*[[Satyendra Nath Bose]] (1894–1974)
*[[Wolfgang Pauli]] (1900–1958)
*[[Enrico Fermi]] (1901–1954)
*[[Werner Heisenberg]] (1901–1976)
*[[Paul Dirac]] (1902–1984)
*[[Eugene Wigner]] (1902–1995)
*[[Robert Oppenheimer]] (1904–1967)
*[[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]] (1906–1979)
*[[Hideki Yukawa]] (1907–1981)
*[[John Bardeen]] (1908–1991)
*[[Lev Landau]] (1908–1967)
*[[Anatoly Vlasov]] (1908–1975)
*[[Nikolay Bogolyubov]] (1909–1992)
*[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] (1910–1995)
*[[John Archibald Wheeler]] (1911–2008)
*[[Richard Feynman]] (1918–1988)
*[[Julian Schwinger]] (1918–1994)
*[[Feza Gürsey]] (1921–1992)
*[[Chen Ning Yang]] (1922– )
*[[Freeman Dyson]] (1923–2020 )
*[[Gunnar Källén]] (1926–1968)
*[[Abdus Salam]] (1926–1996)
*[[Murray Gell-Mann]] (1929– )
*[[Riazuddin (physicist)|Riazuddin]] (1930– )
*[[Roger Penrose]] (1931– )
*[[George Sudarshan]] (1931– )
*[[Sheldon Glashow]] (1932– )
*[[Tom W. B. Kibble]] (1932– )
*[[Steven Weinberg]] (1933– )
*[[Gerald Guralnik]] (1936–)
*[[Sidney Coleman]] (1937–2007)
*[[C. R. Hagen]] (1937–)
*[[Ratko Janev]] (1939– )
*[[Leonard Susskind]] (1940– )
*[[Michael Berry (physicist)|Michael Berry]] (1941– )
*[[Bertrand Halperin]] (1941–)
*[[Stephen Hawking]] (1942–2018 )
*[[Alexander Markovich Polyakov|Alexander Polyakov]] (1945–)
*[[Gerardus 't Hooft]] (1946– )
*[[Jacob Bekenstein]] (1947–)
*[[Robert Laughlin]] (1950–)
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Duusra websites ==
{{commonscat}}
* [http://physics.webplasma.com/physicstoc.html Physics For Beginners] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224215352/http://physics.webplasma.com/physicstoc.html |date=2010-12-24 }}
* [http://www.physicisttv.com/ PhysicistTv] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115132645/http://www.physicisttv.com/ |date=2010-11-15 }}.

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    <title>Radioactive decay</title>
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      <text bytes="10735" sha1="oe81aobrwhti6uwn8nmag2stppm0brz" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Alpha Decay.svg|thumb|[[Alpha decay]] ek nucleus se [[alpha particle]] jisme dui neutron aur dui proton rahe hae; jiske [[helium|helium-4]] nucleus bhi bola jaawe hae, ke bige hae.|300x300px]]
'''Radioactive decay''' (jiske '''nuclear decay''', '''radioactivity''', '''radioactive disintegration''', nai to '''nuclear disintegration''' ke naam se bhi jaana jaawe hae), uu process hae jisse ek unstable [[atomic nucleus]],  [[radiation]] se [[shakti]] kamti kare hae. Ek chij jiske  unstable nucleus hae ke   ''radioactive'' maana jaawe hae. Sab se jaana maana rakam ke  decay hae [[Alpha decay|alpha]], [[Beta decay|beta]], aur [[Gamma ray|gamma decay]]. [[Weak force]] uu [[Fundamental interactions|mechanism]] hae jisse beta decay hoe hae, jab baaki duuno  [[electromagnetic force|electromagnetic]] aur [[nuclear force]] se hoe hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;edp&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Radioactivity: Weak Forces |url=https://www.radioactivity.eu.com/site/pages/Weak_Forces.htm |website=Radioactivity |publisher=EDP Sciences |access-date=4 March 2020 |archive-date=12 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812235150/https://www.radioactivity.eu.com/site/pages/Weak_Forces.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Radioactive decay ek [[randomness|random]] process hae jon ek atom ke level pe kaam kare hae.  [[quantum mechanics|Quantum theory]] ke anusaar, ii nai bataawa jaawe sake hae ki kab ek atom decay hoi, aur ii decay atom ke umar ke uppar nai nirbhar hae.&lt;ref name=&quot;IntroductionToHealthPhysics&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Radiation Protection and Dosimetry: An Introduction to Health Physics |last1=Stabin |first1=Michael G. |editor1-first=Michael G |editor1-last=Stabin |isbn=978-0-387-49982-6 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |chapter=3 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-49983-3|chapter-url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/1105894 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;RadiationOncologyPrimer&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=Radiation Oncology Primer and Review |url=https://archive.org/details/radiationoncolog0000rodr |isbn=978-1-62070-004-4 |last1=Best |first1=Lara |last2=Rodrigues |first2=George |last3=Velker |first3=Vikram |publisher=[[Demos Medical Publishing]] |year=2013 |chapter=1.3}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Modern Nuclear Chemistry |isbn=978-0-471-11532-8 |last1=Loveland |first1=W. |last2=Morrissey |first2=D. |author3-link=Glenn T. Seaborg |last3=Seaborg |first3=G.T. |publisher=Wiley-Interscience |year=2006 |page=57|bibcode=2005mnc..book.....L }}&lt;/ref&gt; Lekin, dher atom jon ekke rakam ke hae ke decay rate ke ek [[decay constant]] me express karaa jaawe sake hae, nai to ek  [[half-life]] me. Radioactive atom ke half-life ke barraa range rahe hae range: jon lagbhag instantaneous se lae ke   universe ke umar talak rahe sake hae.

