Istwa Ayiti

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      <text bytes="89523" sha1="6rtxbm9pff0wtoc96t2o4riibp4bn9e" xml:space="preserve">{{Istwa Ayiti}}
Nan orijin non, peyi '''Ayiti''' a, sa vle di «Pèl tout Antiy yo», se li [[Tayino (moun)|Tayino]] yo te peple yo oubyen [[Arawak]], pèp semi-sedantè pasifik. Lè [[Kristòf Kolon]] akoste li pou  premye fwa a sou  tè Ayiti a, nan dat 5 desanm [[1492]], peyi a te konte pwobableman plizyè santèn ak milye abitan li yo.

'''Non [[Primitif]] Ayiti yo''' 

Avan yo te dekouvri l , peyi a te rele Ayiti ( terre haute) , Quisqueya ( mères des terres ) ou Bohio ( terres montagneuse). Lè Christophe Colomb rive nan peyi a, li chanje tout non sa yo en Hispaniola ou [[Nueva- España.]]

'''ki kote Ayiti sitiyel nan karayib la ?''' 

Lè nap gade Ayiti nan karayib la, li preske sitiye nan mitan rejyon an, li bòne nan nò pa il Turques ak Caiques, nan nòdwès li separe a Cuba pa yon lanmè ki mezire 90 kms avèk Bahamas, nan lès pa Repiblik [[Dominiken|dominikèn]] ak Porto-Rico, nan lwès pa ti il de lagonav, nan pwent sid pa [[Jamaïque]].

[[Fichye:Haiti on the globe (Americas centered).svg|vignette|Ayiti nan Glòb la]]

== Konkèt ==
Yon jou, nan lane 1804, Ayiti ki lòtrefwa te rele [[Saint-Domingue|Sendomeng]], te pran endenpandans li aprè yon long batay kote anpil san te koule poul te arive jwenn libète l, sak ta pral vin fè kel se premye pèp nwa e dezyèm repiblik ki te endepandan nan amerik la aprè Etazini( 1776). Kolon touswit reklame zile a pou kouwòn panyòl, te rele li ''La Isla Española'' (&quot;Island nan Panyòl&quot;) ki vle di ti espay, pita nan laten (Ispanyola) se pa t non [[zile Ayiti a]] sa t ye. Enfliyans franse yo te kòmanse nan lane 1625, aprè [[Kasik Anri|Kasik Henri]] te fin libere zile a anba jouk panyòl. Yo fòme yon [[lame endijèn]] ki te pran kontwòl lès. Se lang panyòl yo te konn pale, se te yon kominote endyen ak afriken. Lè Fransè vin bezwen pran kontwòl sou lame a, li te sèvi ak sòlda lame a tankou [[Jan-Jak Desalin| Desalinne]], fran[[François Capois|çois capois]]  ki te antrene pa kouzen li Joze Kapwa. Joze Kapwa te yon lyetnan nan lame endijèn nan Vil Izabela [[Kristòf Kolon]] te konstwi a,yo te vin rele [[Zile Ayiti a|Sen Domeng]] pa Gouvènè [[Nicolás de Ovando|Nikola Ovando]] apati 1660. Fransè yo te vin rele tout zile a [[Sen Domeng|Sen-Domeng]], Soti nan lane 1697, pati lwès zile a te franse ak pati lès la te panyòl men se pa t kolon panyòl yo te ye, se te Endyen Espanyòl. Men fransè yo te enfiltre [[Toussànio Breida|Toussaint]] nan lame endijèn nan. Ayiti te vin youn nan pi rich koloni Lafrans yo, ki te pwodwi kantite vas nan sik ak kafe epi depann sou yon sistèm esklavaj brital pou travay ki nesesè yo. Sèmant nan [[Seremoni-an nan Bwa Kayiman|Seremoni Bwa Kayiman]], lame endijèn nan ini ak esklav afriken yo pou leve kanpe kont abi fòs etranje yo tap fè, yo revòlte nan lane 1791. Aprè yon deseni nan batay, repiblik endepandan Ayiti a te ofisyèlman pwoklame an 1804.

==Istwa Konkèt la==
{{Atik ki gen rapò|Desalin}}  
Aprè  yon long demach e yon long travèse sou lanmè, [[Kristòf Kolon]] al ateri anfen 12 oktòb [[1492]], swasanndis (70) jou aprè depa li sòti Palos nan Espay, li te rive nan youn nan zile Bahamas, guakanagari, ke Christophe ta pral rele San Salvadò (Sen Sovè) an souvni tout peripesi li te pase nan travèse lanmè a.e Li te dekouvri Cuba 26 oktòb,Nan dat ki  5 desanm nan menm ane sa, li te jete lank li nan yon bè poutèt sa a, li te rele bè a Sen Nikola, an lonè sen an. Li te vini pou dekouvri sa ki te rele, Ahatti Qisqeyaha Bohio ki ap vin aprè endepandans retounen rele [[Ahyti|Ahiti]].

&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Larané|first=André|date=1988|title=L’anamorphose au secours de l’analyse sociologique : l’alcoolisme en France|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/mappe.1988.2416|journal=Mappemonde|volume=9|issue=1|pages=5–7|doi=10.3406/mappe.1988.2416|issn=0764-3470}}&lt;/ref&gt;Kristòf Kolon batize tè a, [[Ispayola]] (« Ti Espay ») nan  dezyèm vwayaj li an [[1493]]. Aprè li al fonde premyè vil ewopeyen ki pou Nouvo Mond lan. Li te batize l Izabela e li tal enstale li. Aprè yo fin elimine senk (5) kasik yo ki tap dirije peyi a, Panyòl yo mete bourik endijèn yo nan travay fòse yo pou yo chèche [[lò]] nan min yo. Nan mwens pase ven-senk (25) an, popilasyon endijèn yo tap diminye akòz [[esklavaj]] la ak bann maladi pèpè konkeran yo te pote.esklav nwa yo ke yo te depòte yo sòti nan zile Dahomey men tou sòti [[Ginen]] ak [[Nijerya]], sa ki eksplike enpòtans pou kilti [[vodou]] a an Ayiti ([[vodou]] se moun ki sòti Dahomey ak Nijerya ki pratike). Trèt la Charles Quint te otorize nan lane [[1517]], li te entèdi li ofisyèlman kenz an pita, anvan 

Gouvènè tounèf la [[Nicolás de Ovando|Nikola Ovando]] tante nan kòmansman [[1503]] pou li fè vini Nwa [[Afrik|Afriken]] pou ranplase Bohiono yo. Yon bann pati nan menm lèt Veritas ipsa ki te pou Paul III.

[[File:Haitian Revolution.jpg|thumb|Haitian Revolution]]

Vil ki pou sid, [[Sen-Domeng (vil)|Santo Domingo]], te tounen pò ki pou komansman kolonizasyon nan Nouvo Mond. Panyòl enpòte yon kantite chwal, bèf ak kochon e yo te lage an libète. Depi kòmansman [[1530]], zile a kòmanse vin p ap rapòte. Panyòl yo te konsantre efò yo a nan pati lès zile a ki te gen ankò ti kras lò epi yo te abandone pati lwès la. [[Kasik Anri]] ak [[lame endijèn]] li a vin bat yo e zile a te konnen premye endepandans li.

== Istwa anvan Panyòl yo rive ==
Migran [[arawak]], ki t ap plede soti nan nò delta Orinoco nan [[Amerik disid]], te rive rete sou kèk zile nan Karayib la. Anviwon ane 600, Tayino a, yon kilti arawak, te rive sou zile a epi te deplase moun ki te abite la anvan yo. Yo te òganize yo an [[Kasika yo nan Ispanyola|kasika yo]] (chèfri), yon kasik (chèf) te dirije chak kasika.

== Istwa panyòl (sòti 1492 rive 1625) ==
'''Christophe COLOMB''' te konstwi yon fò, La Navidad, touprè vil ki vin rele [[Kap Ayisyen (komin)|'''KAP Ayisyen''']] jounen jodi a. fò sila te bati ak bwa bato li a: Santa Maria, ki te fè nofraj pandan premye vwayaj li nan mwa desanm ''1492.'' Lè li te retounen nan 1493 sou dezyèm vwayaj li a,li te jwenn tèt li detwi ak tout 39 kolon touye, se sou rèn Isabella nan ane ''1493.'' Kapital koloni an te vin Santo Domingo an 1496, sou kòt lwès sid la nan [[Zile Ayiti a]]. Panyòl yo  tounen nan lwès Ispanyòl nan ane ''1502'', yo etabli yon koloni nan Yaguana touprè  Leogane aktyè  lan. Yon  dezyèm koloni te etabli nan lane ''1504 li te'' rele Puerto Real touprè  Fort Liberty aktyè la - ki nan ane ''1578'' te deplase nan yon sit ki touprè ak nouvo non Bayaha.

Aprè vini  Ewopeyen yo, popilasyon endijèn [[Hispaniola]] yo  te soufri anpil touprè disparisyon, nan petèt ka ki pi mal la nan depopilasyon nan Ameriken an. Yon ipotèz souvan aksepte mòtalite a segondè nan koloni sa a nan pati nan maladi Ewopeyen an ki natif natal yo pa te gen okenn iminite. Yon ti kantite Tayino te arive viv e mete kanpe ti bouk yon lòt kote. Enterè Panyòl pou Ispanyola te kòmanse about nan ane 1520 , paske lò e depo an ajan yo te jwenn nan Meksik ak Amerik disid te gen plis valè. Aprè sa, popilasyon Panyòl la te grandi ti kras ti kras. [Sitiyasyon ki nesesè]

Koloni  Yacanagua te boule nan tè a twa (3) fwa, jis nan egzistans syèk lontan kòm yon koloni panyòl, premye fwa pa pirat franse nan ane 1543, dezyem fwa 27 me 1592, pa yon pati 110 ateri fò ki sòti nan yon bato kat Anglè naval eskadwon ki te dirije pa Christopher Newport nan bato dragon an Golden, ki te detwi tout kay 150 nan règleman an, e finalman pa Panyòl yo tèt yo nan lane 1605, pou rezon ki etabli anba a.

Nan 1595, Panyòl yo, fache pa rebelyon an ven ane nan matyè Olandè yo, fèmen pò lakay yo nan anbake rebel soti nan Netherlands yo, koupe sèl  pwovizyon ki nesesè pou endistri aran yo. Olandè yo te reponn pa founiti sèl ki soti nan Amerik  Panyòl kote kolon yo te plis kontan fè komès. Se konsa, gwo kantite komèsan Olandè / pirat yo te komès Anglè yo ak franse frè komès sou kòt yo aleka nan Ispanyola. Nan 1605, Espay te fache ke koloni Panyòl sou nò ak lwès peyi nan zile a pèsiste nan pote soti echèl gwo ak komès ilegal ak Olandè a, ki moun ki nan tan sa a te goumen yon lagè nan endepandans kont Espay an Ewòp ak angle a, ak trè dènye eta lènmi, e konsa deside fòse moun yo pi pre lavil la nan Santo Domingo. [5] Aksyon sa a, ke yo rekonèt kòm Devastaciones de Osorio a, te pwouve dezas; Plis pase mwatye nan kolon yo reenstale mouri nan grangou oswa maladi, plis pase 100,000 bèt yo te abandone, e anpil esklav chape. [6] Senk nan ki deja egziste koloni yo trèz nan zile a te britalman te kraze pa twoup Panyòl ki gen ladan koloni yo de sou teritwa a nan prezan-jou Ayiti, La Yaguana, ak Bayaja. Anpil nan moun ki rete nan batay, chape nan forè a, oswa kouri ale nan sekirite nan pase bato Olandè yo.

Sa a aksyon Panyòl te kontreproduktiv kòm angle, Olandè, ak franse pirat yo te kounye a lib yo etabli baz sou abandone nan zile a nò ak lwès, kote bèt sovaj yo te kounye a abondan ak gratis. Nan 1697, apre deseni de batay sou teritwa a, Panyòl la sede pati lwès la nan zile a franse a, ki moun ki kounye a yo rele li Saint-Domingue. Saint-Domingue devlope nan yon koloni trè likratif pou Lafrans. Ekonomi li te baze sou yon endistri sik travay-entansif ki repoze sou kantite vas nan esklav Afriken yo. Pandan se tan, sitiyasyon an sou pati nan Panyòl nan zile a deteryore. Tout anpi Panyòl la te plonje nan yon kriz ekonomik gwo twou san fon, ak [[Santo Domingo, Holguin|Santo Domingo]] te anplis frape pa tranblemanntè, siklòn ak yon rediksyon popilasyon.

== Sen Domeng franse (1625-1789) ==
Pèl nan Zantiy (1711–89)

== Peryòd revolisyonè (1789-1804) ==
[[File: Toussaint L'Ouverture.jpg|thumb|Kòm lidè ofisyèl revolisyon an, [[Tousen Louvèti]] konsidere kòm papa Ayiti.]]

=== Revòlt Oge a (1789-91) ===
Epidemi revolisyon an an Frans nan ete [[1789 (almanak gregoryen)|1789]] te gen yon efè pwisan sou koloni an. Pandan kolon fransè yo t ap debate sou fason nouvo lwa revolisyonè yo t ap aplike nan Sen Domeng, an 1790 lagè sivil kareman te pete lè moun lib koulè yo te deklare ke yo menm tou yo te sitwayen franse dapre kondisyon Deklarasyon Dwa Moun ak Sitwayen an. . Dis jou anvan sezon otòn Bastille a, an Jiyè 1789, Asanble Nasyonal Lafrans la te vote pou mete sis delege nan Sen-Domeng. Nan Pari, yon gwoup milat rich, ki te dirije pa Julien Raimond ak Vincent Ogé, te fè yon petisyon san siksè delege plantè blan yo pou yo sipòte reklamasyon milat pou tout dwa sivil ak politik. Atravè efò yon gwoup ki te rele Société d'Amis des Noirs, kote Raimond ak Ogé te lidè enpòtan, nan mwa mas 1790 Asanble Nasyonal la te bay gens de couleur tout dwa sivik. Vincent Ogé te vwayaje Sen Domeng pou l te asire pwomulgasyon ak aplikasyon dekrè sa a, li te debake toupre Cap-Français (kounye a Okap) an [[oktòb]] 1790 epi li te fè yon petisyon gouvènè wayal la, Comte de Peynier. Apre demann li yo te refize, li te eseye pouse gens de couleur a revòlte. Ogé ak Jean-Baptiste Chavennes, yon veteran nan syèj nan Savannah pandan Revolisyon Ameriken an, te eseye atake Okap. Sepandan, rebèl milat yo te refize ame oswa libere esklav yo, oswa defye estati esklavaj la, epi atak yo te bat pa yon fòs milis blan ak volontè nwa (ki gen ladan Henri Christophe). Apre sa, yo te kouri travèse fwontyè a nan Hinche, nan moman an nan pati Panyòl nan zile a. Sepandan, yo te kaptire, tounen bay otorite fransè yo, epi tou de Ogé ak Chavannes yo te egzekite an fevriye 1791.

=== Revòlt esklav yo (1791-93) ===
Tradisyonèlman konsidere yon [[Seremoni nan bwa Kayiman|seremoni vodou]] nan Bwa Kayiman toupre Okap nan dat 14 out 1791, ki te prezide pa yon houngan (prèt Vodou) ki rele [[Boukmann]]. Apre seremoni sa a, esklav nan rejyon nò koloni an te fè yon revòlt, e byenke Boukman yo te kaptire epi egzekite, rebelyon an te kontinye gaye rapidman nan tout koloni a. Kòmanse nan mwa septanm nan, kèk trèz mil esklav ak rebèl nan sid la, ki te dirije pa Romaine-la-Prophétesse, te libere esklav epi pran pwovizyon epi boule plantasyon, finalman okipe de gwo vil nan zòn nan, [[Leyogàn (komin)|Leyogàn]] ak [[Jakmèl (komin)|Jakmèl]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Rey 2017 a&quot;&gt;Terry Rey, ''The Priest and the Prophetess: Abbé Ouvière, Romaine Rivière, and the Revolutionary Atlantic World'' (2017), pp. 28, 32–35, 48–49, 52&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Matthias Middell, Megan Maruschke, The French Revolution as a Moment of Respatialization (2019), p. 71.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Dun 2016 65&quot;&gt;James Alexander Dun, ''Dangerous Neighbors: Making the Haitian Revolution'' (2016), p. 65&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;David F. Marley, ''Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict'' (2008), p. 534&lt;/ref&gt;

An 1792, [[Léger-Félicité Sonthonax]] ak de lòt komisyonè nasyonal yo te voye nan koloni an pa Asanble Lejislatif franse a kòm yon pati nan yon Komisyon Revolisyonè. Objektif prensipal Sonthonax se te kenbe kontwòl fransè Sen-Domeng, estabilize koloni an, epi ranfòse egalite sosyal la te akòde dènyèman pou libere moun koulè pa Konvansyon Nasyonal Lafrans la. Nan mwa mas 1792, yon kowalisyon blan ak konsèvatè nwa lib ak fòs ki te dirije pa yon lòt nan komisyonè nasyonal yo, Edmond de Saint-Léger, te depoze revòlt Romaine-la-Prophétesse a&lt;ref name=&quot;Dun 2016 65&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Rey 2017 b&quot;&gt;Rey (2017), pp. 137, 157–59.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot; Popkin 2011 51&quot;&gt;Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution'' (2011), p. 51&lt;/ref&gt; apre [[André Rigaud]], ki te dirije fòs konfederasyon nwa ki baze toupre Pòtoprens, te refize fè alye avèk li.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rey 2017 c&quot;&gt;Rey (2017), p. 103.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Tousen Louvèti ki monte (1793-1802) ===
Sou 29 Out 1793, Sonthonax te pran etap radikal nan pwoklame libète esklav yo nan pwovens nò a (ak limit grav sou libète yo). Nan mwa septanm ak oktòb, emansipasyon te pwolonje nan tout koloni an. Konvansyon nasyonal franse a, premye Asanble Premye Repiblik la te eli (1792–1804), nan dat 4 fevriye 1794, anba lidèchip Maximilien de Robespierre, aboli esklavaj lalwa an Frans ak tout koloni li yo. Konstitisyon 1793 la, ki pa t janm aplike, ak konstitisyon 1795, ki te mete an vigè, tou de te genyen yon entèdiksyon eksplisit sou esklavaj.

Sepandan, esklav yo pa t ale imedyatman sou banyè Sonthonax la. Plantè kont-revolisyonè yo te kontinye goumen Sonthonax, ak sipò nan men Britanik yo. Yo te ansanm ak anpil nan moun lib koulè ki te opoze abolisyon esklavaj la. Se pa jiskaske pawòl ratifikasyon emansipasyon Lafrans te rive tounen nan koloni a ke Toussaint Louverture ak kò li a ansyen esklav byen disipline, fè tèt di nan batay la te vin bò kote Repibliken franse a nan kòmansman mwa me 1794. Yon chanjman nan van politik yo an Frans. te lakòz Sonthonax yo te raple an 1796, men se pa anvan yo te pran etap pou ame ansyen esklav yo.

Lè revolisyonè radikal yo nan Pari te deklare lagè kont Espay an janvye 1793, kouwòn Panyòl la te voye fòs li yo nan Santo Domingo nan batay sou bò esklav yo. Rive nan fen 1793, Espay te kontwole pi fò nan nò a, eksepte Britanik-kenbe Môle-Saint-Nicolas ak franse-kenbe Le Cap François ak Port-de-Paix.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Haitian Revolution, 1789-1804|date=1973|publisher=Univ. of Tennessee Press|page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt; An 1795, Espay te bay Sendomeng bay Lafrans e atak Panyòl sou Sendomeng te sispann.

Nan sid la, Britanik yo sibi yon seri defèt nan men milat Jeneral André Rigaud. 6 oktòb 1794, Rigaud te pran Léogane. Sou 26 desanm 1794, li te atake Tiburon ki te kenbe Britanik la, ki te mennen ganizon Britanik la.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution|date=2009|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|page=182}}&lt;/ref&gt; An 1798, li te pèdi teritwa ak dè milye de gason nan lafyèv jòn, Britanik yo te fòse yo retire li.

Antretan, Rigaud te mete kanpe yon mouvman separatis milat nan sid la. An 1799, ak Britanik yo ale, Toussaint te lanse yon ofansif kont fò Rigaud yo. Pandan li te voye Jeneral Desalin kont Grand ak Petit Goâve ak Jeneral Christophe kont gwo fò milat Jakmèl, bato de gè Ameriken yo te bonbade fòtifikasyon milat yo epi detwi chalan transpò Rigaud yo.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The American Counterrevolution: A Retreat from Liberty, 1783-1800|date=1998|publisher=Stackpole Books|page=485}}&lt;/ref&gt; Fòs Rigaud yo te akable ak bat nan 1800.