Jon nucleus decay hoe hae, ke  parent [[radionuclide]] (nai to parent [[Isotope#Isotope vs. nuclide|radioisotope]]) bola jaawe hae, aur ii  process se kamti-se-kamti ek [[Decay product|daughter nuclide]] bane hae.  Gamma decay nai to [[internal conversion]] ek nuclear [[excited state]] se, jiske decay ek  [[nuclear transmutation]] hae aur isse ek  daughter atom bane hae jisme  different number of [[proton]] nai to [[neutron]] (nai to duuno) rahe hae. Jab number of protons badle hae tab ek duusra [[chemical element]] ke atom bane hae.

[[Dunia]] ke 28 naturally occurring chemical elements  radioactive hae, jisme se  35 [[radionuclide]]s (saat elements ke dui different radionuclides each rahe hae) jon [[Solar System]] ke bane se pahile ke hae. Ii 35 ke [[primordial radionuclide]]s bola jaawe hae. Isme se kuchh jaana-maana hae, [[uranium]] aur [[thorium]], lekin isme kuch naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes bhi hae, jaise [[potassium-40]].  [[Primordial nuclide|primordial radionuclides]] me se har ek four [[decay chain]] reaction me se ek me bhagg le hae.

==Radioactivity ke paawa jaawe ke itihaas==
[[File:Pierre and Marie Curie.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Pierre aur Marie Curie aapan  Paris laboratory me, 1907 se pahile|left]]

[[Henri Poincaré]], radioactivity ke paawa jaawe ke kaaran rahaa, kaaheki uu  [[X-ray]] ke adhyan karis rahaa, jiske khaas asar,  physicist [[Henri Becquerel]] pr rashaa.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Radvanyi |first1=Pierre |last2=Villain |first2=Jacques |date=2017-11-01 |title=The discovery of radioactivity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631070517300786 |journal=Comptes Rendus. Physique |language=en |volume=18 |issue=9–10 |pages=544–550 |doi=10.1016/j.crhy.2017.10.008 |bibcode=2017CRPhy..18..544R |issn=1878-1535|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; 1896 me radioactivity ke duuno  Becquerel aur [[Marie Curie]] paae rahin, jab uu logan aapan aapan kaam  [[Phosphorescence|phosphorescent]] materials me karat rahin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Mould |first=Richard F. |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine : with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofxraysra0000moul |date=1995 |publisher=Inst. of Physics Publ. |location=Bristol |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/centuryofxraysra0000moul/page/12 12] |edition=Reprint. with minor corr}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Retrieved 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Retrieved 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; Ii chij andhera me  glow hoe hae jab ispe light chamkaawa jaawe hae,  aur Becquerel ke ii sandhay rahaa ki [[cathode-ray tube]] ke gloww  ke kaaran  X-rays hae. Uu ek kaiyaa paper me photographic plate ke lapetis aur iske dher phosphorescent [[salt (chemistry)|salts]] ke uppar rakkhis. Sab natija negative rahaa, [[uranium]] salts ke chhorr ke.  Uranium salts ke kaaran  plate kariyaa hoe gais rahaa,  plate ke kariyaa paper me lapete ke baawajuut.&lt;ref name=PaisInward&gt;{{Cite book |last=Pais |first=Abraham |title=Inward bound: of matter and forces in the physical world |date=2002 |publisher=Clarendon Press [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-19-851997-3 |edition=Reprint |location=Oxford}}&lt;/ref&gt; Curie ii radiation ke naam ''rayons de Becquerel'', &quot;Becquerel Rays&quot; diis rahaa aur ii dekhais ki ii  rays atoms ke property rahaa.&lt;ref name=PaisInward/&gt;