Rive 1801, Toussaint te nan kontwòl tout Ispanyola, apre yo fin konkeri franse Sendomeng epi pwoklame abolisyon esklavaj la. Men, li pa t 'pwoklame endepandans total pou peyi a, ni li pa t' chache reprezay kont ansyen esklavaj blan peyi a, konvenki ke fransè yo pa ta retabli esklavaj ak &quot;ke yon popilasyon esklav dènyèman te debake soti nan Lafrik pa t 'kapab rive nan sivilizasyon. 'ale pou kont li.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=CLR |last=James |title=The Black Jacobins |publisher=Vintage Books |place=New York |year=1990 |page=290}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Napoleon bat (1802-04) ===
Toussaint, sepandan, afime anpil endepandans ke an 1802, Napoleon te voye yon fòs envazyon masiv, anba bòfr li Charles Leclerc, pou ogmante kontwòl Lafrans. Pou yon tan, Leclerc te rankontre ak kèk siksè; li te mete tou pati lès zile [[Ispayola]] anba kontwòl dirèk Lafrans dapre kondisyon Trete Bâle ak Espay 1795 yo. Avèk yon gwo ekspedisyon ki te gen ladan l 40,000 twoup Ewopeyen yo, epi li te resevwa èd nan men kolon blan ak fòs milat ki te kòmande pa [[Alexandre Pétion]], yon ansyen lyetnan nan Rigaud, franse yo te genyen plizyè viktwa apre gwo batay. De nan lyetnan an chèf [[Toussaint Louverture|Toussaint]] yo, [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines|Desalin]] ak [[Henri Christophe|Christophe]], ki te rekonèt sitiyasyon yo pa soutenabl, te fè pale separe ak anvayisè yo epi yo te dakò transfere fidelite yo. Nan pwen sa a, Leclerc te envite Toussaint pou negosye yon antant. Se te yon desepsyon; Tousen te sezi epi depòte an [[Frans]], kote li te mouri nan mwa avril 1803 nan nemoni, pandan li te nan prizon nan Fort de Joux nan mòn Jura yo.

20 me 1802, Napoleon te siyen yon lwa pou kenbe esklavaj kote li poko disparèt, sètadi [[Matinik]], Tobago ak [[Sent Lisi]]. Yon kopi konfidansyèl dekrè sa a te voye bay Leclerc, ki te otorize pa Napoleon pou retabli esklavaj nan Sendomeng lè lè a te apwopriye. Anmenmtan, plis edik te retire gens de couleur yo dwa sivil yo te fèk genyen. Okenn nan dekrè sa yo pa te pibliye oswa egzekite nan Sendomeng, men, nan mitan sezon ete, mo te kòmanse rive nan koloni nan entansyon an franse retabli esklavaj. Trayizon Tousen ak nouvèl aksyon fransè yo nan Matinik te febli kolaborasyon dirijan tankou Desalin, Christophe ak Pétion. Konvenk ke menm sò a t ap tann pou Sen-Domeng, kòmandan sa yo ak lòt moun te batay ankò Leclerc. Kòm franse yo te gen entansyon rekonkèt ak re-esklavaj nan popilasyon nwa koloni an, lagè a te vin tounen yon lit san nan atwosite ak attrition. Sezon lapli a te pote lafyèv jòn ak malarya, ki te fè anvayisè yo yon gwo kantite lajan. Nan mwa Novanm, lè Leclerc te mouri nan lafyèv jòn, 24,000 sòlda franse te mouri ak 8,000 te entène lopital, majorite nan maladi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=CLR |last=James |title=Black Jacobins |page=355}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Apre sa, Leclerc te ranplase pa [[Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vikonte de Rochambeau]]. Rochambeau te ekri Napoleon ke, pou reprann Sen-Domeng, Lafrans dwe &quot;deklare nèg yo esklav, epi detwi omwen 30,000 nwa ak neg&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=CLR |last=James |title=Black Jacobins |page=360}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nan dezespwa li, li te tounen vin jwenn zak britalite de pli zan pli envole; franse yo te boule vivan, pann, nwaye, epi tòtire prizonye nwa yo, reviv pratik tankou antere nwa nan pil ensèk ak bouyi yo nan chodyè melas. Yon swa, nan Pòto-Republikan, li fè yon bal kote li envite medam milat ki pi enpòtan yo epi, a minwi, li anonse lanmò mari yo. Sepandan, rebèl ayisyen yo te ranbouse chak zak britalite. Apre yon batay, Rochambeau antere 500 prizonye vivan; Desalin reponn li pann 500 prizonye franse.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Heinl|1996|pp=108–9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Taktik brital Rochambeau te ede ini sòlda nwa ak milat kont franse yo.

Kòm mare nan lagè a te vire nan direksyon ansyen esklav yo, Napoleon te abandone rèv li pou retabli Anpi Nouvo Mond Lafrans la. Nan 1803, lagè rekòmanse ant Lafrans ak [[Grann Bretay (wayòm)|Grann Bretay]], ak Royal Navy la byen fèm nan kontwòl lanmè yo, ranfòsman ak pwovizyon pou Rochambeau pa janm rive nan kantite ase. Pou konsantre sou lagè an Ewòp, Napoleon te siyen Achte Lwizyana nan mwa avril, vann byen Lafrans nan Amerik di Nò bay Etazini. Lame ayisyen an, ki te dirije kounye a pa Dessalines, te devaste Rochambeau ak lame franse a nan batay Vertières nan 18 novanm 1803.

Sou 1 janvye 1804 Desalin te deklare endepandans,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/dol/images/examples/haiti/0001.pdf |publisher=National archives |place=UK |title=Déclaration d'indépendance}}&lt;/ref&gt; reprann non endijèn Taíno Ayiti (&quot;Tè mòn yo&quot;) pou nouvo nasyon an. Pifò nan rès kolon fransè yo te kouri devan lame fransè te bat la, anpil moun te imigre nan Louisiana oswa Kiba. Kontrèman ak Tousen, Desalin te montre yon ti ekwanimite anrapò ak blan yo. Nan yon dènye zak vanjans, fòs militè ayisyen yo te touye rès franse yo nan yon jenosid blan. Anviwon 2,000 franse te masakre nan Okap, 900 nan Pòtoprens, ak 400 nan Jérémie. Li te pibliye yon pwoklamasyon ki deklare, &quot;nou te remèt kanibal sa yo, lagè pou lagè, krim pou krim, outraj pou outraj.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Heinl|1996|pp=122–23, 125}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Yon eksepsyon nan pwoklamasyon Desalin lan se te yon gwoup Polonè ki soti nan Lejyon Polonè yo ki te rantre nan militè franse a anba Napoleon.&lt;ref name=&quot;North&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=North |first1=Jonathan |title=War of Lost Hope, Polish Accounts of the Expedition to Saint Domingue |date=2018 |publisher=Amazon |location=London |isbn=978-1976944123 |pages=104}}&lt;/ref&gt; Yon majorite sòlda Polonè te refize goumen kont fòs ayisyen yo. Nan epòk sa a, te gen yon sitiyasyon abitye ki t ap pase nan peyi yo, kòm sòlda Polonè sa yo t ap goumen pou libète yo kont anvayi Larisi, Prussian ak Otrich yo ki te kòmanse an 1772. Menm jan ak Ayisyen, anpil Polonè t ap chèche inyon pami. tèt yo pou reprann peyi yo. Kòm rezilta, anpil sòlda Polonè te admire ènmi yo epi yo te deside vire sou lame fransè a epi rantre nan ansyen esklav ayisyen yo, epi yo te patisipe nan revolisyon ayisyen an 1804, sipòte prensip libète pou tout pèp la. Władysław Franciszek Jabłonowski, ki te mwatye Nwa, se te youn nan jeneral Polonè yo nan epòk la. Sòlda Polonè yo te gen yon kontribisyon remakab nan ede ayisyen yo nan revanj yo kont opresè franse a. Yo te sove sò lòt Ewopeyen yo. Pou lwayote yo ak sipò yo pou ranvèse Fransè yo, kèk Polonè te pran sitwayènte ayisyen apre Ayiti te pran endepandans li, e anpil nan yo te etabli la, pou yo pa janm retounen nan Polòy. Yo estime ke anviwon 500 nan 5,280 poto yo te chwazi opsyon sa a. Nan rès la, 700 te retounen an Frans evantyèlman retounen nan Polòy, ak kèk, apre yo fin kapitilize, te dakò sèvi nan Lame Britanik la.&lt;ref name=&quot;North&quot; /&gt; Apre sa, 160 Polonè te bay pèmisyon pou yo kite Ayiti e kèk yo te voye an Frans sou depans ayisyen. Jouk jounen jodi a, anpil Ayisyen Polonè toujou ap viv ann Ayiti e yo gen desandan milti-rasyal; kèk gen cheve blond, je limyè, ak lòt karakteristik Ewopeyen an. Jodi a, desandan Pòl sa yo ki te rete yo ap viv nan Cazale, Fond-des-Blancs, La Vallée-de-Jacmel, La Baleine, Port-Salut ak Saint-Jean-du-Sud.&lt;ref name=&quot;North&quot; /&gt;

Apre endepandans ayisyen an, nouvo nasyon an te lite ekonomikman, kòm nasyon Ewopeyen yo ak Etazini yo te refize pwolonje rekonesans diplomatik an Ayiti. An 1825, fransè yo te retounen ak yon flòt katòz bato de gè epi yo te mande yon indemnité de 150 milyon fran an echanj pou rekonesans diplomatik; Prezidan ayisyen an, Jean-Pierre Boyer, te dakò ak revandikasyon fransè yo anba kontrent. Pou yo ka finanse dèt la, gouvènman ayisyen an te oblije pran anpil prè ki gen enterè ki wo nan men kreditè etranje yo, epi dèt la Frans yo pa t peye nèt jiskaske 1947.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Alcenat|first=Westenley|accessdate=20 October 2021|title=The Case for Haitian Reparations|date=14 January 2017|url=https://jacobinmag.com/2017/01/haiti-reparations-france-slavery-colonialism-debt/|journal=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Gamio |first1=Lazaro |last2=Méheut |first2=Constant |last3=Porter |first3=Catherine|last4=Gebrekidan |first4=Selam |last5=McCann |first5=Allison |last6=Apuzzo |first6=Matt |date=2022-05-20 |title=Haiti's Lost Billions |language=en-US |work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/05/20/world/americas/enslaved-haiti-debt-timeline.html |access-date=2022-12-06 |issn=0362-4331}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Rosalsky |first=Greg |date=2021-10-05 |title='The Greatest Heist In History': How Haiti Was Forced To Pay Reparations For Freedom |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2021/10/05/1042518732/-the-greatest-heist-in-history-how-haiti-was-forced-to-pay-reparations-for-freed |access-date=2022-12-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Endepandans: Premye ane yo (1804–1843) ==
=== Repiblik Nwa (1804) ===
Ayiti se dezyèm eta endepandan nan Emisfè Lwès la apre Etazini.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Christopher|first1=Marc|title=Haiti|url=http://worldbookonline.com/student/article?id=ar242480&amp;st=haiti#tab=homepage|website=Worldbook Online|publisher=Worldbook|access-date=3 April 2016|archive-date=24 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924000440/http://worldbookonline.com/student/article?id=ar242480&amp;st=haiti#tab=homepage|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ayiti te ede aktivman mouvman endepandans yo nan anpil peyi Amerik Latin yo - e li te jwenn yon pwomès nan men gwo liberatè a, Simón Bolívar, ke li ta libere esklav apre yo te genyen endepandans nan men Espay. Nasyon ansyen esklav yo te rete eskli nan premye reyinyon rejyonal nasyon endepandan yo nan emisfè a, ki te fèt nan Panama an 1826, sitou akòz atwosite jenosid ayisyen an 1804 ki te vize gason, fanm ak timoun Ewopeyen ki te abite ann Ayiti, ki gen ladann moun ki te rete ann Ayiti. favorab pou revolisyon an.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0b&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Girard |first=Philippe R. |date=2005 |title=Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00313220500106196 |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=138–161 |doi=10.1080/00313220500106196 |issn=0031-322X |s2cid=145204936 |quote=The Haitian genocide and its historical counterparts [...] The 1804 Haitian genocide}}&lt;/ref&gt; Malgre efò senatè anti-esklavaj Charles Sumner nan Massachusetts te fè, Lèzetazini pa t rekonèt endepandans Ayiti jis nan ane 1862. Eta esklavaj Sid yo te kontwole Kongrè a epi yo te pè ankouraje revòlt esklav yo, te bloke sa; Ayiti te byen vit rekonèt (ansanm ak lòt mezi pwogresis, tankou mete fen nan esklavaj nan Distri Columbia), apre lejislatè sa yo te kite Washington an 1861, eta yo te deklare sesesyon yo.

Lè Jeneral Desalin te pran pouvwa a, te otorize Konstitisyon 1804 la. Konstitisyon sa a, an tèm de libète sosyal, te mande:
# Libète relijyon. (Anba Toussaint, yo te deklare Katolis la relijyon ofisyèl leta.)
# Tout sitwayen Ayiti, kèlkeswa koulè po yo, yo dwe konnen yo kòm &quot;Nwa&quot; (sa a se te yon tantativ pou elimine yerachi rasyal milti-nivo ki te devlope an Ayiti, ak Ewopeyen plen oswa tou pre plen san nan tèt, divès nivo. nan po limyè a mawon nan mitan an, ak po nwa &quot;Kongo&quot; soti nan Lafrik nan anba a).
# Blan yo te entèdi posede pwopriyete oswa tè sou tè ayisyen an. Si Fransè yo te retounen pou re-enpoze esklavaj, atik 5 nan konstitisyon an te deklare: &quot;Nan premye kout zam avètisman an, vil yo pral detwi epi nasyon an ap leve nan zam.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Heinl|1996|p=129}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Premye Anpi Ayisyen (1804–1806) ===
1ye janvye 1804, Desalin te pwoklame Ayiti yon nasyon endepandan.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dayan |first=Joan |year=1998 |title=Haiti, History, and the Gods |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-21368-5 |page=3–4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nan mitan mwa fevriye, Desalin te di kèk vil (Léogâne, Jakmèl, Okay) pou yo prepare pou masak an mas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Girard |first=Philippe R. |year=2011 |title=The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence 1801–1804 |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |publisher=The University of Alabama Press |isbn=978-0-8173-1732-4 |page=319}}&lt;/ref&gt; 22 fevriye 1804, li te siyen yon dekrè ki te bay lòd pou yo touye tout blan nan tout vil yo.&lt;ref&gt;Blancpain 2001, p. 7.&lt;/ref&gt; Zam yo itilize yo ta dwe zam silans tankou kouto ak bayonèt olye ke kout zam, yon fason pou touye a ka fèt pi trankil, epi evite avètisman viktim ki vle yo pa son nan kout zam epi kidonk ba yo opòtinite pou yo sove.{{sfnp|Dayan|1998|p=4}}

22 septanm 1804, Desalin te pwoklame tèt li Anperè Jacques I. Men, de nan pwòp konseye l yo, Henri Christophe ak Alexandre Pétion, te ede touye l an 1806. Konspiratè yo te mete l anbiskad nan nò Pòtoprens nan Pont Larnage (kounye a li te ye. kòm Pont-Rouge) sou 17 oktòb 1806 nan wout pou batay rebèl yo nan rejim li an.

Leta ki te kreye anba Desalin te opoze ak klas pi ba ayisyen an te vle. Pandan ke lidè elit yo, tankou Desalin, ak popilasyon ayisyen an te dakò eta a ta dwe bati sou ideyal yo nan libète ak demokrasi,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=Jean-Jacques Dessalines|title= Haitian Declaration of Independence|year=1804|website=Duke Office of News and Communications|url=https://today.duke.edu/showcase/haitideclaration/declarationstext.html|accessdate=April 30, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;faculty.webster.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=The 1805 Constitution of Haiti, May 20, 1805. Translation|website=Webster University Faculty|url=http://faculty.webster.edu/corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/1805-const.htm|accessdate=April 30, 2018|archive-date=September 15, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915080544/http://faculty.webster.edu/corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/1805-const.htm|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt; ideyal sa yo nan pratik te sanble trè diferan pou de gwoup yo. Rezon prensipal ki fè diferans sa a nan pwennvi nasyonalis yo soti nan lefèt ke yon gwoup te viv kòm esklav, ak lòt la pa t '.{{when|date=January 2023}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Mimi Sheller 2000&quot;&gt;Mimi Sheller, Black Publics and Peasant Radicalism in Haiti and Jamaica (Florida: [[University Press of Florida]], 2000), 5.&lt;/ref&gt; Pou youn, pratik ekonomik ak agrikòl Desalin yo, ak lidè apre li, yo te baze sou bezwen pou kreye yon eta ekonomik fò, ki te kapab kenbe yon militè fò.&lt;ref&gt;Mats Lundahl, &quot;Defense and Distribution: Agricultural Policy in Haiti during the Reign of Jean-Jaques Dessalines, 1804-1806,&quot; Scandinavian Economic History Review, 32, no. 2 (2011), 86-87.&lt;/ref&gt; Pou lidè elit Ayiti yo, kenbe yon militè solid pou anpeche swa Fransè yo oswa lòt pouvwa kolonyal yo epi asire endepandans yo ta asire yon eta lib. Lidè Ayiti yo te wè endepandans yo de lòt pouvwa yo kòm nosyon yo sou libète.

Sepandan, peyizanri ayisyen an te mare nosyon libète yo ak tè a. Akoz tèren montay yo, esklav ayisyen yo te kapab kiltive pwòp ti teren yo. Kidonk, libète pou yo se kapasite pou yo kiltive pwòp tè yo nan yon ekonomi de sibzistans. Malerezman, akòz dezi lidè yo, yon sistèm agrikilti plantasyon fòse parèt.&lt;ref&gt;James Franklin, the Present State of Hayti with remarks on its agriculture, commerce, laws, religion, finances and population (Connecticut: Negro Universities Press, 1828), 189-190.&lt;/ref&gt; Anplis de sa, pandan tout Ayisyen te vle yon repiblik nwa,&lt;ref name=&quot;faculty.webster.edu&quot;/&gt; pratik kiltirèl Afriken-Ameriken yo te yon pwen deba. Anpil nan popilasyon ayisyen an te vle kenbe eritaj Afriken yo, ke yo te wè kòm yon pati lojik nan repiblik nwa yo te vle a. Sepandan, tipikman elit yo te eseye pwouve sofistike ayisyen yo atravè literati. Gen kèk otè ki te ekri ke barbaris Lafrik la dwe ekspilse, pandan y ap kenbe rasin Afriken yo.&lt;ref&gt;Beaubrun Ardouin, Etudes sur l’historie d’Haiti : suivies de la vie du général J.M. Borgella (Paris: Dezobry et Magdeleine, 1853-1860), quoted in Erin Zavitz, &quot;Revolutionary narrations: Early Haitian historiography and the challenge of writing counter-history,&quot; Atlantic Studies, 14, no. 3 (2017).&lt;/ref&gt;

Anplis de sa, lòt otè yo te eseye pwouve sivilite ayisyen yo nan elit yo nan diskite ke Nwa yo te kapab tabli ak dirije yon gouvènman nan chanje ak ogmante istwa a nan revolisyon an favorize milat yo ak elit nwa yo, olye ke bann esklav yo.&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Madiou, Histoire d’Haiti, 1847. Quoted in Erin Zavitz, &quot;Revolutionary narrations: Early Haitian historiography and the challenge of writing counter-history,&quot; Atlantic Studies, 14, no. 3 (2017), 343.&lt;/ref&gt; Anplis de sa, pou kenbe libète ak endepandans, elit yo pa t bay sosyete sivil la mas ayisyen an te vle. Peyizan ayisyen yo te vle non sèlman libète tè men tou dwa sivil, tankou vòt ak patisipasyon politik, ansanm ak aksè nan edikasyon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mimi Sheller 2000&quot;/&gt; Eta a pa t bay dwa fondamantal sa yo.

Leta te esansyèlman te dirije pa militè a, ki vle di ke li te trè difisil pou popilasyon ayisyen an patisipe nan nenpòt pwosesis demokratik. Sa ki pi enpòtan, eta a pa t bay aksè a edikasyon ke yon eta ansyen esklav te bezwen.&lt;ref&gt;M.B. Bird, the Black Man or Haytian Independence (New York: Published by Author, 1869), 220.&lt;/ref&gt; Li te prèske enposib pou ansyen esklav yo patisipe efektivman paske yo te manke alfabetizasyon debaz ki te entansyonèlman refize ba yo anba dominasyon kolonyal franse. Atravè opinyon yo diferan sou nasyonalis ayisyen ak libète, elit yo te kreye yon eta ki te favorize yo anpil, olye de peyizanri ayisyen an.

=== Lit pou inite (1806–1820) ===
Apre koudeta Desalin yo, 2 prensipal konplo yo divize peyi a an de rejim rival. Christophe te kreye [[Leta an Ayiti]] otoritè nan nò, epi gens de couleur Pétion te etabli Repiblik Ayiti nan sid. Christophe te eseye kenbe yon sistèm strik nan travay ak pwodiksyon agrikòl ki sanble ak ansyen plantasyon yo. Malgre ke, strikteman pale, li pa tabli esklavaj, li enpoze yon sistèm semi-feyodal, fumage, nan ki chak moun ki kapab te oblije travay nan plantasyon (menm jan ak latifundios Panyòl) yo pwodwi machandiz pou peyi a nouvo. Metòd li a, byenke san dout opresyon, pwodui pi gwo revni de gouvènman yo.

Okontrè, Pétion te kraze ansyen byen kolonyal yo epi divize tè a an ti byen. Nan sid Pétion, minorite gens de couleur te dirije gouvènman an e yo te pè pèdi sipò popilè, e konsa, yo te redwi tansyon klas yo grasa redistribisyon tè. Akoz pozisyon entènasyonal fèb la ak politik travay li yo (pi fò peyizan te viv nan yon ekonomi de sibzistans), gouvènman Pétion te toujou sou bò gwo fayit. Poutan, pandan pifò tan li, li te pwodui youn nan gouvènman ayisyen ki pi liberal ak toleran ki te janm genyen. An 1815, nan yon peryòd kle nan batay Bolívar pou endepandans Venezyelyen an, Pétion te bay lidè Venezyelyen an azil epi li te ba li sòlda ak sipò materyèl sibstansyèl. Pétion tou te gen mwens akrochaj militè entèn yo, malgre konfli kontinyèl li yo ak wayòm nò Christophe a. Nan 1816, sepandan, apre li te jwenn chay Sena a entolerab, li te sispann lejislati a epi li te fè pòs li an Prezidan pou lavi. Pa lontan apre, li te mouri ak [[lafyèv jòn]], ak asistan li [[Jean-Pierre Boyer]] ranplase li.

Nan peryòd sa a, pati lès zile a leve kont nouvo pouvwa yo, apre reklamasyon jeneral Juan Sánchez Ramírez pou endepandans la nan men Lafrans, ki te kraze Trete Bâle yo ki te atake [[Espay]] e ki te entèdi komès ak Ayiti. Nan batay Palo Hincado (7 novanm 1808), tout rès fòs franse yo te bat pa rezirèksyon Panyòl-kreyòl. Sou 9 jiyè 1809, koloni Panyòl Santo Domingo te fèt. Gouvènman an te mete tèt li anba kontwòl peyi Espay, li fè li tinon &quot;España Boba&quot; (ki vle di &quot;Idiot Espay la&quot;).

An 1811, [[Henri Christophe]] te pwoklame tèt li wa Henri I nan [[Wayòm Ayiti]] nan Nò epi li te komisyone plizyè bilding ekstraòdinè. Li te menm kreye yon klas noblès alamòd monachi Ewopeyen yo. Men, an 1820, li te febli pa maladi ak ak diminye sipò pou rejim otoritè li a, li te touye tèt li ak yon bal an ajan olye ke fè fas a yon koudeta. Touswit apre, siksesè Pétion a, Boyer, reyini Ayiti atravè taktik diplomatik epi li te dirije kòm prezidan jouk ranvèse l 'nan 1843.

=== Dominasyon Boyer sou Ispanyola (1820–1843) ===
Prèske dezan apre Boyer te konsolide pouvwa nan lwès la, Ayiti te anvayi Sendomeng (jounen [[Repiblik Dominikèn]]) epi li te deklare zile a gratis anba pouvwa Ewopeyen an. Boyer, sepandan, reponn a yon pati sou bò solèy leve ki te pito Ayiti pase Kolonbi, te okipe ansyen koloni Panyòl la nan mwa janvye 1822, li pa rankontre okenn rezistans militè. Nan fason sa a li te akonpli inite nan zile a, ki te fèt sèlman pou yon ti tan pa [[Toussaint Louverture]] an 1801. Okipasyon Boyer nan bò Panyòl la te reponn tou ak lit entèn nan mitan jeneral Christophe yo, kote Boyer te bay anpil pouvwa ak pouvwa. tè nan lès la. Okipasyon sa a, sepandan, te fè fas ak elit blan Panyòl la kont administrasyon ayisyen an fè kout men, e li te ankouraje emigrasyon anpil fanmi blan rich. Tout zile a te rete anba dominasyon ayisyen jiska 1844, lè nan lès yon gwoup nasyonalis ki rele La Trinitaria te dirije yon revòlt ki te separe zile a ann Ayiti sou lwès la ak Repiblik Dominikèn sou bò solèy leve, ki baze sou sa ki ta sanble yon tèritwa rivyè. divize' soti nan peryòd pre-kontak la.

Soti nan 1824 a 1826, pandan ke zile a te anba yon sèl gouvènman, Boyer ankouraje pi gwo imigrasyon sèl gratis-Nwa soti nan Etazini nan ki plis pase 6,000 imigran etabli nan diferan pati nan zile a. Jodi a, rès imigran sa yo ap viv nan tout zile a, men pi gwo kantite a abite nan Samaná, yon penensil sou bò Dominiken nan zile a. Soti nan pèspektiv gouvènman an, entansyon imigrasyon an se te ede etabli relasyon komèsyal ak diplomatik ak Etazini, epi ogmante kantite travayè kalifye ak agrikòl ann Ayiti.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Heinl |first=Robert Debs |title=Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People 1492-1995 |publisher=UPA |year=2005 |isbn=0761831770 |edition=newly revised |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt;

An echanj pou rekonesans diplomatik nan men Lafrans, Boyer te fòse yo peye yon gwo indemnité pou pèt la nan pwopriyete franse pandan revolisyon an. Pou peye pou sa, li te oblije flote prè an Frans, mete Ayiti nan yon eta de dèt. Boyer te eseye ranfòse pwodiksyon atravè Kòd Riral la, ki te dekrete an 1826, men pwopriyetè peyizan yo, sitou ansyen sòlda revolisyonè yo, pa t gen okenn entansyon pou yo retounen nan travay fòse yo te goumen pou yo chape. Nan 1840, Ayiti te sispann ekspòte sik nèt, byenke gwo kantite kontinye ap grandi pou konsomasyon lokal kòm tafya-yon wonm anvan tout koreksyon. Sepandan, Ayiti te kontinye ekspòtasyon kafe, ki te mande ti kiltivasyon epi li te grandi semi-sovaj.

Tranbleman tè Okap 1842 te detwi vil la, ak [[Palè Sans-Souci]], te touye 10 000 moun. Sa a se te twazyèm gwo tranblemanntè ki te frape Lwès Ispanyola apre tranblemanntè 1751 ak 1770 nan Pòtoprens, epi dènye a jiska [[Tranblemanntè 12 janvye 2010 nan peyi Ayiti|tranblemanntè devastatè 2010 la]].

== Lit politik (1843–1915) ==
An 1843, yon revòlt, ki te dirije pa Charles Rivière-Hérard, te ranvèse Boyer epi li tabli yon règ palmantè tou kout anba Konstitisyon 1843 la. Byento revòlt te pete ak peyi a te desann nan prèske dezòd, ak yon seri prezidan pasajè jiska mas 1847, lè. Jeneral Faustin Soulouque, yon ansyen esklav ki te goumen nan rebelyon 1791, te vin prezidan. Pandan peryòd sa a, Ayiti fè lagè san siksè kont Repiblik Dominikèn.

An 1849, pwofite popilarite li, Prezidan Faustin Soulouque te pwoklame tèt li Anperè Faustin I. Dominasyon an fè li a te reyisi ini Ayiti pou yon tan, men li te fini bridsoukou an 1859 lè Jeneral Fabre Geffrard te depoze l, ki te rele Duke a. nan Tabara.

Gouvènman militè Geffrard a te kenbe fonksyon jiska 1867, epi li ankouraje yon politik siksè nan rekonsilyasyon nasyonal la. Nan 1860, li te rive jwenn yon akò ak Vatikan an, re-entwodwi enstitisyon ofisyèl Katolik Women, ki gen ladan lekòl, nan nasyon an. An 1867 yo te fè tantativ pou etabli yon gouvènman konstitisyonèl, men prezidan siksesif Sylvain Salnave ak Nissage Saget te ranvèse an 1869 ak 1874 respektivman. Nan 1874, yon konstitisyon ki pi solid te prezante anba Michel Domingue, ki te mennen nan yon peryòd lapè demokratik ak devlopman pou Ayiti. Yo te finalman ranbouse dèt Lafrans an 1879, epi gouvènman Prezidan Pierre Théoma Boisrond-Canal te transfere pouvwa a nan lapè bay Lysius Salomon, youn nan lidè ki pi bon an Ayiti. Refòm monetè, ak kreyasyon an 1880-1881 nan Bank Nasyonal d Ayiti, ak yon renesans kiltirèl te vini ak yon flè nan atizay ayisyen.

De dènye deseni 19yèm syèk la te make tou pa devlopman yon kilti entelektyèl ayisyen an. Gwo zèv istwa yo te pibliye an 1847 ak 1865. Entelektyèl ayisyen, ki te dirije pa Louis-Joseph Janvier ak Anténor Firmin, te angaje nan yon lagè lèt kont yon mare rasis ak Darwinis Sosyal ki te parèt pandan peryòd sa a.

Konstitisyon 1867 la te wè tranzisyon lapè ak pwogresis nan gouvènman an ki te fè anpil pou amelyore ekonomi ak estabilite nasyon ayisyen an ak kondisyon pèp li a. Gouvènman konstitisyonèl retabli lafwa pèp ayisyen an nan enstitisyon legal yo. Devlopman endistri endistri sik ak wonm toupre Pòtoprens te fè Ayiti, pandan yon ti tan, yon modèl pou kwasans ekonomik nan peyi Amerik Latin yo. Peryòd sa a nan estabilite relatif ak pwosperite te fini an 1911, lè revolisyon te pete ak peyi a glise yon lòt fwa ankò nan dezòd ak dèt.

Soti nan 1911 rive 1915, te gen sis prezidan diferan, yo chak nan yo te touye oswa fòse nan ekzil.[61] Lame revolisyonè yo te fòme pa kako, brigan peyizan ki soti nan mòn nò yo, sou fwontyè dominiken ki mouye a, ki te enskri pa faksyon politik rival yo ak pwomès lajan yo dwe peye apre yon revolisyon siksè ak yon opòtinite pou piye.

Etazini te patikilyèman pè sou wòl kominote Alman an ann Ayiti (apeprè 200 an 1910), ki te gen yon kantite pouvwa ekonomik disproporsyone. Alman yo te kontwole anviwon 80% komès entènasyonal peyi a; yo te posede epi yo te opere sèvis piblik nan Okap ak Pòtoprens, waf prensipal la ak yon tramway nan kapital la, ak yon chemennfè ki sèvi Plaine de Cul-du-Sac.

Kominote Alman an te pwouve plis vle entegre nan sosyete ayisyen an pase nenpòt lòt gwoup etranje blan, enkli franse yo. Yon kantite marye nan fanmi milat ki pi enpòtan nan peyi a, yo pa pase entèdiksyon konstitisyonèl kont pwopriyetè tè etranje a. Yo te sèvi tou kòm finansman prensipal nan revolisyon inonbrabl nasyon an, k ap flote prè inonbrabl - ak to enterè ki wo - nan konpetisyon faksyon politik.

Nan yon efò pou limite enfliyans Alman an, nan ane 1910-1911, Depatman Deta Ameriken an te sipòte yon konsòsyòm envestisè Ameriken, ki te rasanble pa National City Bank of New York, nan sekirize konsesyon emisyon lajan atravè Bank Nasyonal Repiblik Ayiti a. ki te ranplase Bank Nasyonal d Ayiti anvan kòm sèl bank komèsyal nan peyi a ak gadyen trezò gouvènman an.

Nan mwa fevriye 1915, Vilbrun Guillaume Sam te etabli yon diktati, men an jiyè, li te fè fas ak yon nouvo revòlt, li te masakre 167 prizonye politik, yo tout te soti nan fanmi elit, epi yo te lense pa yon foul nan Pòtoprens.

== Okipasyon Etazini (1915–1934) ==
An 1915, Lèzetazini te reponn plent yo te bay Prezidan Woodrow Wilson nan men bank Ameriken yo te gen anpil dèt Ayiti, te okipe peyi a. Okipasyon Ayiti a te dire jiska 1934. Okipasyon Ameriken an te resanti pa Ayisyen kòm yon pèt souverènte e te gen revòlt kont fòs ameriken. Refòm yo te fèt malgre sa.

Sou sipèvizyon marin Etazini yo, Asanble Nasyonal Dayiti eli Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave prezidan. Li te siyen yon trete ki te fè Ayiti tounen yon pwotektora ameriken de dwa, ak ofisyèl Ameriken yo te pran kontwòl sou Konsèy Finansye a, Sèvis Ladwàn, Konsiltè a, Sèvis Travo Piblik, ak Sèvis Sante Piblik la pou yon peryòd de dizan. Prensipal enstriman otorite Ameriken an te fèk kreye Jandarmeri d'Haïti, kòmande pa ofisye Ameriken yo. An 1917, sou demann ofisyèl ameriken yo, yo te fonn Asanble Nasyonal la, epi yo te deziyen ofisyèl yo pou yo ekri yon nouvo konstitisyon, ki te dikte prensipalman pa ofisyèl nan Depatman Deta Ameriken an ak Depatman Marin Ameriken an. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Sou-Sekretè pou Marin nan administrasyon Wilson, te deklare ke li te ekri pèsonèlman nouvo konstitisyon an. Dokiman sa a aboli entèdiksyon sou pwopriyetè tè etranje - eleman ki pi esansyèl nan lwa ayisyen an. Lè Asanble Nasyonal ki te fèk eli a te refize pase dokiman sa a epi li te ekri youn nan pwòp pa li pou konsève entèdiksyon sa a, kòmandan Jandarmeri Smedley Butler te divòse li. Konstitisyon sa a te apwouve pa yon plebisit an 1919, kote mwens pase 5% nan popilasyon an te vote. Depatman Deta Ameriken otorize plebisit sa a sipoze ke &quot;moun ki voye vòt yo ta dwe 97% analfabèt, inyoran nan pifò ka yo sou sa yo t ap vote.&quot;[62]

Marin yo ak Jandarmeri yo te inisye yon gwo pwogram konstriksyon wout pou amelyore efikasite militè yo epi ouvri peyi a pou envestisman ameriken. Pa gen okenn sous lajan adekwat, yo te fè reviv yon lwa ayisyen an 1864, te dekouvri pa Butler, ki te egzije peyizan yo fè travay sou wout lokal yo olye pou yo peye yon taks sou wout. Sistèm sa a, ke yo rele corvée, soti nan travay ki pa peye peyizan franse yo te bay chèf feyodal yo. An 1915, Ayiti te gen 3 mil (4.8 km) wout ki ka itilize pa otomobil, andeyò vil yo. Nan lane 1918, plis pase 470 mil (760 km) wout te konstwi oswa repare atravè sistèm corvée a, ki gen ladan yon wout ki konekte Pòtoprens ak Okap.[63] Sepandan, Ayisyen ki te fòse yo travay nan gang travay corvée yo, souvan trennen soti lakay yo ak anmède pa gad ame, te resevwa kèk benefis imedya epi yo te wè sistèm sa a nan travay fòse kòm yon retou nan esklavaj nan men gason blan.

An 1919, yon nouvo soulèvman kako te kòmanse, ki te dirije pa Charlemagne Péralte, ki te pwomèt pou 'kondui anvayisè yo nan lanmè a ak libere Ayiti.'[64] Cacos yo te atake Pòtoprens nan mwa Oktòb men yo te chase tounen ak anpil viktim. Apre sa, yon ofisye jandamri Ameriken ki pale kreyòl ak de marin ameriken te enfiltre kan Péralte, yo touye l e yo te pran foto kadav li pou eseye demoralize rebèl yo. Lidèchip nan rebelyon an te pase nan men Benoît Batraville, yon chèf Caco nan Latibonit, ki te lanse tou yon atak sou kapital la. Lanmò li an 1920 te make fen ostilite yo. Pandan odyans Sena an 1921, kòmandan Kò Marin yo te rapòte ke, nan ven mwa rezistans aktif yo, 2,250 Ayisyen te mouri. Sepandan, nan yon rapò bay Sekretè Marin a li te rapòte kantite moun ki mouri yo te 3,250.[65] Istoryen ayisyen yo estime kantite vrè a te pi wo; youn te sijere, &quot;kantite total viktim batay ak viktim represyon ak konsekans lagè a te ka rive, nan fen peryòd pasifikasyon an, kat oswa senk fwa sa - yon kote nan katye a nan 15,000 moun.&quot;[66]

An 1922, Louis Borno te ranplase Dartiguenave, ki te dirije san yon lejislati jiska 1930. Menm ane sa a, Jeneral John H. Russell, Jr., te nonmen Gran Komisyonè. Diktati Borno-Russel te sipèvize ekspansyon ekonomi an, bati plis pase 1,000 mil (1,600 km) wout, etabli yon echanj telefòn otomatik, modènize enstalasyon pò nasyon an, ak etabli yon sèvis sante piblik. Sisal te entwodui an Ayiti, ak sik ak koton te vin ekspòtasyon enpòtan.[67] Sepandan, efò pou devlope agrikilti komèsyal te gen yon siksè limite, an pati paske anpil nan fòs travay Ayiti te anplwaye nan travay sezonye nan endistri sik ki pi etabli nan Kiba ak Repiblik Dominikèn. Anviron 30,000–40,000 travayè ayisyen, ke yo rekonèt kòm braceros, te ale chak ane nan pwovens Oriente nan Kiba ant 1913 ak 1931.[68] Pifò Ayisyen te kontinye rann kont pèt souverènte a. Nan premye opozisyon an nan mitan elit edike a te genyen L'Union Patriotique, ki te etabli lyen ak opozan okipasyon an nan peyi Etazini an li menm, an patikilye Asosyasyon Nasyonal pou Avansman Moun ki gen koulè (NAACP).

Gwo Depresyon an te dezime pri ekspòtasyon Ayiti yo e li te detwi pwogrè ki te genyen nan deseni anvan an. An Desanm 1929, Marin nan Okay te touye dis ayisyen pandan yon mach pou pwoteste kont kondisyon ekonomik lokal yo. Sa te fè Herbert Hoover nonmen de komisyon, pami yo youn te dirije pa yon ansyen gouvènè ameriken nan Filipin William Cameron Forbes, ki te kritike esklizyon ayisyen yo nan pozisyon otorite nan gouvènman an ak konsta, kounye a ke yo rekonèt kòm Garde d'Haïti. An 1930, Sténio Vincent, yon kritik okipasyon an depi lontan, te eli prezidan, e Etazini te kòmanse retire fòs li yo. Retrè a te konplete anba prezidan ameriken Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR), an 1934, anba &quot;politik bon vwazen&quot; li. Etazini te kenbe kontwòl finans ekstèn Ayiti jiska 1947.[69] Tout twa chèf pandan okipasyon an te soti nan minorite milat nan peyi a. Anmenmtan, anpil moun nan klas pwofesyonèl nwa k ap grandi yo te kite veneration tradisyonèl eritaj kiltirèl fransè Ayiti a e yo te mete aksan sou rasin Afriken nasyon an, sitou etnològ Jean Price-Mars ak jounal Les Griots, ki te edite pa Doktè François Duvalier.[70]

Gouvènman tranzisyon an te rete ak yon pi bon enfrastrikti, sante piblik, edikasyon, ak devlopman agrikòl ansanm ak yon sistèm demokratik. Peyi a te gen eleksyon totalman demokratik an 1930, Sténio Vincent te genyen. Garde se te yon nouvo kalite enstitisyon militè ann Ayiti. Se te yon fòs ki te gen anpil moun nwa, ak yon kòmandan nwa ki te fòme nan Etazini, Kolonèl Démosthènes Pétrus Calixte. Pifò nan ofisye Garde yo, sepandan, te milat. Garde se te yon òganizasyon nasyonal;[71] li te kite rejyonalism ki te karakterize pifò lame anvan Ayiti yo. Nan teyori, chaj li a te apolitik - pou kenbe lòd entèn, pandan y ap sipòte yon gouvènman popilè eli. Garde okòmansman te respekte wòl sa a.[71]

== Eleksyon ak koudeta (1934–1957) ==
=== Prezidans Vincent a (1934–1941) ===
Prezidan Vincent te pwofite konparatif estabilite nasyonal la, ke yon militè pwofesyonalize t ap kenbe, pou l te pran pouvwa absoli. Yon plebisit te pèmèt transfè tout otorite nan zafè ekonomik soti nan lejislati a nan pouvwa egzekitif la, men Vincent pa te kontante ak ekspansyon sa a nan pouvwa li. An 1935 li te fòse atravè lejislati a yon nouvo konstitisyon, ki te tou apwouve pa plebisit. Konstitisyon an te fè lwanj Vincent, epi li te bay pouvwa egzekitif la pou l disolse lejislati a selon volonte, pou l reòganize sistèm jidisyè a, pou l nonmen dis nan vennyon senatè (epi pou l rekòmande onz ki rete yo bay chanm bas la), epi pou l dirije pa dekrè. lè lejislati a pa t an seyans. Malgre ke Vincent te aplike kèk amelyorasyon nan enfrastrikti ak sèvis yo, li te reprime opozisyon li an brital, te sansi laprès, epi li te gouvène anpil pou l te benefisye tèt li ak yon klik machann ak ofisye militè koripsyon yo.[71]

Anba Calixte, majorite pèsonèl Garde te respekte doktrin non-entèvansyon politik ke antrenè Kò Marin yo te ensiste. Apre yon tan, sepandan, Vincent ak diktatè Dominiken Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina te chèche achte aderan nan mitan ran yo. Trujillo, ki te detèmine pou l elaji enfliyans li sou tout Ispanyola, nan mwa Oktòb 1937 te bay lòd pou lame Dominiken an bouche aveugles nan yon estime 14,000 a 40,000 Ayisyen sou bò Dominiken nan Masak larivyè Lefrat la.[72] Gen kèk obsèvatè ki fè konnen Trujillo te sipòte yon tantativ koudeta jèn ofisye Garde te fè an desanm 1937. Vincent te ranvwaye Calixte kòm kòmandan e li te voye l aletranje, kote li te finalman aksepte yon komisyon nan militè Dominiken an kòm rekonpans pou efò li te fè pandan li te sou pewòl Trujillo a. Tantativ koudeta a te mennen Vincent pou netwaye kò ofisye yo nan tout manm yo sispèk nan defiote, ki make fen militè apolitik la.[71]