Jab X-rays ke electrical energy produce kare hae, radiation ke taagat ke nahi samjhaa jaawat rahaa. 1899 me, [[Julius Elster]] aur [[Hans Geitel]]  experiments karin ii jaane ke khaatir ki  radioactivity ke shakti kahaan se aawe hae. Ii experiment ke vacuum me karaa gais rahaa jisse shakti hawaa me se nai aawe aur ek 300m gahiraa mine me jisse shakti space se nai aawe.&lt;ref name=PaisInward/&gt; Agar atoms apne shaki dewat rahin, tab iske matlab hae ki atoms apne badalte hoi  jab uu ray ke emit kare hae. 1900 me Curie summarize karis, the puzzle of radioactivity as a choice between two equally unlikely possibilities: either energy was not conserved or chemical elements could be transmuted.&lt;ref name=PaisInward/&gt;

Rutherford pahila jan rahaa jon ii  realize karis rahaa ki sab ii rakam ke   elements decay hoe hae koi mathematical exponential formula ke anusaar. Rutherford aur uske  student, [[Frederick Soddy]] pahila jan rahin jon ii  realize kare rahin kidher decay processes ke natija rahaa ek element se duusra element ka bananaa.  Iske baad [[radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy]] ke banaawa gais rahaa jon alpha aur [[beta decay]] ke product ke describe kare hae.&lt;ref&gt;Kasimir Fajans, &quot;Radioactive transformations and the periodic system of the elements&quot;. [[Chemische Berichte|Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft]], Nr. 46, 1913, pp. 422–439&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Frederick Soddy, &quot;The Radio Elements and the Periodic Law&quot;, Chem. News, Nr. 107, 1913, pp. 97–99&lt;/ref&gt;

Pahila researchers ii bhi paain ki dher aur  [[chemical element]],  uranium ke alaawa, ke radioactive isotopes hae. Ek systematic khoj, uranium me puura  radioactivity ke samay  Pierre aur Marie Curie dui nawaa  element ke isolate kare rahin: [[polonium]] aur [[radium]]. Radium ke  radioactivity ke chhorr ke, radium aur  [[barium]] ke chemical similarity ke kaaran ii duuno two elements ke biich ke antar nai paawa jaawe sakat rahaa.

Marie aur Pierre Curie ke  radioactivity ke adhyan, science and medicine aur medicine me  ek khaas factor hae. UUlog ke Becquerel's rays ke research se uulog duuno  radium aur polonium ke paain aur , &quot;radioactivity&quot; sabd ke banain&lt;ref name=&quot;L'Annunziata-2007&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Radioactivity: Introduction and History|url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivityint0000lann|last=L'Annunziata|first=Michael F.|publisher=Elsevier Science|year=2007|isbn=9780080548883|location=Amsterdam, Netherlands|pages=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivityint0000lann/page/2 2]}}&lt;/ref&gt; emission of [[ionizing radiation]] by some heavy elements ke  define kare ke khaatir.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Petrucci |first1=Ralph H. |last2=Harwood |first2=William S. |last3=Herring |first3=F. Geoffrey |title=General chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry0008petr |date=2002 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=0-13-014329-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry0008petr/page/1025 1025] |edition=8th}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Baad me ii term ke generalize kar ke sab element ke apply karaa gais rahaa.) Uulog ke research  penetrating rays in uranium me aur   radium ke paawe ke kaaran  radium ke cancer ke treatment me kaam me laawe jaae lagaa. Uulog ke exploration of radium ke dekha jaawe hae  pahila dafe  nuclear energy ke modern [[nuclear medicine]] me kaam me laana.&lt;ref name=&quot;L'Annunziata-2007&quot; /&gt;

==Pajila health pe khatraa==

[[File:Crookes tube xray experiment.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|1896 me [[Crookes tube]] apparatus se  X-ray chhaapa lewa jaawe hae. Crookes tube biich me dekhae hae. Kharra admii aapan haanth ke ek ek [[fluoroscope]] screen se dekhe hae; ii ek  common eakam hae jisse  tube ke set-up karaa jaawe hae. Radiation exposure ke khaatir koi precautiomn nai lew jaawe hae kaaheki iske khatraa ke baare me nai jaana jaawat rahaa.]]
 [[Ionizing radiation]]  radioactivity aur X-rays ke kaaran je khatraa  ke pahile nai jaana jaawat rahaa. 

===X-rays===

==References==
{{reflist}}

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