=== Prezidans Lescot a (1941–1946) ===
An 1941 Vincent te montre tout entansyon pou l kanpe pou yon twazyèm manda kòm prezidan, men apre prèske yon deseni dezagreman, Etazini te fè konnen li ta opoze ak yon ekstansyon konsa. Vincent te akomode administrasyon Roosevelt la epi li te remèt pouvwa a bay Elie Lescot.[71]

Lescot te yon ras melanje e li te sèvi nan plizyè pòs gouvènman an. Li te konpetan ak fòs, e anpil moun te konsidere l 'yon kandida sterling pou prezidans lan, malgre background elitis li. Menm jan ak majorite ansyen prezidan ayisyen yo, sepandan, li echwe pou li rive jiska potansyèl li. Manda li a paralèl ak Vincent nan plizyè fason. Lescot te deklare tèt li kòmandan an chèf lame a, epi pouvwa a te abite nan yon klik ki te dirije ak sipò tasit nan Garde la. Li te reprime opozan li yo, te sansi laprès e li te fòse lejislati a pou l ba li anpil pouvwa. Li te okipe tout zafè bidjè san sanksyon lejislatif e li te ranpli pòs lejislatif yo san yo pa rele eleksyon. Lescot te souvan di ke eta-of-lagè Ayiti te deklare kont pouvwa aks yo pandan Dezyèm Gè Mondyal la jistifye aksyon represif li. Sepandan, Ayiti pa t jwe okenn wòl nan lagè a eksepte pou l te bay Etazini matyè premyè epi sèvi kòm baz pou yon detachman Gad Kòt Etazini.[71]

Apa de tandans otoritè li yo, Lescot te gen yon lòt defo: relasyon li ak Rafael Trujillo. Pandan li t ap sèvi kòm anbasadè ayisyen an Repiblik Dominikèn, Lescot te tonbe anba enfliyans ak richès Trujillo. An reyalite, se lajan Trujillo ki te rapòte ke pi fò nan vòt lejislatif yo ki te mennen Lescot sou pouvwa a. Asosyasyon klandesten yo te pèsiste jiska 1943, lè de lidè yo te separe pou rezon enkoni. Apre Trujillo fè piblik tout korespondans li ak lidè ayisyen an. Mouvman sa a te febli sipò popilè Lescot te deja enzitan.[71]

Nan mwa janvye 1946, evènman yo te rive nan yon tèt lè Lescot te mete nan prizon editè maksis yo nan yon jounal ki te rele La Ruche (Ruche a). Aksyon sa a te fè grèv etidyan ak manifestasyon travayè gouvènman yo, pwofesè, ak machann nan kapital la ak vil pwovens yo. Anplis de sa, règ Lescot te domine milat te alyene Garde a majorite nwa. Pozisyon li te vin enposib, e li te demisyone sou 11 janvye. Anons radyo te deklare ke Garde te pran pouvwa, ke li ta administre atravè yon jent twa manm.[71]

=== Revolisyon 1946 ===
Revolisyon 1946 la se te yon nouvo devlopman nan istwa Ayiti, paske Garde te pran pouvwa a kòm yon enstitisyon, pa kòm enstriman yon kòmandan an patikilye. Manm jent a, ke yo rekonèt kòm Komite Egzekitif Militè (Comité Exécutif Militaire), se te kòmandan gad la, kolonèl Franck Lavaud, majò Antoine Levelt, ak majò Paul E. Magloire, kòmandan gad prezidansyèl la. Tout twa te konprann fason tradisyonèl Ayiti pou egzèse pouvwa a, men yo te manke yon bon konpreyansyon sou sa ki ta dwe fè tranzisyon an nan yon gouvènman sivil eli. Lè yo te pran pouvwa a, jent la te pwomèt pou l òganize eleksyon gratis. Junt la te eksplore lòt opsyon tou, men clam piblik, ki te gen ladann manifestasyon piblik pou sipòte kandida potansyèl yo, te evantyèlman fòse ofisye yo kenbe pwomès yo.[71]

Ayiti te eli Asanble Nasyonal li an Me 1946. Asanble a te fikse 16 Out 1946, kòm dat li ta chwazi yon prezidan. Kandida prensipal yo pou biwo a—yo tout te nwa—te Dumarsais Estimé, yon ansyen pwofesè lekòl, manm asanble, ak minis kabinè anba Vincent; Félix d'Orléans Juste Constant, lidè Pati Kominis Ayisyen (Parti Communiste d'Haïti—PCH); ak ansyen kòmandan Garde Démosthènes Pétrus Calixte, ki te kanpe kòm kandida nan yon kowalisyon pwogresis ki enkli Mouvman Travayè Peyizan an (Mouvement Ouvrier Paysan—MOP). MOP te chwazi andòde Calixte, olye de yon kandida ki soti nan pwòp ranje pa l, paske lidè pati a, Daniel Fignolé, te gen sèlman trant-twa laj—twò jèn pou kanpe pou pi wo pòs nasyon an. Estimé, politikman ki pi modere nan twa yo, te tire sipò nan men popilasyon nwa a nan nò a, osi byen ke nan émergence klas mwayèn nwa a. Lidè militè yo, ki pa t aksepte eleksyon Juste Constant e ki te reyaji avèk mefyan sou Fignolé popilis la, te konsidere Estimé tou kòm kandida ki pi an sekirite. Apre de tou nan biwo vòt, lejislatè yo te bay Estimé prezidans la.[71]

=== Prezidans Estimé a (1946–1950) ===
Eleksyon Estimé te reprezante yon kraze ak tradisyon politik Ayiti. Malgre ke li te repitasyon li te resevwa sipò nan men kòmandan Garde la, Estimé te yon sivil. Nan orijin enb, li te pasyone anti-elitist ak Se poutèt sa jeneralman anti-milat. Li te demontre, omwen okòmansman, yon enkyetid otantik pou byennèt pèp la. Opere anba yon nouvo konstitisyon ki te antre an vigè nan Novanm 1946, Estimé te pwopoze, men li pa t janm garanti, premye lejislasyon sekirite sosyal Ayiti a. Sepandan, li te elaji sistèm lekòl la, ankouraje etablisman koperativ riral yo, ogmante salè fonksyonè sivil yo, epi ogmante reprezantasyon klas mwayèn ak klas nwa nan sektè piblik la. Li te eseye jwenn favè Garde tou—yo te rele Lame Dayiti (Armée d'Haïti) nan mwa mas 1947—nan pwomouvwa Lavaud bay jeneral brigadye e nan chèche asistans militè Etazini.[71]

Estimé te finalman viktim de de nan enkonvenyans tan ki te onore règ ayisyen an: konplote elit ak anbisyon pèsonèl. Elit la te gen yon kantite doleyans kont Estimé. Non sèlman li te ekskli yo nan levye gouvènman yo souvan likratif, men tou li te adopte premye taks sou revni nan peyi a, ankouraje kwasans sendika travayè yo, epi li sijere ke vodou dwe konsidere kòm yon relijyon ekivalan a Katolik Women an—yon nosyon ke Elit ewopeyen an degoute. Mank enfliyans dirèk nan zafè ayisyen yo, elit la te fè lobby klandesten nan mitan kò ofisye yo. Efò yo, ansanm ak deteryorasyon kondisyon domestik yo, te mennen nan yon koudeta nan mwa me 1950.[71]

Pou asire w, Estimé te prese pwòp disparisyon li nan plizyè fason. Nasyonalizasyon li nan konsesyon bannann Standard Fruit Company la te redwi sevè revni konpayi an. Li marginalize travayè yo lè li mande yo envesti ant 10 pousan ak 15 pousan nan salè yo nan obligasyon defans nasyonal. Prezidan an sele sò li nan eseye manipile konstitisyon an nan lòd yo pwolonje manda li nan biwo a. Sezi aksyon sa a ak ajitasyon popilè li te lakòz, lame te fòse prezidan an demisyone nan dat 10 me 1950. Menm jent ki te pran pouvwa a apre tonbe Lescot te reinstale tèt li. Yon eskòt lame mennen Estimé soti nan Palè Nasyonal la ak ann egzil nan Jamayik. Evènman me 1946 yo te fè yon enpresyon sou minis travay ki te depoze a, François Duvalier. Leson ke Divalye te tire nan ranvwa Estimé a se ke militè yo pa ka fè konfyans. Se te yon leson ke li ta aji lè li te pran pouvwa a.[71]

=== Prezidans Magloire (1950–1956) ===
Balans pouvwa nan jent a te chanje ant 1946 ak 1950. Lavaud te manm prensipal nan moman premye koudeta a, men Magloire, kounye a yon kolonèl, te domine apre ranvèsman Estimé a. Lè Ayiti te anonse premye eleksyon dirèk li yo (tout gason ki gen venn yon sèl oswa plis yo te gen dwa vote) ta pral fèt 8 oktòb 1950, Magloire te demisyone nan jent la e li te deklare tèt li kandida pou prezidan. Kontrèman ak klima politik chaotic 1946 la, kanpay 1950 la te kontinye anba konpreyansyon implicite ke se sèlman yon kandida fò ki te sipòte pa lame a ak elit la ta kapab pran pouvwa a. Fè fas a sèlman opozisyon siy, Magloire te genyen eleksyon an epi li te pran pòs sou 6 Desanm.[71]

Magloire restore elit la nan importance. Kominote biznis la ak gouvènman an te benefisye de kondisyon ekonomik favorab yo jiskaske siklòn Hazel te frape zile a an 1954. Ayiti te fè kèk amelyorasyon nan enfrastrikti li yo, men pifò nan yo te finanse lajman pa prè etranje. Dapre estanda ayisyen yo, règ Magloire a te fèm, men li pa di: li te mete nan prizon opozan politik yo, tankou Fignolé, epi fèmen laprès yo lè manifestasyon yo te vin twò strid, men li te pèmèt sendika travay yo fonksyone, byenke yo pa te pèmèt yo fè grèv. Se nan tèren koripsyon an, sepandan, ke Magloire depase limit tradisyonèl yo. Prezidan an te kontwole monopoli sisal, siman ak savon. Li menm ansanm ak lòt ofisyèl yo te bati vila enpoze. Enjeksyon lajan entènasyonal pou sekou siklòn nan yon sistèm ki te deja koripsyon te ogmante grèf nan nivo ki te dezavwale tout Ayisyen. Pou fè bagay yo vin pi mal, Magloire te swiv tras yo nan anpil prezidan anvan yo nan diskite dat revokasyon an nan sejou li nan biwo. Politisyen yo, lidè travayè yo, ak patizan yo te rasanble nan lari an Me 1956 pou yo te pwoteste kont Magloire pa t demisyone. Malgre ke Magloire te deklare lwa masyal, yon grèv jeneral esansyèlman fèmen Pòtoprens. Ankò, tankou anpil moun anvan l ', Magloire kouri ale nan Jamayik, kite lame a ak travay pou retabli lòd.[71]

=== Monte Duvalier (1956–1957) ===
Peryòd ki genyen ant sezon otòn Magloire ak eleksyon Duvalier an septanm 1957 te yon dezòd, menm selon estanda ayisyen yo. Twa prezidan pwovizwa te kenbe fonksyon pandan entèval sa a; youn te demisyone e lame te depoze de lot yo, Franck Sylvain ak Fignolé. Yo di ke Duvalier te angaje aktivman nan entrig dèyè ki te ede l parèt kòm kandida prezidansyèl ke militè a te favorize. Lame te kontinye gide kanpay la ak eleksyon yo yon fason ki te bay Duvalier tout avantaj posib. Pifò aktè politik yo te wè Duvalier—yon doktè medikal ki te sèvi kòm yon administratè riral nan yon kanpay anti-yaws finanse Etazini anvan yo te antre nan kabinè a anba Estimé—kòm yon lidè onèt ak san patipri san pretansyon san yon gwo motivasyon ideyolojik oswa pwogram. Lè eleksyon yo te finalman òganize, fwa sa a sou kondisyon vòt inivèsèl (kounye a ni gason ni fanm te gen vòt), Duvalier te pentire tèt li kòm eritye lejitim Estimé. Apwòch sa a te vin pi plis ak lefèt ke sèl opozan solid Divalye a, Louis Déjoie, se te yon milat ak pitit pitit yon fanmi enpòtan. Divalye fè yon viktwa desizif nan biwo vòt yo. Disip li yo te pran de tyè nan chanm ba lejislati a ak tout syèj yo nan Sena a.[71]

== Epòk Duvalier (1957–1986) ==
=== 'Papa Doc' (1957–1971) ===
Yon ansyen Minis Sante ki te genyen yon repitasyon kòm yon imanitè pandan y ap sèvi kòm yon administratè nan yon kanpay anti-yaw finanse pa Etazini, François Duvalier (yo rele &quot;Papa Doc&quot;) byento tabli yon lòt diktati. Rejim li a konsidere kòm youn nan pi repwesif ak koripsyon nan tan modèn, konbine vyolans kont opozan politik ak eksplwatasyon Vodou pou fè laperèz nan majorite popilasyon an. Polis paramilitè Divalye a, ofisyèlman Volontè Sekirite Nasyonal (VSN) men plis ke yo rekonèt kòm Tonton Makout yo, ki rele pou yon mons Vodou, fè asasina politik, bat, ak entimidasyon. Gouvènman li a te touye anviwon 30,000 Ayisyen.[73] Duvalier te itilize vyòl kòm yon zouti politik pou fèmen opozisyon politik yo.[74] Enkòpore anpil houngan nan ranje makout yo, rekonesans piblik li sou Vodou ak pratik li yo ak aderans prive li nan seremoni Vodou a, ansanm ak konesans prive li repitasyon nan maji ak maji, amelyore pèsonaj popilè li nan mitan pèp la e li te sèvi kòm yon espesyalis. fòm lejitimizasyon.

Politik Divalye, ki te fèt pou mete fen nan dominasyon elit milat la sou lavi ekonomik ak politik nasyon an, te mennen nan emigrasyon masiv moun ki edike, apwofondi pwoblèm ekonomik ak sosyal Ayiti. Sepandan, Duvalier te fè apèl a klas mwayèn nwa li te manm nan entwodwi travay piblik nan katye klas mwayèn ki te deja pa t kapab gen wout pave, dlo kouran, oswa sistèm egou modèn. An 1964, Duvalier te pwoklame tèt li &quot;Prezidan pou lavi&quot;.

Administrasyon Kennedy te sispann èd nan lane 1961, apre akizasyon ke Duvalier te mete lajan èd nan pòch e li te gen entansyon itilize yon misyon Kò Marin pou ranfòse makout yo. Duvalier te rankontre tou ak Prezidan Dominiken an, Juan Bosch, an 1963, apre Bosch te bay èd ak azil pou ekzil ayisyen ki t ap travay pou ranvèse rejim li an. Li te bay lòd pou Gad Prezidansyèl okipe Chans Dominiken an nan Pétion-Ville pou arete yon ofisye ki enplike nan yon konplo pou kidnape pitit li yo, ki mennen Bosch menase piblikman anvayi Ayiti. Sepandan, lame Dominiken an, ki pa t gen konfyans Bosch nan tandans goch la, te eksprime yon ti sipò pou yon envazyon, e diskisyon an te regle pa emisè OEA.

An 1971, Papa Doc te antre nan yon kontra 99 ane ak Don Pierson ki te reprezante Dupont Caribbean Inc. nan Texas pou yon pwojè pò gratis sou ansyen fò boukane zile Tortuga a ki sitiye anviwon 10 mil (16 km) sou kòt nò prensipal la. zile Ayiti Ispanyola.

=== 'Baby Doc' (1971–1986) ===
Sou lanmò Duvalier an Avril 1971, pouvwa te pase nan men pitit gason l ', Jean-Claude Duvalier (ki rele &quot;Baby Doc&quot;). Sou Jean-Claude Duvalier, kondisyon ekonomik ak politik Ayiti te kontinye bese, byenke kèk nan eleman ki te pi pè nan rejim papa l te aboli. Ofisyèl etranje yo ak obsèvatè yo tou te sanble pi toleran anvè Baby Doc, nan domèn tankou siveyans dwa moun, ak peyi etranje yo te pi jenere avè l 'ak asistans ekonomik. Etazini te retabli pwogram èd li an 1971. An 1974, Baby Doc te ekspropriye pwojè Freeport Tortuga a e sa te lakòz antrepriz la tonbe. Kontni kite zafè administratif nan men manman l, Simone Ovid Duvalier, pandan l ap viv kòm yon playboy, Jean-Claude te anrichi tèt li atravè yon seri de konplo fwod. Anpil nan richès Divalye yo, ki te monte a plizyè santèn milyon dola pandan ane yo, te soti nan Régie du Tabac (Administrasyon Tabak), yon monopoli tabak ki te etabli pa Estimé, ki te elaji pou enkli lajan tout antrepriz leta yo e ki te sèvi kòm yon fon slush pou ki pa gen okenn bilan yo te janm kenbe.[75] Maryaj li, an 1980, ak yon bèl milat divòse, Michèle Bennett, nan yon seremoni 3 milyon dola (~9,31 milyon dola an 2023), te pwovoke opozisyon toupatou, paske yo te wè sa kòm yon trayizon nan antipati papa l 'anvè elit milat la. Sou demann Michèle, Simone, vèv Papa Doc, te mete deyò nan peyi Dayiti. Kleptokrasi Baby Doc te kite rejim nan vilnerab a kriz ki pa t prevwa, ki vin pi grav pa povrete endemik, sitou epidemi viris lafyèv pòsin Afriken an—ki, sou ensistans ofisyèl USAID yo, te mennen nan touye kochon kreyòl yo, prensipal sous revni pou moun. pi fò ayisyen; ak epidemi SIDA ki te pibliye anpil nan kòmansman ane 1980 yo. Mekontantman toupatou ann Ayiti te kòmanse an 1983, lè Pap Jan Pòl II te kondane rejim nan pandan yon vizit, finalman te pwovoke yon rebelyon, epi an fevriye 1986, apre mwa nan dezòd, lame a te fòse Duvalier demisyone epi ale an ekzil.

== Lit pou demokrasi (1986-jou jodi a) ==
=== Gouvènman tranzisyonèl (1986–1990) ===
Soti 1986 rive kòmansman ane 1988 Ayiti te dirije pa yon gouvènman militè pwovizwa anba Jeneral Namphy. An 1987, yon nouvo konstitisyon te ratifye, ki te bay yon palman bikameral eli, yon prezidan eli, ak yon premye minis, kabinè, minis, ak tribinal siprèm nonmen pa prezidan an avèk konsantman palman an.[76] Konstitisyon an te prevwa tou pou desantralizasyon politik atravè eleksyon majistra yo ak enstitisyon administratif ki responsab gouvènman lokal yo. Eleksyon Novanm 1987 yo te anile apre twoup yo te masakre 30-300 votè yo jou eleksyon an.[77] Jimmy Carter te ekri pita ke &quot;sitwayen ki te aliye pou vote yo te koupe anba fusillade nan bal teworis yo. Lidè militè yo, ki te swa òkestre oswa tolere asasinay yo, te deplase nan anile eleksyon an epi kenbe kontwòl Gouvènman an.&quot;[78] ] Eleksyon an te swiv plizyè mwa apre eleksyon prezidansyèl ayisyen an, 1988, ki te bòykote pa prèske tout kandida anvan yo, e li te wè patisipasyon nan jis 4%.[79]

Eleksyon 1988 yo te fè pwofesè Leslie Manigat vin prezidan, men twa mwa apre li menm tou, lame te ranvwaye li. Plis enstabilite te vini, ak plizyè masak, enkli masak St Jean Bosco kote legliz Jean-Bertrand Aristide te atake epi boule. Pandan peryòd sa a, Sèvis Entèlijans Nasyonal Dayiti (SIN), ki te kreye ak finanse nan ane 80 yo pa Ajans Santral Entèlijans nan kad lagè kont dwòg, te patisipe nan trafik dwòg ak vyolans politik.[80]

=== Levesman Aristide (1990–1991) ===
An desanm 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, yon prèt katolik (salesyen) teyoloji liberasyon an, te genyen 67% vòt nan eleksyon ke obsèvatè entènasyonal yo te konsidere kòm lib e jis. Politik popilis radikal Aristide ak vyolans bann patizan li yo te alarm anpil nan elit peyi a, epi, an septanm 1991, li te ranvèse nan koudeta ayisyen an 1991, ki te mennen Jeneral Raoul Cédras sou pouvwa a. Koudeta a te touye plizyè santèn, epi Aristid te fòse an ekzil, lavi l sove pa entèvansyon diplomatik entènasyonal.

=== Règ militè (1991–1994) ===
Anviron 3,000–5,000 Ayisyen te touye pandan peryòd règ militè a. Koudeta a te kreye yon gwo egzòd refijye nan peyi Etazini. Gad Kòt Etazini te entèdi (nan anpil ka, sove) yon total de 41,342 Ayisyen pandan 1991 ak 1992. Pifò nan yo te refize antre Ozetazini epi yo te rapatriye ann Ayiti. Aristide akize Etazini kòmkwa li apiye koudeta 1991 la.[81] An repons a koudeta a, Konsèy Sekirite Nasyonzini an te pase Rezolisyon 841 ki enpoze sanksyon entènasyonal ak yon anbago zam sou Ayiti.

Sou 16 fevriye 1993, Ferry Neptune te plonje, te nwaye yon estime 700 pasaje. Sa a te pi move dezas ferry nan istwa ayisyen an.[82][83][84]

Rejim militè a te gouvène Ayiti jiska 1994, e daprè kèk sous te gen ladann trafik dwòg ki te dirije pa Chèf Polis Nasyonal Michel François. Divès inisyativ pou mete fen nan kriz politik la atravè restorasyon lapè nan gouvènman konstitisyonèlman eli a echwe. An jiyè 1994, pandan represyon an te monte ann Ayiti e yo te mete yon misyon sivil siveyans dwa moun yo te mete deyò nan peyi a, Konsèy Sekirite Nasyonzini te adopte Rezolisyon Konsèy Sekirite Nasyonzini 940, ki te otorize eta manm yo sèvi ak tout mwayen ki nesesè pou fasilite depa Ayiti. lidèchip militè ak retabli gouvènman Ayiti a ki te eli nan konstitisyon an sou pouvwa a.

=== Retounen Aristide (1994–1996) ===
Nan mitan mwa septanm 1994, ak twoup ameriken yo te prepare pou antre ann Ayiti pa fòs pou Operasyon Uphold Democracy, Prezidan Bill Clinton te voye yon ekip negosyasyon ki te dirije pa ansyen prezidan Jimmy Carter pou konvenk otorite yo pou yo kite yon kote epi pèmèt retounen nan règ konstitisyonèl la. Avèk twoup entèvni yo deja nan lè, Cédras ak lòt lidè tèt yo te dakò pou yo demisyone. Nan mwa Oktòb, Aristide te kapab retounen. Eleksyon jeneral ayisyen an, 1995 nan mwa jen 1995 te wè kowalisyon Aristide la, Òganizasyon Politik Lavalas (Kaskad) te genyen yon gwo viktwa, ak René Préval, yon alye politik Aristide enpòtan, te eli prezidan ak 88% vòt yo. Lè manda Aristide te fini an fevriye 1996, se te premye tranzisyon an Ayiti ant de prezidan eli demokratikman.

=== Premye Prezidans Preval (1996–2001) ===
Nan fen ane 1996, Aristide te kraze ak Préval e li te fòme yon nouvo pati politik, Fanmi Lavalas (Fanmi Lavalas, FL), ki te ranpòte eleksyon an avril 1997 pou yon tyè nan Sena a ak asanble lokal yo, men rezilta sa yo pa t aksepte. gouvènman an. Divizyon ant Aristide ak Préval te pwodui yon enpas politik danjere, e gouvènman an pa t kapab òganize eleksyon lokal yo ak eleksyon palmantè yo ki te fèt nan fen ane 1998. Nan mwa janvye 1999, Préval te revoke lejislatè ki gen manda yo te ekspire - tout Chanm Depite a ak tout moun eksepte nèf. manm Sena a, epi Préval te dirije pa dekrè.

=== Dezyèm prezidans Aristide (2001–2004) ===
Nan mwa me 2000 eleksyon lejislatif ayisyen an, 2000 pou Chanm Depite a ak de tyè nan Sena a te dewoule. Eleksyon an te fè yon patisipasyon votè yo plis pase 60%, epi FL te genyen yon bale vityèl. Sepandan, eleksyon yo te sal ak konfli nan kous Sena a sou kalkil pou konnen si kandida Sena yo te rive jwenn majorite ki nesesè pou evite yon dezyèm eleksyon (an Ayiti, chèz kote okenn kandida pa genyen yon majorite absoli nan vòt yo jete yo dwe antre nan yon eleksyon. dezyèm tou eleksyon an). Validite kalkil apre bilten vòt Konsèy Elektoral la pou konnen si yo te rive jwenn yon majorite te diskite. Òganizasyon Eta Ameriken yo te plenyen sou kalkil la e li te refize obsève eleksyon ki te fèt jiyè yo. Pati opozisyon yo, regroupe nan Konvèjans Demokratik (Convergence Democratique, CD), mande pou yo anile eleksyon yo, epi pou Préval depoze epi ranplase pa yon gouvènman pwovizwa. Antretan, opozisyon an te anonse li pral bòykote eleksyon prezidansyèl ak senatoryal Novanm yo. Prensipal donatè èd Ayiti yo te menase pou koupe èd. Nan eleksyon Novanm 2000 yo, bòykote opozisyon an, Aristide te eli ankò prezidan, ak plis pase 90% vòt yo, sou yon patisipasyon anviwon 50% dapre obsèvatè entènasyonal yo. Opozisyon an te refize aksepte rezilta a oswa rekonèt Aristide kòm prezidan. Akòz evènman sa yo, donatè Ayiti a, Inyon Ewopeyen an ak Etazini, koupe èd pou peyi a.[85]

Akizasyon te parèt sou trafik dwòg rive nan nivo siperyè gouvènman an, jan li te fè anba rejim militè ane 1980 yo ak kòmansman ane 1990 yo (komès ilegal dwòg an Ayiti). Lapolis Kanadyen te arete Oriel Jean, chèf sekirite Aristide ak youn nan zanmi l yo ki te fè plis konfyans, pou blanchi lajan.[86] Beaudoin Ketant, yon trafikè dwòg entènasyonal renome, patnè pwòch Aristide, ak parenn pitit fi li a, te deklare ke Aristide &quot;fè peyi a tounen yon narko-peyi; se yon one-man show; swa ou peye (Aristide) oswa ou mouri&quot;. 87]

Aristide te pase plizyè ane ap negosye ak Konvèjans Demokratik la sou nouvo eleksyon, men enkapasite Convergence a pou devlope yon baz elektoral ase te fè eleksyon yo pa atiran, e li te rejte tout akò yo te ofri yo, li pito mande yon envazyon Etazini pou ranvèse Aristide.

=== Koudeta 2004 la ===
Manifestasyon anti-Aristid nan mwa janvye 2004 te mennen nan eklatman vyolan nan Pòtoprens, ki te lakòz plizyè lanmò. Nan mwa fevriye, yon revòlt pete nan vil Gonayiv, ki byento te anba kontwòl rebèl yo. Lè sa a, rebelyon an te kòmanse gaye, epi yo te pran Kap-Ayisyen, dezyèm pi gwo vil ann Ayiti. Yon ekip medyasyon diplomat te prezante yon plan pou diminye pouvwa Aristide pandan l te pèmèt li rete nan fonksyon li jiska fen manda konstitisyonèl li a. Malgre Aristide te aksepte plan an, opozisyon an te rejte l.

29 fevriye 2004, ak kontenjan rebèl yo t ap mache nan direksyon Pòtoprens, Aristide te kite Ayiti. Aristide ensiste ke li esansyèlman kidnape pa Etazini, alòske Depatman Deta Ameriken an fè konnen li te demisyone nan biwo a. Aristide ak madanm li te kite Ayiti sou yon avyon Ameriken, akonpaye pa diplomat Ameriken ak pèsonèl militè, epi yo te pran vòl dirèkteman nan Bangui, kapital Repiblik Santral Afriken an, kote li te rete pou de semèn ki vin apre yo, anvan li te chèche azil nan yon kote ki mwens lwen. .

Menmsi sa pa janm pwouve, anpil obsèvatè nan laprès ak nan akademi kwè ke Etazini pa bay repons konvenk sou plizyè nan detay ki pi sispèk ki antoure koudeta a, tankou sikonstans kote Etazini te jwenn lèt &quot;demisyon&quot; Aristide. (jan Etazini te prezante a) ki, tradui soti nan kreyòl, gendwa pa te aktyèlman li kòm yon demisyon.[88]

Aristide te akize Etazini pou depoze l an konsè ak opozisyon ayisyen an.[89] Nan yon entèvyou 2006, li te di ke Etazini te retounen sou pawòl yo konsènan konpwomi li te fè ak yo sou privatizasyon antrepriz yo pou asire ke yon pati nan pwofi yo ta ale nan pèp ayisyen an epi answit &quot;rete sou yon kanpay dezenfòmasyon&quot; pou diskredite li. [90]

Òganizasyon politik ak ekriven, ansanm ak Aristide li menm, te sijere ke rebelyon an se te an reyalite yon koudeta etranje kontwole. Caricom, ki te apiye akò lapè a, te akize Etazini, Lafrans, ak kominote Entènasyonal la echwe an Ayiti paske yo swadizan pèmèt yon lidè eli kontwovèsyal yo dwe fòse vyolans soti nan biwo. Kominote entènasyonal la deklare ke kriz la se Aristide fè e li pa aji nan enterè peyi l. Yo te diskite ke retire li te nesesè pou estabilite nan lavni nan nasyon zile a.[89]

Envestigatè yo te deklare ke yo te dekouvri anpil detounman fon, koripsyon, ak blanchi lajan Aristide. Yo te di ke Aristide te vòlè plizyè dizèn milyon dola nan peyi a.[91][92][93] Okenn nan akizasyon yo sou patisipasyon Aristide nan detounman fon, koripsyon, oswa plan blanchi lajan pa t 'kapab pwouve. [klarifikasyon bezwen an] Dosye tribinal kriminèl ki te pote kont Aristide la te ranvwaye tou dousman, byenke plizyè manm nan pati Lavalas li te lani pandan plizyè ane nan prizon san chaj oswa jijman akòz akizasyon menm jan an[94] Le 30 jen 2006, gouvènman ayisyen an te sispann pwosè kont Aristide pou anpeche yo mete l deyò paske yo pa pouswiv.[95]

Se Boniface Alexandre, Chèf Lakou Siprèm la ki te pran gouvènman an. Alexandre te fè yon petisyon Konsèy Sekirite Nasyonzini an pou entèvansyon yon fòs entènasyonal mentyen lapè. Konsèy Sekirite a te pase yon rezolisyon menm jou a &quot;[p] pran nòt de demisyon Jean-Bertrand Aristide kòm Prezidan Ayiti ak prete sèman Prezidan Boniface Alexandre kòm Prezidan enterimè an akò ak Konstitisyon an Ayiti&quot; epi otorize yon misyon konsa.[96] Kòm yon avangad fòs ofisyèl Nasyonzini an, yon fòs anviwon 1,000 marin Ameriken te rive ann Ayiti nan jounen an, e twoup Kanadyen ak Frans yo te rive nan demen maten; Nasyonzini te endike li ta voye yon ekip pou evalye sitiyasyon an nan kèk jou. 1ye jen 2004, misyon mentyen lapè a te pase nan men MINUSTAH e li te genyen yon fòs 7,000 te dirije pa Brezil ak te sipòte pa Ajantin, Chili, lòt bò larivyè Jouden, Maròk, Nepal, Perou, Filipin, Espay, Sri Lanka, ak Irigwe.[97]

Fòs brezilyen yo te dirije twoup mentyen lapè Nasyonzini yo ann Ayiti ki konpoze de deplwaman Etazini, Lafrans, Kanada ak Chili. Twoup mentyen lapè sa yo te fè pati operasyon MINUSTAH k ap kontinye.

Nan mwa novanm 2004, University of Miami School of Law te fè yon ankèt sou dwa moun ann Ayiti e li te dokimante gwo abi dwa moun. Li te deklare ke &quot;ekzekisyon rezime se yon taktik lapolis.&quot;[98] Li sijere tou yon &quot;modèl twoublan.&quot;[98]

Nan mwa mas 2004, Komisyon ankèt Ayiti a, ki te dirije pa ansyen pwokirè jeneral ameriken Ramsey Clark, te pibliye konklizyon li yo: &quot;Lè remake ke 200 fòs espesyal ameriken te vwayaje nan Repiblik Dominikèn pou &quot;egzèsis militè&quot; an fevriye 2003, komisyon an te akize Lèzetazini pou arme ak antrene rebèl ayisyen yo ak pèmisyon prezidan Dominiken an, Hipólito Mejía, fòs ameriken yo te antrene toupre fwontyè a, nan yon zòn ansyen sòlda lame ayisyen an te itilize pou lanse atak sou pwopriyete Leta ayisyen an.&quot;[99]

Nan dat 15 oktòb 2005, Brezil te mande pou yo voye plis twoup akòz sitiyasyon an vin pi grav nan peyi a.[100]

Apre ranvèsman Aristide, vyolans yo te kontinye ann Ayiti malgre prezans mentyen lapè yo. Eklatman ant lapolis ak patizan Fanmi Lavalas yo te komen, epi yo te akize fòs mentyen lapè yo te fè yon masak kont moun ki abite Site Solèy yo an Jiyè 2005. Plizyè nan manifestasyon yo te lakòz vyolans ak lanmò.[101][102]

=== Dezyèm prezidans Préval (2006–2011) ===
Sepandan, nan mitan konfli ak vyolans kontinyèl la, gouvènman pwovizwa a te planifye eleksyon lejislatif ak egzekitif. Apre yo te ranvwaye plizyè fwa, sa yo te fèt an fevriye 2006. Se René Préval ki te genyen eleksyon yo, ki te gen yon gwo patizan pami pòv yo, ak 51% vòt yo.[103] Préval te pran biwo an me 2006.

Nan prentan 2008 la, Ayisyen te manifeste kont ogmantasyon pri manje. Nan kèk ka, kèk wout prensipal yo sou zile a te bloke ak kawotchou boule ak ayewopò a nan Pòtoprens te fèmen.[104] Manifestasyon ak manifestasyon Fanmi Lavalas te kontinye an 2009.[105]

=== Tranblemanntè 2010 ===
Nan dat 12 janvye 2010, Pòtoprens, Ayiti te sibi yon tranbleman tè devastatè ki gen yon magnitude 7.0 ak yon kantite moun ki mouri pa gouvènman ayisyen an estime a plis pase 300,000, ak sous ki pa ayisyen soti nan 50,000 a 220,000. Replis te swiv, ki gen ladan youn nan grandè 5.9. Kapital la, Port-au-Prince, te efektivman nivele. Yon milyon Ayisyen te rete san kay, e dè santèn de milye te mouri grangou. Tranbleman tè a te lakòz gwo devastasyon ak pifò bilding yo kraze, tankou palè prezidansyèl Ayiti. Gwo kantite moun ki mouri yo te fè li nesesè pou antere mò yo nan tonm mas. Pifò kadav yo pa t idantifye epi yo te pran kèk foto, sa ki fè li enposib pou fanmi yo idantifye moun yo renmen yo. Pwopagasyon maladi a se te yon gwo dezas segondè. Anpil sivivan yo te trete pou blesi nan lopital ijans, men anpil lòt te mouri nan gangrene, malnitrisyon, ak maladi enfeksyon.[106]

=== Prezidans Martelly (2011–2016) ===
Nan dat 4 avril 2011, yon gwo ofisyèl ayisyen te anonse Michel Martelly te genyen dezyèm tou eleksyon an kont kandida Mirlande Manigat.[107] Eleksyon an te enplike represyon elektè yo ak lòt metòd manipilasyon.[108] Michel Martelly konnen tou sou non sèn li &quot;Sweet Micky&quot; se yon ansyen mizisyen ak biznisman. Administrasyon Martelly a te rankontre ak kòlè ak aklamasyon. Sou yon bò, li menm ak asosye li yo te akize de yo te enplike nan blanchi lajan ak divès lòt krim ki lakòz manifestasyon inonbrabl (ki nan plizyè okazyon ta vin vyolan). Anpil moun te kritike li pou pwogresyon ralanti faz rekonstriksyon an apre tranblemanntè ki sot pase a, oswa paske li te pran kredi pou pwojè ki te kòmanse nan administrasyon anvan yo. Gen kèk pa renmen l 'pou lang vilgè l' ak riske sot pase yo ki pa t 'sanble yo konplètman disparèt lè yo pran prezidans. Yon lòt bò, anpil moun kwè ke li te prezidan ayisyen ki pi pwodiktif depi epòk Divalye a. Sou administrasyon li a, majorite moun ki te rete san kay apre tranblemanntè a te bay nouvo lojman. Li te ofri pwogram edikasyon gratis pou gwo pati nan jèn ayisyen yo ansanm ak yon pwogram revni pou manman ayisyen ak elèv yo. Administrasyon an te lanse yon pwogram rekonstriksyon masiv ki enplike distri administrasyon prensipal, Champs-de-Mars, ki ta modènize ak reyabilite divès bilding gouvènman, plas piblik, ak pak. Michel Martelly mete aksan sou envestisman etranje ak biznis ak eslogan li &quot;Haiti is Open for Business&quot;. Petèt youn nan pi gwo kontribisyon yo te fè pou revitalizasyon ekonomi ayisyen an se pouse yo pou touris yo. Minis Touris la, Stéphanie Villedrouin, te angaje nan plizyè pwojè touris konpetitif, tankou devlopman Ile-a-Vache, Jacmel, nò, sidwès, ak Cotes-des-Arcadins. Touris te ogmante anpil ant 2012 ak 2016.[109] Nan dat 8 fevriye 2016, Michel Martelly te demisyone nan fen manda li a san yon siksesè an plas.[110]

=== Prezidans Moïse (2017–2021) ===
Apre siklòn Mathew, yo te chwazi Jovenel Moïse pou l pran plas prezidan Martelly nan yon eleksyon ke aktivis yo te dekri kòm yon &quot;koudeta elektoral.&quot;[111] Etazini te sipèvize eleksyon yo e te depanse plis pase 33 milyon dola pou yo. depans yo te kritike pou inefikasite li yo, ak gwo depans jeneral men yo pa fè anpil pou sispann fwod toupatou, vyolans, ak repwesyon votè yo prezan.[112] Moïse te inogire sou teren kote palè nasyonal la te ye nan dat 7 fevriye 2017. Li te kontinye kòmanse pwojè &quot;Caravan de Changement&quot; ki gen pou objektif revitalize endistri yo ak enfrastrikti zòn ki pa popilè Ayiti yo. Sepandan, enpak aktyèl efò sa yo ap diskite. Nan dènye mwa yo, Moïse te enplike nan detounman fon nan pwogram PetroCaribe a, menm jan ak predesesè li a, Martelly.

7 jiyè 2018, manifestasyon politisyen opozisyon an Jean-Charles Moïse te kòmanse, pou mande demisyon Jovenel Moïse. Te pibliye an novanm 2017, yon sondaj Sena a nan peryòd 2008–2016 (konsènan administrasyon René Préval ak Michel Martelly, ansanm ak chèf pèsonèl Prezidan Jovenel Moïse ki te chita nan epòk la) te revele gwo koripsyon te finanse ak prè Venezyelyen atravè Pwogram Petrocaribe.[113] Manifestasyon enpòtan te pete an fevriye 2019 apre yon rapò tribinal la t ap mennen ankèt sou sondaj Sena Petrocaribe a.[114][115]

Yon nouvo seri manifestasyon te pete an fevriye 2021 nan mitan yon diskisyon sou manda prezidansyèl Moïse. Manifestan yo fè konnen manda Moïse te fini ofisyèlman le 7 fevriye 2021 e yo te mande pou li demisyone. Moïse, sepandan, te deklare ke li gen yon lòt ane pou sèvi akòz reta nan kòmanse manda li a. Manifestan yo te eksprime tou enkyetid konsènan yon referandòm Moïse te pwopoze, ki ta rapòte entèdiksyon an sou tèm prezidansyèl youn apre lòt epi pèmèt Moïse kandida ankò.[116]

7 jiyè 2021 Prezidan Moïse te asasinen. Premye Minis Claude Joseph te vin prezidan pwovizwa.[117]

=== Prezidans Henry (2021-2024) ===
Ariel Henry te sèvi kòm premye minis enterimè ak prezidan enterimè ant 20 jiyè 2021 ak mas 2024.[118]

=== Tranblemanntè 2021 ===
14 out 2021, yon gwo tranblemanntè 7.2 te fèt ann Ayiti. Tranblemanntè a lanse avètisman sou tsunami sou kòt ayisyen an. Avètisman an te anile pita jou sa a. Kantite moun ki mouri nan tranblemanntè a nan dat 15 out 2021 se 1,419 moun.[119]

=== Vyolans gang ===
{{AP|Lagè gang ann Ayiti}}
7 jiyè 2022 gwo eklatman ant de gang rival yo te kòmanse nan Cité Solèy, yon katye pòv ak anpil peple nan Pòtoprens. Plizyè milye fanmi te oblije kache andedan kay yo, yo pa t ka jwenn manje oswa dlo; plizyè douzèn rezidan yo te touye pa bal pèdi. Yon semèn vyolans gang fè omwen 89 moun mouri. Depi yon tèminal petwòl ki bay kapital la ak tout nò peyi Dayiti sitiye nan Site Solèy, eklatman yo te gen yon efè devastatè sou ekonomi rejyon an.[120][121]

Nan dat 11 oktòb 2022, Henry ak kabinè li a te mande deplwaman twoup etranje yo pou opoze gang yo ak manifestasyon anti-gouvènmantal nan Pòtoprens.[122] 15 oktòb, Etazini ak Kanada te voye machin blende ak ekipman militè pou ede gouvènman ayisyen an.[123]

2 Mas 2024, gang yo te atake de prizon ann Ayiti, ki gen ladan pi gwo penitansye nan peyi a, e yo te pèmèt prizonye yo sove. Sa a te yon pati nan yon vag atak gang yo te fè pandan premye minis Henry te vwayaje nan Kenya pou finalize yon akò anba ki peyi sa a ta voye 1,000 ofisye lapolis ede retabli lòd ann Ayiti. Objektif gang yo, daprè Jimmy Chérizier, yon chèf gang ke yo rele Barbecue, se ranvèse sa ki rete nan gouvènman an.[124]

Nan dat 4 mas, gang ame yo te atake Ayewopò Entènasyonal Toussaint Louverture ki te fòtifye anpil, yo te fè echanj kout zam ak lapolis ak Fòs Lame Ayisyen yo pou yo te eseye pran kontwòl etablisman an apre rimè ke Henry ta retounen nan peyi a.[125] alimenté espekilasyon ke yon alyans ant gang rival yo ap fòme pou ranvèse elit ayisyen an.[126]

Nan dat 12 mas, premye minis Ariel Henry te di ke li pral demisyone lè yo kreye yon konsèy prezidansyèl tranzisyon.[127] Nan dat 25 avril 2024, pandan Konsèy Prezidansyèl Tranzisyon an te prete sèman, li te prezante demisyon li nan yon lèt ki te siyen 24 avril nan Los Angeles. Kabinè sortan Henry a nonmen Minis Ekonomi ak Finans Michel Patrick Boisvert kòm premye minis pwovizwa.[128][129]

== Rezime istorik ==
* '''1492''': Ewopeyen yo debake sou zile a ak [[Kristòf Kolon]] ([[Christophe Colomb]]) nan tèt yo.
* '''1517''': Charles Quint otorize trèt Afriken yo.
* '''1630-1640''': Pirat yo, flibistye yo ak boukanye yo rive sou zile Latòti.
* '''1650 - 1660''': Premye kolon fransè yo rive nan peyi a.
* '''1685''': [[Louis XIV]] pibliye Kòd nwa a (Code noir&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/amsudant/guyanefr1685.htm|title=Le Code noir de 1685|access-date=2022-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;'''Atik XII'''. &quot;''Les enfants qui naitront de mariage entre esclaves, seront esclaves et appartiendront aux maitres des femmes esclaves et non à ceux de leur marié, si le mari et la femme ont des maitres différents''&quot; https://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/esclavage/code-noir.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;).
* '''1685''': Kreyasyon premye moulin sik.
* '''1697''': Separasyon zile a ant [[Frans|Lafrans]] ak Espay apre trete Riswik la (traité de Ryswick&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/francophonie/Ryswick-1697.htm|title=Ryswick (traité), 1697|access-date=2022-11-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;).
* '''1713 - 1787''': Trant mil (30 000) [[kolon]] ki te soti nan vil Bòdo (Bordeaux) nan peyi Lafrans rive nan peyi a.

== Gade tou ==
* [[Kwonoloji nan Ayiti]]
* [[Revolisyon Ayisyen]]
* [[Lis prezidan Ayiti]]
* [[Chapèl Wayal Milo]]

== Biblyografi ==
* 2010 : [[Maude Heurtelou|Heurtelou, Maude]] ''Anayiz Aprann Istwa Ayiti'', Haiti: Educa Vision
* [http://www.potomitan.info/vedrine/peyi.php Peyi m rele Ayiti (Yon rezime istwa Ayiti soti epòk kolonyal rive an 1994)]

== Lyen deyò ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r3EhTzoHuHk Istwa Ayiti]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20220516092257/http://www.grahn-monde.org/renacer/3.0.pdf Istwa peyi Ayiti]
* [http://www.manioc.org/gsdl/collect/patrimon/archives/PAP11077.dir/PAP11077.pdf Manuel d'histoire d'Haïti]
* [https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Étude_sur_l’histoire_d’Haïti Étude sur l’histoire d’Haïti]

== Referans ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Bibliyografi ==
* Sciences sociales, MARC ANTOINE BRICE, Nouvelle édition Actualisée octobre 1999

{{Palèt Ayiti}}

[[Kategori:Istwa Dayiti]]</text>
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    <title>Lalin</title>
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      <text bytes="1311" sha1="cni8j1q0t8jxbe4ji77rgsqscuvfx60" xml:space="preserve">[[Fichye:Aldrin Apollo 11.jpg|thumb|Yon [[astwonòt]] sou Lalin.]]

{{definisyon
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'''Lalin''' (senbòl: [[fichye:Moon decrescent symbol (fixed width).svg|16px|☾]]) se sèl [[satelit]] [[planèt]] [[Latè]].

== Etimoloji ==
Mo ''lalin'' nan soti nan lang fransè a (''la lune'') ki soti nan yon mo [[laten]] ''luna''.

Lalin se sèl grenn satelit natirèl [[planèt]] tè a genyen. Li se senkyèm pi gwo [[satelit]] nan [[sistèm solè]] a. Li gen yon [[dyamèt]] ki se 3 474 kilomèt konsa. [[Distans]] ki separe li avèk tè a se 381 500 km apeprè.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/fra/astronomie/systeme-solaire/lune.asp|title=Lune : Caractéristiques et exploration|last=canadienne|first=Agence spatiale|date=2020-03-12|access-date=2024-11-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Lalin se premye e se sèl bagay ki pa sou tè a, moun vizite. Premye moun ki t al mache sou li, se te yon astwonòt [[ameriken]] ki rele [[Neil Armstrong]] jou ki te [[21 jiyè]] [[1969]]. Aprè li menm, onz (11) lòt moun te pile lalin. Tout se te manm pwogram vwayaj spasyal Ameriken [[Apollo]] a.&lt;gallery&gt;
Fichye:La Lune.jpg|Lalin
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Jan li ye ==

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò ==

[[Kategori:Satelit]]
[[Kategori:Satelit toutotou Latè]]</text>
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{{definisyon
|fanmi=non komen
|sans=*'''Taptap''' se yon vwati ki ap woule Ayiti, li ap transpòte moun, li genyen anpil koulè.
|imaj=Taptap-jacmel.jpg
}}

'''Taptap''' se yon vwati ki ap woule [[Ayiti]], li ap transpòte moun, li genyen anpil [[koulè]].

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò ==

[[kategori:transpò]]</text>
      <sha1>eguehwygw91ammrgtkxwgx49oal07bj</sha1>
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{{definisyon
|fanmi=non komen
|sans=*'''Taptap''' se yon vwati ki ap woule Ayiti, li ap transpòte moun, li genyen anpil koulè.
|imaj=Taptap-jacmel.jpg
}}

'''Taptap''' se yon vwati ki ap woule [[Ayiti]], li ap transpòte moun, li genyen anpil [[koulè]].&lt;ref name=&quot;pbs&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20100402004812/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/weather/jan-june10/haiti_03-30.html Haiti's 'Tap Tap' Bus Art Flourishes After Quake] PBS Newshour, March 30, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;tt&quot;&gt;[http://www.traveladventures.org/continents/southamerica/tap-tap.shtml Haiti: Tap-taps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204231641/http://www.traveladventures.org/continents/southamerica/tap-tap.shtml|date=2013-02-04}} traveladventures.org&lt;/ref&gt;

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò ==

[[kategori:transpò]]</text>
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[[File:Tap_tap_public_transportation_Haiti.jpg|lien=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tap_tap_public_transportation_Haiti.jpg|droite|vignette|Yon bis tap tap yo itilize pou vwayaj ki pi long.]]
'''Taptap''' se yon vwati ki ap woule [[Ayiti]], li ap transpòte moun, li genyen anpil [[koulè]].&lt;ref name=&quot;pbs&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20100402004812/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/weather/jan-june10/haiti_03-30.html Haiti's 'Tap Tap' Bus Art Flourishes After Quake] PBS Newshour, March 30, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;tt&quot;&gt;[http://www.traveladventures.org/continents/southamerica/tap-tap.shtml Haiti: Tap-taps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204231641/http://www.traveladventures.org/continents/southamerica/tap-tap.shtml|date=2013-02-04}} traveladventures.org&lt;/ref&gt;

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò ==

{{definisyon
|fanmi=non komen
|sans=*'''Taptap''' se yon vwati ki ap woule Ayiti, li ap transpòte moun, li genyen anpil koulè.
|imaj=Taptap-jacmel.jpg
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[[kategori:transpò]]</text>
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}}

'''Bato''' se yon konstriksyon ki chita sou dlo e ki vwayaje sou dlo. Li se yon mwayen transpò. Yo itilize li pou transpote [[moun]] oubyen machandiz, pou fè [[lagè]], lapèch, lwazi oubyen lòt sèvis tankou sekirite lòt bato, nan [[lanmè]] ak sou rivyè yo.

[[Fichye:&quot;Seawise Giant&quot; - Singapore, 1990.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Knock Nevis (pétrolière)|Knock Nevis]], pi gwo pétrolière ki te janm bati a 458 mèt nan longè.]]
[[Fichye:Wonder of the Seas - August 2021.png|thumb|240px|[[Wonder of the Seas]], pi gwo bato kwazyè ki te janm bati ak 362 [[Mèt (mezi)|mèt]] nan longè.]]
[[Fichye:Titanic leaving 44 port place in Southampton.png||thumb|230px|[[Titanic]], se bato ki pi popilè nan listwa, li te ye paske li te fè kolizyon ak yon [[ayisbèg]] ak koule ak 1 500 pasaje nan [[Atlantik Nò]].]]

== Tradiksyon == 
*[[Lòt kreyòl]]:bato(crèole mauricien)
*[[Franse|Fransè]]: bateau
*[[Angle|Anglè]]: boat
*[[Alman]]: Boot
*[[Panyòl]]: bote

== Istwa == 
istwa mo sa a

== Anatomi ==
[[Fichye:Ship diagram-numbers.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.6|Kèk eleman yon bato genyen  : 1-&amp;nbsp;chemine - 2-&amp;nbsp;aryè, [[estanbòt (bato)|estanbòt]] - 3-&amp;nbsp;[[elis]] douvan [[safran (bato)|safran]] - 4-&amp;nbsp;[[bòde]] [[kòk (bato)|kòk]] - 5-&amp;nbsp;[[lank]] - 6-&amp;nbsp; [[bil etrav|etrav]] - 7- anvan, [[pwou]] ou [[etrav]] - 8-&amp;nbsp;[[pon (bato)|pon ou gaya avan]] ak 9-&amp;nbsp;[[sipèstrikti (bato)|sipèstrikti]].]]

Yon bato gen yon flotè ki gen ladan kòk la ak pon an ki kouvri li. Li gen yon [[sistèm]] pou fè li avanse ak yon [[sistèm]] pou dirije li. Bato a gen machin ak ekipman ki adapte a [[fonksyon]] li. 

=== Flotè ===
Flotè a (kòk la) dwe pi lejè pase pwa dlo ki koresponn ak volim li, pou pouse [[Archimedes|Achimèd]] la pèmèt li flote. Kòk la ka pran plizyè fòm. Kapab gen yon sèl kòk (monokòk), de (katamaran), twa (trimaran) men pa fasil gen plis, byenke yo te eseye kèk eksperyans ak pentamaran kòm bato komèsan nan lavni. Kòk yo jeneralman paralèl youn ak lòt, epi konekte ak bra. 

Kòk la divize an plizyè eleman : etrav la se pati ki pi devan bato a. Briyon an se pati ki devan anba liy dlo a. Kiy la oswa liy kiy pwolonje li sou longè li. Dèyè li fòme pa yon estanbòt ak yon tablo aryè. Kòk la souvan gen apendis ki itilize pou pwopilsyon (elis), [[girasyon]] (gouvènay), limite kèk mouvman (kiy wouli), idwodinamik (bil etrav) oswa fonksyon [[veso]] a (aparèy pou lapèch ki sou bato a, [[sona]]). Liy dlo a separe travay ki anba dlo a ak travay ki anlè dlo a. 

Kòk la sipòte plizyè kalite kontrent : kontrent idwostatik piske li dwe sipòte pwa bato a, ki souvan mal repati ; kontrent idwodinamik nan chòk vag yo ;  li dwe anpeche tou kolizyon oswa anpeche li echwe. Se konsa souvan yo double li nan bato ki pi gwo, an patikilye petwolye. Kòk la ka konstwi an bwa pou bato ki pi gran ak kèk kannòt plezi, [[asye]] pou majorite nan bato komèsan, aliminyòm pou bato rapid, plastik pou kannòt plezi ak konpozit pou vwalye rapid.

== Pwopilsyon ==
[[Fichye:Mozambique - traditional sailboat.jpg|vignette|215x215px|Vwalye mozanbik]]

Pou avanse, yon bato gen yon sistèm pwopilsyon. Gen twa (3) kategori pwopilsyon : Pwopilsyon imèn, pwopilsyon ki mache ak van, pwopilsyon mekanik.

== Itilizasyon ak klasifikasyon ==
=== Bato komès ===

&lt;gallery&gt;
Container ships President Truman (IMO 8616283) and President Kennedy (IMO 8616295) at San Francisco.jpg|[[bato kontenè]] resan nan [[San Fransisko]].
Hkstarferry.JPG|[[Bak (bato)|Bak]] nan [[Hong Kong]].
Pilot boat.JPG|[[Bato pilot]] nan pò [[Rotterdam]].
IFREMER - Pourquoi pas ?.JPG| ''[[Pourquoi pas ? (2005)|Pourquoi pas ?]]'', [[bato oseyanografik]] nan [[Brest]].
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Bato degè ===
[[Fichye:FS_Mistral_01.jpg|thumb|Yon Pòt elikoptè Mistral ki pou marin Fransèz.]]

Bato degè modèn yo divize an diferan kalite tip batiman ki koresponn ak kapasite militè yo, deplasman yo ak misyon yo. Sa ki pi komen yo se bato patwouy, kòvèt, fregat, destwayè ak kwazè. Yo se baz flòt modèn yo. Pòt elikoptè, men sitou Pòtavyon yo, gen dimansyon enpresyonan. Yo ka mezire jiska 330 mèt, deplase 100,000 tòn epi pote plis pase swasant (60) avyon. Anba lanmè a, soumaren atak nikleyè yo, soumaren lans misil nikleyè yo gen otonomi prèske san limit, soumaren dyezèl konvansyonèl / elektrik yo gen yon otonomi ki ba. Veso anbakeman yo ka transpòte yon eta-majò, avyon, twoup, machin blende yo ak machin pou debakeman, an patikilye ayewoglisè. Yo ka gen yon kapasite bato lopital.

Lòt bato yo pa nesesèman fèt pou konba, men fòs naval yo itilize yo : chasè min yo, kolektè entèlijans, tankè-ravitayè ak veso sipò lojistik, bato fòmasyon ak vwalye nan lekòl naval yo. Nan kèk peyi, pou leta fè misyon syantifik (idwografi, oseyanografi) li konn sèvi avèk bato militè li yo. Finalman, maren yo souvan gen misyon siveyans ak pwoteksyon fwontyè maritim ke bato patwouy yo asire, yo rekonèt yo kòm bato souvren.

Veso konba yo jeneralman gen fòm kòk alonje ak machin ki konbine bon vitès, gwo fleksibilite ak yon gwo reyon aksyon. Yo dwe trè manyab. Yo souvan itilize sistèm kominikasyon [[satelit]], osi byen ke sistèm elektwonik ki fèt pou navigasyon ak pou kontwòl zam, misil ak tòpiyè, tout bagay sa yo anbake nan yon espas limite ki gen ekipaj la. Gen yon tandans pou diminye ekipaj yo sou nouvo bato yo, pou diminye pri yo.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Fichye:Uss iowa bb-61 pr.jpg|kirase ameriken ''[[klase Iowa|USS Iowa]]'' ki tire yon bòde nan 3 pyès trip 406 mm.
Fichye:SeehundeTroika.jpg|[[Chasè min]] telegide alman ''Seehunde''.
Fichye:FS Rapiere.jpg|[[Bato debakasyon|Bato debakasyon pou enfantri ak tank]] franse , rele ''Rapière''.
Fichye:SNLE-NG.jpeg|Yon Soumaren nikleyè lans-misil fransè
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Bato pwason ===

&lt;gallery&gt;
Fichye:Fishing boat in Cap-Haitien.jpg|Bato a vwal pwason nan [[Cap Ayisyen]] nan [[Ayiti]].
Fichye:Chalutier.JPG|[[Chalitye]] nan [[Saint-Nazaire]].
Fichye:Bateau ostreicole.jpg|Bato a zuit nan [[La Trinité-sur-Mer]].
Fichye:Albatun Dod.jpg|L’''Albatun Dos'', [[bato ton]] konjelatè nan [[Viktorya]]. 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Bato lwazi ===

&lt;gallery&gt;
Aquarius Plan Cornu.JPG|''Aquarius'', [[eskètch]] kwazyè franse nan ane 1950 yo.
Inflatable boat with mercury 4hp engine.JPG|Pitit [[òdbòd]] nan [[Nòvèj]].
Sloep dutch daycruiser.jpg|[[Day-cruiser]] olandè.
Princess 60 Yacht Newport Beach.jpg|[[Yat]] liks nan [[Newport Beach, Kalifòni|Newport Beach]].
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Bato konpetisyon ===

&lt;gallery&gt;
420 Class Dinghies with spinnakers.jpg|[[Regat]] [[derivè]] nan jan [[420 (vwalye)|420]].
Gbr52 americascupclass kiel160605 pischdi.jpg|''GBR52'', [[Koup America]] : bato avwal pi avanse.
Race 5 bg 092202.jpg|Chaloup eksperimental nan kous Mission Bay.
Hydroptère.jpg|[[Idwoptè]], bato eksperimental.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Bato sou rivyè ===

&lt;gallery&gt;
Rheinschiff Temptation I.JPG|[[Penich]] ''Temptation'' sou [[Rhin]].
RiverboatNatchez.jpg|Bato ''Natchez'' sou [[Misisipi (rivyè)|Misisipi]].
Paris bateau parisien DSC00737.jpg|[[Bato-bis|Bato-omnibis]] sou [[Seine]].
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Lòt bato ===

&lt;gallery&gt;
Dar Pomorza pod zaglami s.jpg|''[[Dar Pomorza]]'', [[twa-ma ]] kare.
Tonnerres de Brest 2012-Cancalaise Eulalie.JPG|[[Bisquine]], [[La Cancalaise]] ak chaloup Eulalie.
House boat, backwaters.JPG|Bato-kay nan [[Kerala]].
Oil platform.jpeg|[[Platfòm petwolyè]] nan [[Nòvèj]].
Monaco-YellowSubmarine.jpg|[[Batiskaf]] nan mize oseyanografik nan [[Monako]].
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò ==
__INDEX__</text>
      <sha1>ehivkhj8kz7m0pxqxypx51aq0np3er5</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Jocelyne Trouillot</title>
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      <text bytes="3368" sha1="2lbe53l7n8nrxlldrgqqcwntfhrao3p" xml:space="preserve">{{ale menm non|Trouillot}}

{{moun
|non= Jocelyne Trouillot 
|foto=Jocelyne Trouillot-Lévy (cropped, rotated).jpg
|tèks= 
|dat nesans= [[21 avril]] [[1948]]
|lye nesans= [[Pòtoprens]]
|peyi nesans=[[Ayiti]]
|dat lanmò= 
|lye lanmò= 
|peyi lanmò= 
|nasyonalite= Ayisyen
|zèv= 
|nòt= 
}}

'''Marie Jocelyne Trouillot-Lévy''', rele '''Jocelyne Trouillot''', ki fèt [[21 avril]] [[1948]], se yon fanm ekriven ayisyen. Li ekri liv konsène [[Ayiti]] oubyen [[kreyòl ayisyen]] oubyen nan [[Karayib]] la.
Se yon metrès lekòl, editris ak direktris inivèsite karayib nan [[Pòtoprens (komin)|Pòtoprens]].

== Biyografi ==
Jocelyne Trouillot se yon metrès lekòl, editris ak rektè inivèsite karayib nan [[Pòtoprens (komin)|Pòtoprens]]. Se yon manm [[Akademi Kreyòl Ayisyen]].
Li pibliye sou lòt sedonim tou. Li se yon espesyalis nan edikasyon.

Jocelyne Trouillot fèt nan Pòtoprens an 1948. Li se pitit fi Ernest Trouillot ak Anne-Marie Morisset, de (2) entelektyèl nwa nan Pòtoprens. Li se sè ekriven ak powèt [[Lyonel Trouillot]], [[Antwopoloji|antwopològ]] ak [[istoryen]] [[Michel-Rolph Trouillot]] ak womansyè ak fanm ekriven [[Evelyne Trouillot|Évelyne Trouillot]].

== Zèv li yo ==
Plis pase 20 liv istwa pou timoun, plis pase 5 liv pedagoji ak sikoloji. Men kèk tit : ''Gougou'', 
''Gougou pe dlo'', ''Gougou pe chyen'', ''Sekre Fifi'', ''Jennjan Kontan'', ''Jennjan pwop'', ''Jennjan debyen''. 
== Bibliyografi ==
* 2007 ː ''Betsi'', CUC/ Edisyon Inivèsite Karayib, Pòtoprens (Ayiti)
* 2008 ː ''Yo bay kanè'', CUC/ Edisyon Inivèsite Karayib, Pòtoprens (Ayiti)
* 2009 ː ''Pòpòl nèg Chanzòl'', CUC/ Edisyon Inivèsite Karayib, Pòtoprens (Ayiti) 
* 2010 ː ''Goudougoudou'', CUC/ Edisyon Inivèsite Karayib, Pòtoprens (Ayiti)
* 2011 ː ''126 lèt damou'', CUC/ Edisyon Inivèsite Karayib, Pòtoprens (Ayiti) 
* ''Fifi pè peny'', CUC/ Edisyon Inivèsite Karayib, Pòtoprens (Ayiti)

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò ==
* [http://www.africultures.com/php/index.php?nav=personne&amp;no=40429 Biyografi Jocelyne Trouillot] sou Africultures.com
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160131063536/http://lenouvelliste.com/lenouvelliste/article/145477/Jocelyne-Trouillot-Levy-Lire-et-ecrire-en-creole-est-un-pas-quil-est-temps-de-franchir Jocelyne Trouillot Lévy : ''Lire et écrire en créole est un pas qu’il est temps de franchir'', entretyen sou ''Le Nouvelliste'' an 2 jen 2015] 
* [http://culturehaiti.ht/actualite/sous-la-plume-de-jocelyne-trouillot-levy/ Anba plime Jocelyne Trouillot Lévy]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160307190327/http://takamtikou.bnf.fr/dossiers/dossier-2012-langues-et-livres-pour-la-jeunesse/donner-aux-enfants-d-ha-ti-des-livres-dans- Donner aux enfants d’Haïti des livres dans leur langue]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160201024916/http://santkiltirel.org/fr/InaugurationAout2011.htm Inogirasyon Sant kilti Anne-Marie Morisset, manman Jocelyne Trouillot]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170817194729/http://www.mosaikhub.com/marie-jocelyne-trouillot-kreyol-la Entretyen bileng fransè/kreyòl ayisyen avèk Jocelyne Trouillot]

[[Kategori:Pou gade]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Trouillot, Jocelyne}}
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[[Kategori:Literati]]
[[Kategori:Ekriven]]
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[[Kategori:Ekriven ayisyen]]
[[Kategori:Nesans nan lane 1948]]
[[Kategori:Fanmi Trouillot]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Jean Venel Casseus</title>
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      <comment>-Imaj</comment>
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'''Jean Venel Casseus''', ki fèt [[21 oktòb]] [[1982]], se yon jounalis ayisyen. 
== Biyografi ==
Manman Jean Venel Casseus se Nanotte Antoine. Papa li se Vezael Casseus. Li gen de ti frè : John Herby ak John Leighton. Li marye avèk Dapheney Cange Casseus. Yo gen twa pitit fi ki rele Sarah, Manoah ak Adassah.

Jean Venel Casseus te fè yon kout pasaj nan lane 2002 nan radyo Haiti Inter, avan li te antre nan radyo Kiskeya. Pandan evènman 2003-2004 yo, li se te yonn nan pi gwo jounalis-repote ki te gen nan lari. Jou ki te 5 desanm 2003 a nan fakilte syanzimen, patizan pouvwa anplas la te agrese li epi pran tout materyèl travay li. Pandan peryòd sa Jean Venel Casseus te prezan nan tout manifestasyon, tout ti kwen ak rekwen kote ki gen enfòmasyon ki te ka sove lavi omwens yon moun. Risk sa yo lakoz li malad nan je jodi. San di petèt se efe tout gaz lakrimojen li te respire pandan peryòd sa.

An jiyè 2004, Jan Venel Casseus te travese nan radyo Caraibes FM, radyo ki pi popilè nan kapital la. Se la tout bon vre, gran piblik la ta pral dekouvri polivalans jen gason sa. Repotaj li yo toujou orijinal. Sa ki lakoz yo toujou make anpil moun menm jounalis parey li ki trete dosye a tou.

An oktòb 2004, se li ki te reyalize premye gwo repòtaj ki fèt sou zafè operasyon Bagdad la. Lo sa ak jounalis Barais Jean-Louis li te monte anwo bele al entevyouve tout chèf de fil mouvman sa ki voye plizyè krityen vivan nan peyi san cho. Pou li te rive gen akse ak lote operasyon Bagdad yo, Jean Venel Casseus te oblije fè tèt li pase pou yon jounalis afriken paske nan moman sa mesye operasyon Bagdad yo pa te vle tande pale de jounalis radyo Caraibes.

Jean Venel Casseus se tou yon kreyatè, yon zanmi lakilti. Pandan fen ane 2004 a li inisye nan radyo Karayib yon kronik kiltirèl ki rele Caraibes Cultirelle. Kronik sa ki pase chak jou se premye nan sans sa nan radyo an Ayiti. Se te yon defi. Anpil moun te toujou rete kwe li enposib pou rive kenbe pandan lontan yon kronik kiltirèl chak jou. Defi Jean Venel Casseus rive leve paske sa fe deja plizyè lane depi kronik lan ap mache. Se dayè kronik kiltirèl ki pi popilè nan peyi a.

Jean Venel Casseus se yon jen ki dinamik. Li ap chèche aprann epi mennen aktivite tout kote. An desanm 2006 li fòme avèk kèk zanmi &quot;Gwoup Kominikate pou Pwomosyon, Aksyon ak Solidarite (Gwoup COMPAS). Se yon enstitisyon ki travay nan domèn kominikasyon sosyal ak lwazi. Li sitou ankadre jèn atis yo epi fè travay ki ale nan san entegrasyon ak patisipasyon tout moun nan sosyete a.

Jean Venel Casseus toujou renmen di &quot;Rapo moun ak moun se bagay ki pi enpòtan nan lavi, chak fwa 2 moun pataje yon ti moman kozman sa bay lavi plis sans&quot;.

Depi 2012 li se Direktè Kominikasyon nan Ministè Defans Dayiti.

== Zèv li yo ==
* 2018 : ''Il suffit ton regard''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.rfi.fr/emission/20180429-mikaben-semaine-propriete-intellectuelle-jean-venel-casseus
|title= Mikaben, la semaine de la propriété intellectuelle et Jean Venel Casseus
|author=Dangelo Néard
|website= rfi.fr
|date=29 avril 2018
|access-date=25 jen 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò == 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130414061245/http://ht.viadeo.com/fr/profile/jean-venel.casseus Pwofil Jean Venel Casseus] sou viadeo
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141217060326/http://groupecompas.com/ Pajwèb Gwoup COMPAS] sou groupecompas.com

{{DEFAULTSORT:Casseus, Jean Venel}}
[[Kategori:Moun]]
[[Kategori:Literati]]
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    <title>Du Fu</title>
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      <comment>Replacing Dufucalligraphy.jpg with [[File:Du_Fu_calligraphy.jpg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR2|Criterion 2]] (meaningless or ambiguous name)).</comment>
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'''Du Fu''' (Chinwa:杜甫; Pinyin:''Dù Fǔ''; Wades-Giles:'''Tu Fu''', 712–770) te yon gran [[powèt Chinwa]] epòk [[Dinasti Tang]] lan. Ak [[Li Bai]] se souvan ke moun rele’l pi gran nan tout [[powèt]] [[Chinwa]]. Pi gran nan anbisyon’l sete pou li sèvi peyi’l nan pozisyon yon gran [[fonksyonè]], men sitiyasyon fè ke li pat jan’m kapab. Lavi li, menm jan ak rès peyi a te ravaje pantan [[Rebelyon An Lushan]] lan nan l’ane 755, e denye 15 lane lavi li te pase te preske tout tan nan twoub.

Menm si nan kòmansman pat gen anpil ekriven ki te konnen li, zèv li yo te vinn rive gen yon gwo enpak nan literati kiltirèl [[Kilti Chinwa|Chinwa]] ak [[Kilti Japonnè|Japonnè]]. Sou tout zèv powetik li yo, se prèske mil senk san powèm li yo ki sove jis rive jodi a. Kritik Chinwa yo konn rele’l “Powèt-Listoryen” epi “Powèt-Eklere”. Variyete zèv li yo fè li te anonse nan kilti [[Kilti Lwes|Lwes]] la kankou yon vèsyon Chinwa de de ekriven kankou [[Virgil]], [[Horace]], [[Ovid]], [[Shakespeare]], [[John Milton|Milton]], [[Robert Burns|Burns]], [[William Wordsworth|Wordsworth]], [[Pierre-Jean de Béranger|Béranger]], [[Victor Hugo|Hugo]], ou byen [[Baudelaire]].


== Biyografi ==

* dat enpotan

== Zèv li yo ==


&lt;gallery&gt;
imaj:Du Fu calligraphy.jpg|yon pati nan powèm Du Fu &quot;On Visiting the Temple of Laozi&quot; (Lè li tap vizite tanp Laozi), jan li te kopye pa yon kaligraf nan 16èm syèk
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[Kategori:Literati]]
[[Kategori:Literati chinwa]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Leonardo da Vinci</title>
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{{moun
|non=Leonardo da Vinci
|foto= Leonardo self.jpg
|tèks=
|dat nesans= [[15 avril]] [[1452]]
|lye nesans= Vinci
|peyi nesans=[[Itali]]
|dat lanmò= [[2 me]] [[1519]]
|lye lanmò= Amboise
|peyi lanmò= [[Frans]]
|nasyonalite= italyen 
|zèv=penti : ''La Joconde''
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'''Leonardo da Vinci''' (1452-1519) se yon enpòtan [[atis]] [[Itali|italyen]] ki te travay nan peryòd [[larenesans]]. Li te divèsman rele papa a palèontoloji, iknoloji, ak achitekti, e se lajman konsidere kòm youn nan pi gwo pentr yo nan tout tan. Pafwa kredite ak envansyon yo nan parachit la, elikoptè ak tank&lt;ref name=&quot;Lynn White 1968, 466&quot;&gt;{{harnvb|White|1968|p=466}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;flight-1&quot;&gt;Rumerman, Judy. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170703132508/http://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Rotary/early_helicopters/HE1.htm &quot;Early Helicopter Technology.&quot;] ''Centennial of Flight Commission,'' 2003. Retrieved 12 desanm 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;, li epitomize ideyal la [[Renesans]] imanitè.

Anpil istoryen ak savan konsiderasyon Leonardo kòm premye egzanp nan &quot;Jeni Inivèsèl la&quot; epi li se lajman konsidere kòm youn nan moun ki pi divèsifye talan janm viv. Dapre atis istoryen [[Helen Gardner]], sijè ki abòde lan ak pwofondè nan enterè l 'yo te san yo pa presedan nan istwa anrejistre, ak &quot;lespri li ak pèsonalite sanble nou superhuman, pandan y ap nonm sa a tèt li misterye ak aleka&quot;. Marco Rosci note ke pandan ke gen anpil espekilasyon konsènan lavi l 'ak pèsonalite, wè l' nan mond lan te lojik olye ke misterye, e ke metòd yo anpirik li te travay yo te ti kras Òtodòks pou tan li.

Leonardo te, e se, ki renome sitou kòm yon pent. Pami travay li yo, [[La Joconde|Mona Lisa a]] se pi popilè a ak Dènye Soupe a ki pi repwodwi penti relijye a tout tan tout tan. Desen Leonardo a nan Nomn de Vitruve Vitruvian la tou konsidere kòm yon icon kiltirèl, ke yo te repwodwi sou atik tankou varye kòm pyès monnen an euro ak liv.

== Biyografi ==
Leonardo De Vinci te fet nan lannwit vandredi 14 avril 1492 ant nevè e dizè nan  aswè .Tradition an di li fet nan kay yon kiltivatè nan ti vilaj [[Toskan]] D' [[Toskan Anchiano|Anchia]] yon ti bout vil nan Vinci ,men li ka te fèt nan vil Vinci an menm. Li se rezilta yon relasyon andeyò maryaj  ant [http://&amp;#x20;&amp;#x20;&amp;#x20;&amp;#x20;&amp;#x20;&amp;#x20;&amp;#x20;&amp;#x20;&amp;#x20;] [[Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci]] yon notè ki te genyen 25 lane e ki te soti nan yon fanmi notè ak yon jèn fi ki te genyen 22 lane ki te rele [[Caterina di Meo Lippi]].

Ser Piero da Vinci te soti nan yon fanmi notè depi pi piti kat jenerasyon , granpè li te menm vin chanselye vil [[Florence]] lan.Poutan Antonio, papa ser Piero ak granpapa Léonard, marye ak yon pitit fi notè e li prefere rale kò l nan vil '''Vinci''' '''a''' pou l mennen yon vi trankil tankou yon gentlòm nan kanpay la, pandan lap pwofite de revni mètay li yo li genyen nan ti vil la.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-25|title=Vinci (Toscane)|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vinci_(Toscane)&amp;oldid=225122850|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Menmsi kèk dokiman rele l patikil Ser la, men ofisyèlman li pa gen dwa pou tit sa nan dokiman ofisyèl yo , tout bagay sanble pwouve li pa genyen ni diplòm , e li pat janm egzèse yon pwofesyon byen defini.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-28|title=Léonard de Vinci|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9onard_de_Vinci&amp;oldid=230140452|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ser Piero ki se pitit Antonio e papa Leonard repran flanbo zansèt li yo e li jwenn siksè nan &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-07|title=Pistoie|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pistoie&amp;oldid=222803604|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-07|title=Pistoie|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pistoie&amp;oldid=222803604|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[pistoia]] epi nan Pise&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-11|title=Pise|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pise&amp;oldid=229686491|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; avan li instale l nan vil Florence alantou 1451.Biwo l te nan Palè Podestat &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-28|title=Palais du Bargello|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palais_du_Bargello&amp;oldid=230154111|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; ,batiment kote majistra yo t ye a anfas Palazzo Vecchio&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-27|title=Palazzo Vecchio|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palazzo_Vecchio&amp;oldid=230129989|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; ki se chèz gouvènman an , yo te rele Palazzo Della nan epòk la. Monastè , òd relijye ,kominote jwiv vil la e menm Fanmi Medisis te konn bezwen sèvis li.  

Malgre daprè biograf Atonimo Gaddiano&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-10-22|title=Anonimo Gaddiano|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anonimo_Gaddiano&amp;oldid=219661490|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; ki ta kalifye kòm yon fi ki soti nan yon fanmi rich , manman Leonard yo rele Caterina , daprè tradisyon yo te pitit yon pòv peyizan, ki vle di li te lwen nivo mwayen Ser Piero.  

depi 2017, anpil rechèch fèt nan dokiman kominal yo, parasyal yo ak rejis rejis fiskal yo pou yo rive idantifye  Caterine Di Meo Lippi se pitit fi yon kiltivatè, li fèt nan lane 1436, li òfelin depi lè li gen 14 lane. Sepandan daprè plizyè konklizyon ki diskite nan yon etid daktilostopik&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Empreinte digitale|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Empreinte_digitale&amp;oldid=226421639|date=2025-06-11|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; nan lane 2006 ta sanble li t yon esklave ki soti nan moyen-orient&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Moyen-Orient|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moyen-Orient&amp;oldid=230987454|date=2025-11-27|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; . Daprè Alessandro Vezzosi, ki se direktè mize Leonardo De Vinci an ,yo di ke Pierro te mèt yon esklav na moyen-orient an yo te rele Caterina ,e ki fè yon ti gason ki te rele Leonardo.Tèz ki di manman Leonard te yon esklav ki soti nan mwayen oryan baze sou rekonstriksyon anpwent dwèt gòch Leonard,ki fèt ak anviwon 200 anpwent , pifò ladan yo pa konplè , soti nan 52 fich  nan nòt Leonard yo.   

== Zèv li yo ==
*Sa li fè

&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Fichye:Gioconda.jpg|''La Gioconda (Mona Lisa)''
Fichye:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|Etid sou kò imen.
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò ==
* {{fr}} [http://www.vinci-closluce.com Château du Clos Lucé], Mize Leonard da Vinci nan Frans
* {{it}} [http://www.museoscienza.org/leonardo Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia « Leonardo da Vinci »], Mize nasyonal nan Syans ak Teknoloji Leonard da Vinci nan Milan
* {{it}} [http://www.museoleonardiano.it Museo Leonardiano di Vinci], Mize Leonard da Vinci nan Itali

{{commonscat|Leonardo da Vinci}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vinci, Leonardo da}}
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[[Kategori:Penti]]
[[Kategori:Atis]]
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[[Kategori:Syantifik italyen]]
[[Kategori:Achitèk italyen]]
[[Kategori:Nesans nan lane 1452]]
[[Kategori:lanmò 1519]]</text>
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{{moun
|non=Leonardo da Vinci
|foto= Leonardo self.jpg
|tèks=
|dat nesans= [[15 avril]] [[1452]]
|lye nesans= Vinci
|peyi nesans=[[Itali]]
|dat lanmò= [[2 me]] [[1519]]
|lye lanmò= Amboise
|peyi lanmò= [[Frans]]
|nasyonalite= italyen 
|zèv=penti : ''La Joconde''
|nòt=
}}
'''Leonardo da Vinci''' (1452-1519) se yon enpòtan [[atis]] [[Itali|italyen]] ki te travay nan peryòd [[larenesans]]. Li te divèsman rele papa a palèontoloji, iknoloji, ak achitekti, e se lajman konsidere kòm youn nan pi gwo pentr yo nan tout tan. Pafwa kredite ak envansyon yo nan parachit la, elikoptè ak tank&lt;ref name=&quot;Lynn White 1968, 466&quot;&gt;{{harnvb|White|1968|p=466}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;flight-1&quot;&gt;Rumerman, Judy. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170703132508/http://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Rotary/early_helicopters/HE1.htm &quot;Early Helicopter Technology.&quot;] ''Centennial of Flight Commission,'' 2003. Retrieved 12 desanm 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;, li epitomize ideyal la [[Renesans]] imanitè.

Anpil istoryen ak savan konsiderasyon Leonardo kòm premye egzanp nan &quot;Jeni Inivèsèl la&quot; epi li se lajman konsidere kòm youn nan moun ki pi divèsifye talan janm viv. Dapre atis istoryen [[Helen Gardner]], sijè ki abòde lan ak pwofondè nan enterè l 'yo te san yo pa presedan nan istwa anrejistre, ak &quot;lespri li ak pèsonalite sanble nou superhuman, pandan y ap nonm sa a tèt li misterye ak aleka&quot;. Marco Rosci note ke pandan ke gen anpil espekilasyon konsènan lavi l 'ak pèsonalite, wè l' nan mond lan te lojik olye ke misterye, e ke metòd yo anpirik li te travay yo te ti kras Òtodòks pou tan li.

Leonardo te, e se, ki renome sitou kòm yon pent. Pami travay li yo, [[La Joconde|Mona Lisa a]] se pi popilè a ak Dènye Soupe a ki pi repwodwi penti relijye a tout tan tout tan. Desen Leonardo a nan Nomn de Vitruve Vitruvian la tou konsidere kòm yon icon kiltirèl, ke yo te repwodwi sou atik tankou varye kòm pyès monnen an euro ak liv.

== Biyografi ==
Leonardo De Vinci te fet nan lannwit vandredi 14 avril 1492 ant nevè e dizè nan  aswè .Tradition an di li fet nan kay yon kiltivatè nan ti vilaj [[Toskan]] D' [[Toskan Anchiano|Anchia]] yon ti bout vil nan Vinci ,men li ka te fèt nan vil Vinci an menm. Li se rezilta yon relasyon andeyò maryaj  ant [[Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci]] yon notè ki te genyen 25 lane e ki te soti nan yon fanmi notè ak yon jèn fi ki te genyen 22 lane ki te rele [[Caterina di Meo Lippi]].

Ser Piero da Vinci te soti nan yon fanmi notè depi pi piti kat jenerasyon , granpè li te menm vin chanselye vil [[Florence]] lan.Poutan Antonio, papa ser Piero ak granpapa Léonard, marye ak yon pitit fi notè e li prefere rale kò l nan vil '''Vinci''' '''a''' pou l mennen yon vi trankil tankou yon gentlòm nan kanpay la, pandan lap pwofite de revni mètay li yo li genyen nan ti vil la.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-25|title=Vinci (Toscane)|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vinci_(Toscane)&amp;oldid=225122850|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Menmsi kèk dokiman rele l patikil Ser la, men ofisyèlman li pa gen dwa pou tit sa nan dokiman ofisyèl yo , tout bagay sanble pwouve li pa genyen ni diplòm , e li pat janm egzèse yon pwofesyon byen defini.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-28|title=Léonard de Vinci|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9onard_de_Vinci&amp;oldid=230140452|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ser Piero ki se pitit Antonio e papa Leonard repran flanbo zansèt li yo e li jwenn siksè nan &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-07|title=Pistoie|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pistoie&amp;oldid=222803604|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-07|title=Pistoie|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pistoie&amp;oldid=222803604|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[pistoia]] epi nan Pise&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-11|title=Pise|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pise&amp;oldid=229686491|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; avan li instale l nan vil Florence alantou 1451.Biwo l te nan Palè Podestat &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-28|title=Palais du Bargello|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palais_du_Bargello&amp;oldid=230154111|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; ,batiment kote majistra yo t ye a anfas Palazzo Vecchio&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-27|title=Palazzo Vecchio|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palazzo_Vecchio&amp;oldid=230129989|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; ki se chèz gouvènman an , yo te rele Palazzo Della nan epòk la. Monastè , òd relijye ,kominote jwiv vil la e menm Fanmi Medisis te konn bezwen sèvis li.  

Malgre daprè biograf Atonimo Gaddiano&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-10-22|title=Anonimo Gaddiano|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anonimo_Gaddiano&amp;oldid=219661490|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; ki ta kalifye kòm yon fi ki soti nan yon fanmi rich , manman Leonard yo rele Caterina , daprè tradisyon yo te pitit yon pòv peyizan, ki vle di li te lwen nivo mwayen Ser Piero.  

depi 2017, anpil rechèch fèt nan dokiman kominal yo, parasyal yo ak rejis rejis fiskal yo pou yo rive idantifye  Caterine Di Meo Lippi se pitit fi yon kiltivatè, li fèt nan lane 1436, li òfelin depi lè li gen 14 lane. Sepandan daprè plizyè konklizyon ki diskite nan yon etid daktilostopik&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Empreinte digitale|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Empreinte_digitale&amp;oldid=226421639|date=2025-06-11|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; nan lane 2006 ta sanble li t yon esklave ki soti nan moyen-orient&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Moyen-Orient|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moyen-Orient&amp;oldid=230987454|date=2025-11-27|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; . Daprè Alessandro Vezzosi, ki se direktè mize Leonardo De Vinci an ,yo di ke Pierro te mèt yon esklav na moyen-orient an yo te rele Caterina ,e ki fè yon ti gason ki te rele Leonardo.Tèz ki di manman Leonard te yon esklav ki soti nan mwayen oryan baze sou rekonstriksyon anpwent dwèt gòch Leonard,ki fèt ak anviwon 200 anpwent , pifò ladan yo pa konplè , soti nan 52 fich  nan nòt Leonard yo.   

== Zèv li yo ==
*Sa li fè

&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Fichye:Gioconda.jpg|''La Gioconda (Mona Lisa)''
Fichye:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|Etid sou kò imen.
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò ==
* {{fr}} [http://www.vinci-closluce.com Château du Clos Lucé], Mize Leonard da Vinci nan Frans
* {{it}} [http://www.museoscienza.org/leonardo Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia « Leonardo da Vinci »], Mize nasyonal nan Syans ak Teknoloji Leonard da Vinci nan Milan
* {{it}} [http://www.museoleonardiano.it Museo Leonardiano di Vinci], Mize Leonard da Vinci nan Itali

{{commonscat|Leonardo da Vinci}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vinci, Leonardo da}}
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[[Kategori:Penti]]
[[Kategori:Atis]]
[[Kategori:Pent italyen]]
[[Kategori:Syantifik italyen]]
[[Kategori:Achitèk italyen]]
[[Kategori:Nesans nan lane 1452]]
[[Kategori:lanmò 1519]]</text>
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{| class='wikitable sortable'
! numéro
! Image
! Nom
! Géolocalisation
! Lieu
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 1
| [[Fichye:Sandy 2012-10-25 0320Z.png|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q264|Hurricane Sandy]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 2
| [[Fichye:MUTCD-MI I2-6 (Eastern Time Zone).svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q941023|Eastern Time Zone]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 3
| 
| ''[[:d:Q273894|Piarists]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 4
| [[Fichye:Monkeypox By Country.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q112070734|2022–2023 mpox outbreak]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 5
| [[Fichye:Map-Francophone World.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q1003588|Francophonie]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 6
| [[Fichye:Windwardpassagemap.JPG|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q140265|Windward Passage]]''
| {{Coord|20|-74|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 7
| [[Fichye:John baptist de la salle 1.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q138579|Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools]]''
| {{Coord|41.899|12.423|display=inline}}
| ''[[:d:Q498452|North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region]]''&lt;br/&gt;''[[:d:Q1008456|Puerto Cabezas]]''
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 8
| 
| ''[[:d:Q594254|1973 CONCACAF Championship]]''
| {{Coord|18.5425|-72.3386|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 9
| 
| ''[[:d:Q4131845|Ayisyen]]''
| 
| [[Ayiti]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 10
| [[Fichye:Maracanã, 5 de agosto de 2016- onde o Egito encontra o Haiti... -rio2016 (28778328632).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q20113758|Haiti at the 2016 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 11
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q107472171|Haiti at the 2022 Winter Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 12
| 
| ''[[:d:Q20986|ISO 3166-2:HT]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 13
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q141217|Haiti at the 2012 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 14
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1256655|20th parallel north]]''
| {{Coord|20|0|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 15
| [[Fichye:Haiti at the opening ceremony of the 1928 Summer Olympics.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q147174|Haiti at the 1928 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 16
| 
| ''[[:d:Q4435409|list of World Heritage Sites in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 17
| [[Fichye:Wilson Isidor in 2022.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q58484930|Wilson Isidor]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 18
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q126284599|Haiti at the 2024 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 19
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q144034|Haiti at the 1900 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 20
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2467445|Ligue Haïtienne]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 21
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3439047|War of Dominican Independence]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 22
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q42914391|Haiti at the 2020 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 23
| [[Fichye:Jimmy &quot;Barbecue&quot; Cherizier 2024.png|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q101440369|Jimmy Chérizier]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 24
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti (civil).svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2297885|Haiti at the 1924 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 25
| [[Fichye:Bennedict Mathurin (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q105013647|Bennedict Mathurin]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 26
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q141075|Haiti at the 2008 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 27
| [[Fichye:Vida y viajes de Cristobal Colón, 1851 Construcción de la fortaleza de La Navidad (3819531625).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q1798978|La Navidad]]''
| {{Coord|19.690556|-72.015833|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 28
| [[Fichye:RC Lens - FC Nantes (28-10-2023) - Duverne.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q26251605|Jean-Kévin Duverne]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 29
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q143063|Haiti at the 2000 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 30
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1024083|1991 CONCACAF Women's Championship]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 31
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1254997|19th parallel north]]''
| {{Coord|19|0|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 32
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2194097|Haiti at the 1960 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 33
| [[Fichye:FC Red Bull Salzburg gegen RSC Anderlecht (Testspiel 7. Juli 2017) 50.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q56011432|Hannes Delcroix]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 34
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q133756484|Haiti at the 2026 Winter Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 35
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q1986870|Haiti at the 1988 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 36
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti (1964–1986).svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2291898|Haiti at the 1984 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 37
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q145152|Haiti at the 2004 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 38
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q150527|Haiti at the 1996 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 39
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti (1964–1986).svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q168379|Haiti at the 1972 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 40
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti (1964–1986).svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2489822|Haiti at the 1976 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 41
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti (civil).svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2651878|Haiti at the 1932 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 42
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2666070|Haiti at the 1992 Summer Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 43
| [[Fichye:Fafà Picault NE Revolution Inter Miami 7.9.25-032 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q5429349|Fafà Picault]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 44
| [[Fichye:Cap-Haitien seen from Morne Jean Explosion.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q110106709|Cap-Haïtien fuel tanker explosion]]''
| {{Coord|19.751389|-72.205556|display=inline}}
| [[Kap Ayisyen (komin)|Kap Ayisyen]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 45
| [[Fichye:Michel Patrick Boisvert 2023 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q114735638|Michel Patrick Boisvert]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 46
| 
| ''[[:d:Q667038|United Nations Mission in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 47
| 
| ''[[:d:Q4124963|Armed Forces of Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 48
| [[Fichye:The part is devoted to the contest &quot;Wiki loves folklore&quot;.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q96622031|Wiki Loves Folklore]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 49
| 
| ''[[:d:Q137145245|1974 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 50
| 
| ''[[:d:Q861844|André Corvington]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 51
| [[Fichye:Rafael Estrella Urena Great Grandfather.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q887837|Rafael Estrella Ureña]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 52
| [[Fichye:Etang de Miragoane Haiti.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q3207215|Lake Miragoâne]]''
| {{Coord|18.403889|-73.049722|display=inline}}
| [[Miragwàn (komin)|Miragwàn]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 53
| [[Fichye:2019-07-17 SG Dynamo Dresden vs. Paris Saint-Germain by Sandro Halank–054 (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q69948832|Garissone Innocent]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 54
| [[Fichye:Order of Merit of the Republic of Haiti (Grade of Commander) - IMG 4985.JPG|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q112390|National Order of Honour and Merit]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 55
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1449569|Lee Holdridge]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 56
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1626302|LGBT rights in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 57
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1857436|2010–11 Haitian general election]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 58
| [[Fichye:Trou Caïman.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2805779|Trou Caïman]]''
| {{Coord|18.642804|-72.146336|display=inline}}
| [[Tomazo (komin)|Tomazo]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 59
| 
| ''[[:d:Q10530123|Max Hilaire]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 60
| [[Fichye:Lens - Evian (29-02-2016) 17.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q22280180|Dylan Saint-Louis]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 61
| 
| ''[[:d:Q100792937|Josué Casimir]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 62
| 
| ''[[:d:Q131478437|Category:2025 in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 63
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2202375|Catholic Church in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 64
| [[Fichye:Hotel Montana.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q3121455|Hôtel Montana]]''
| {{Coord|18.527222|-72.297778|display=inline}}
| [[Petyonvil (komin)|Petyonvil]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 65
| [[Fichye:Hotel Oloffson mars 2007.JPG|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q3365701|Hotel Oloffson]]''
| {{Coord|18.529444|-72.3375|display=inline}}
| ''[[:d:Q47364624|Turgeau]]''
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 66
| 
| ''[[:d:Q4116369|Islam in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 67
| [[Fichye:Danish Air Transport ATR-42-300.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q7641058|Sunrise Airways]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 68
| 
| ''[[:d:Q11821998|Polish Haitian]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 69
| 
| ''[[:d:Q19883868|Constitution of Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 70
| 
| ''[[:d:Q26225095|Caye Sable]]''
| {{Coord|18.7|-72.76667|display=inline}}
| [[Lwès (depatman)|Lwès]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 71
| [[Fichye:Frantz Massenat - Lliga Catalana 2019 - by unnika.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q16228333|Frantz Massenat]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 72
| 
| ''[[:d:Q60853298|Arcahaie FC]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 73
| 
| ''[[:d:Q72697581|Louicius Don Deedson]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 74
| 
| ''[[:d:Q110855814|Richardson Viano]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 75
| [[Fichye:Fabre-jeune.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q110984265|Jacques Fabre]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 76
| 
| ''[[:d:Q112623666|Alexandre Pierre]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 77
| 
| ''[[:d:Q119952811|Jayro Jean]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 78
| [[Fichye:UN Haiti - MINUSTAH HQ after 2010 earthquake.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q166484|Christopher Hotel]]''
| {{Coord|18.5391|-72.3121|display=inline}}
| [[Pòtoprens (komin)|Pòtoprens]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 79
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1432122|Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haïti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 80
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2581074|Coupe d'Haïti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 81
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3094730|Racing FC]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 82
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3623880|La Gonâve Arrondissement]]''
| {{Coord|18.8322|-72.8658|display=inline}}
| [[Lwès (depatman)|Lwès]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 83
| [[Fichye:Cathedral of Cap-Haitien.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q11737318|Our Lady of the Assumption Cathedral, Cap-Haïtien]]''
| {{Coord|19.761|-72.2007|display=inline}}
| [[Kap Ayisyen (komin)|Kap Ayisyen]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 84
| 
| ''[[:d:Q19702717|Jeppe Simonsen]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 85
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q5639707|Haiti at the Paralympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 86
| 
| ''[[:d:Q60677605|Benji Michel]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 87
| 
| ''[[:d:Q47571408|Nadine Magloire]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 88
| [[Fichye:Danielle Etienne .jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q69803071|Danielle Etienne]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 89
| 
| ''[[:d:Q107122118|Carnejy Antoine]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 90
| 
| ''[[:d:Q107426681|Martin Experiénce]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 91
| [[Fichye:Grace 2021 track.png|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q108141536|Hurricane Grace]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 92
| 
| ''[[:d:Q111536396|Dany Jean]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 93
| [[Fichye:Citadelle Laferrière terrace 2.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2305026|Ramiers]]''
| {{Coord|19.5736|-72.2442|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 94
| [[Fichye:Route Nationale ^3, Lejene, Haiti - panoramio (7).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q3043219|deforestation in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 95
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3297666|Massif des Montagnes Noires]]''
| {{Coord|19.0833|-72.25|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 96
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3504239|Haitian Vodoun Culture Language]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 97
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3873766|Ekip baskètbòl Ayiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 98
| [[Fichye:St. Alexander Nevsky Cathedral - Howell, New Jersey 02.JPG|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q4126487|Russian Orthodox Eparchy of Eastern America and New York]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 99
| [[Fichye:Michelle Obama and Jill Biden in Haiti 2010.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q5361449|Elisabeth Delatour Préval]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 100
| 
| ''[[:d:Q5715358|Henri Caesar]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 101
| 
| ''[[:d:Q6771722|Marlena Wesh]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 102
| 
| ''[[:d:Q19881628|2015–16 Haitian parliamentary election]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 103
| 
| ''[[:d:Q26226528|Ilet a Brouee]]''
| {{Coord|18.128333|-73.590556|display=inline}}
| [[Sid (depatman)|Sid]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 104
| [[Fichye:Kenny Chery.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q26709113|Kenny Chery]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 105
| 
| ''[[:d:Q26837183|Mulern Jean]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 106
| [[Fichye:Bocchit Edmond - 2018 (31046028358) (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q56651422|Bocchit Edmond]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 107
| [[Fichye:Shan Borgelin (cropped).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q62078453|Shanyder Borgelin]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 108
| 
| ''[[:d:Q107476272|Sabiana Anestor]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 109
| 
| ''[[:d:Q113003310|Haiti at the 2022 World Athletics Championships]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 110
| 
| ''[[:d:Q134383521|Téo James Michel]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 111
| 
| ''[[:d:Q121461135|Haiti at the 2023 World Athletics Championships]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 112
| 
| ''[[:d:Q124742130|2024 Haitian jailbreak]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 113
| 
| ''[[:d:Q137183516|Haiti at the 2026 Winter Paralympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 114
| 
| ''[[:d:Q4883|Ron Howard]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 115
| 
| ''[[:d:Q110664|Léonard Pétion Laroche]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 116
| [[Fichye:Hispaniolanpineforest.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q287885|Hispaniolan pine forests]]''
| {{Coord|18.33|-71.78|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 117
| 
| ''[[:d:Q655961|United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 118
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1060772|list of Roman Catholic dioceses in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 119
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1353457|Haiti at the 2012 Summer Paralympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 120
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1531692|Raboteau Massacre]]''
| {{Coord|19.45|-72.683333|display=inline}}
| [[Gonayiv (awondisman)|Gonayiv]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 121
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1569605|Haiti Davis Cup team]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 122
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2069340|rail transport in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 123
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2299927|Haiti at the 2008 Summer Paralympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 124
| [[Fichye:Flag of Haiti.svg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2497054|Haiti at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 125
| [[Fichye:Bassin Bleu, Haiti.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2887443|Bassin Bleu]]''
| {{Coord|18.234167|-72.588056|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 126
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3163953|Janbatis Chavàn]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 127
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3589794|Haiti national under-17 football team]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 128
| [[Fichye:Daniele Battaglia.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q3701868|Daniele Battaglia]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 129
| [[Fichye:Tropical Storm Matthew Sept 24 2010.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q4353265|Tropical Storm Matthew]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 130
| 
| ''[[:d:Q5856947|Fe y Alegría]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 131
| [[Fichye:EL SAIEH Issa 00.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q5922934|Issa El-Saieh]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 132
| 
| ''[[:d:Q5938282|human rights in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 133
| 
| ''[[:d:Q6726315|Madame Max Adolphe]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 134
| 
| ''[[:d:Q7136383|Parc St. Victor]]''
| {{Coord|19.753611|-72.2075|display=inline}}
| [[Kap Ayisyen (komin)|Kap Ayisyen]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 135
| 
| ''[[:d:Q16587373|National Unity Party]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 136
| [[Fichye:Cathédrale Jérémie Haïti.JPG|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q17608165|St. Louis King of France Cathedral]]''
| {{Coord|18.6447|-74.1146|display=inline}}
| [[Jeremi (komin)|Jeremi]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 137
| 
| ''[[:d:Q19895065|French Haitian]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 138
| 
| ''[[:d:Q24744408|2016–17 Haitian Senate election]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 139
| 
| ''[[:d:Q26704937|Frantz Dorsainvil]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 140
| 
| ''[[:d:Q28823593|Anne Marie Coriolan]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 141
| 
| ''[[:d:Q28941174|FC Juventus des Cayes]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 142
| 
| ''[[:d:Q30074499|Axel Louissaint]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 143
| 
| ''[[:d:Q34383826|Haiti at the 2017 World Championships in Athletics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 144
| 
| ''[[:d:Q49004376|Leverton Pierre]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 145
| 
| ''[[:d:Q51120334|Myrlande Constant]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 146
| 
| ''[[:d:Q57037767|Ángel Orelién]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 147
| 
| ''[[:d:Q62653313|Ronaldo Damus]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 148
| 
| ''[[:d:Q68166407|Haiti at the 2019 World Championships in Athletics]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 149
| 
| ''[[:d:Q70531330|Mikerline Saint-Félix]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 150
| 
| ''[[:d:Q83880803|Roseline Éloissaint]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 151
| 
| ''[[:d:Q83887546|Kethna Louis]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 152
| [[Fichye:Chelsea Surpris.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q83906425|Chelsea Surpris]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 153
| 
| ''[[:d:Q106205592|Lise-Marie Dejean]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 154
| [[Fichye:82 Stevenson Savart 0211.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q132831156|Stevenson Savart]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 155
| 
| ''[[:d:Q766764|Dieudonné LaMothe]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 156
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1089416|Andre Pascal]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 157
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1149808|Brother Voodoo]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 158
| 
| ''[[:d:Q1654386|Inivèsite Notre Dame Ayiti]]''
| {{Coord|18.528689|-72.335342|display=inline}}
| [[Pòtoprens (komin)|Pòtoprens]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 159
| [[Fichye:Les Trois-Rivières en Haïti.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q1952095|Les Trois Rivières]]''
| {{Coord|19.95|-72.866667|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 160
| 
| ''[[:d:Q2036275|Osvaldo Jeanty]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 161
| [[Fichye:Olympic Athlete.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q2425878|Ginou Etienne]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 162
| [[Fichye:Lecture-scenique-iphigenie jr-lemoine.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q3169917|Jean-René Lemoine]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 163
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3208335|Montagne Terrible]]''
| {{Coord|18.8897|-72.4008|display=inline}}&lt;br/&gt;{{Coord|18.88972|-72.40028|display=inline}}
| [[Sen Mak (awondisman)|Sen Mak]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 164
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3316510|Miss Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 165
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3366461|Fusion of Haitian Social Democrats]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 166
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3419888|Rally of Progressive National Democrats]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 167
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3485996|Siege of Port-au-Prince]]''
| {{Coord|18.5425|-72.338611|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 168
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3532552|Tortug' Air]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 169
| 
| ''[[:d:Q3589796|équipe d'Haïti de volley-ball féminin]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 170
| [[Fichye:Alix Pasquet.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q4727515|Alix Pasquet]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 171
| [[Fichye:American University of the Caribbean (Haiti).jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q4745323|American University of the Caribbean, Haiti]]''
| {{Coord|18.2134|-73.7547|display=inline}}
| [[Okay (komin)|Okay]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 172
| 
| ''[[:d:Q4895878|Bertrand Madsen]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 173
| 
| ''[[:d:Q5354703|elections in Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 174
| 
| ''[[:d:Q5468493|foreign relations of Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 175
| 
| ''[[:d:Q5639691|Haiti Billie Jean King Cup team]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 176
| 
| ''[[:d:Q6904034|Montagnes du Cibao]]''
| {{Coord|18.216667|-71.966667|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 177
| 
| ''[[:d:Q7279930|Rada loa]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 178
| 
| ''[[:d:Q7308615|Reginald Boulos]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 179
| 
| ''[[:d:Q7935364|visa policy of Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 180
| [[Fichye:Pierre Desir 2014 Browns Training Camp.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q16241343|Pierre Desir]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 181
| [[Fichye:Central Market, Port-au-Prince.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q16303839|Marché en Fer]]''
| {{Coord|18.5515|-72.3431|display=inline}}
| [[Pòtoprens (komin)|Pòtoprens]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 182
| 
| ''[[:d:Q16360378|2014 Kosovo vs Haiti football match]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 183
| 
| ''[[:d:Q17006910|July 1958 Haitian coup d'état attempt]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 184
| 
| ''[[:d:Q17634862|Massif de Terre Neuve]]''
| {{Coord|19.66667|-72.83333|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 185
| 
| ''[[:d:Q17636553|Petite Rivière de Jacmel]]''
| {{Coord|18.23|-72.551111|display=inline}}
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 186
| 
| ''[[:d:Q18345341|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Haiti]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 187
| 
| ''[[:d:Q19331319|2015 Haiti Carnival stampede]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 188
| 
| ''[[:d:Q19661396|Marie Yves Dina Jean Pierre]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 189
| [[Fichye:Marie-Denise Douyon au maison de la culture Claude-Léveillé.png|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q19666225|Marie-Denise Douyon]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 190
| [[Fichye:Port-au-Prince Haiti Temple - Pierre.jpg|center|128px]]
| ''[[:d:Q20714931|Port-au-Prince Haiti Temple]]''
| {{Coord|18.528651|-72.267999|display=inline}}
| [[Pòtoprens (komin)|Pòtoprens]]
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 191
| 
| ''[[:d:Q20807714|Haiti national under-20 football team]]''
| 
| 
|-
| style='text-align:right'| 192
| 
| ''[[:d:Q20872224|Haiti at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics]]''
| 
| 
|}
{{Wikidata list end}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mas baryè</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>74286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>881571</id>
      <parentid>880850</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-30T16:48:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denismorcel</username>
        <id>37512</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:2|0|0 */</comment>
      <origin>881571</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3726" sha1="cjkg9q0l6dbmjev0whbl1opkkggalb8" xml:space="preserve">[[Fichye:Homemade plaid mask from British Columbia.jpg|vignette| Mas baryè, an twal]]
Yon '''mas baryè''' (rele tou ''mas altènatif oswa kachnen'') se yon mas pou figi ki filtre ak ki pote sou bouch la ak nen. Li fèt ak twal, anjeneral [[koton]].  

Li se ka lave ak ki kapab itilize ankò. Popilasyon an itilize mas sa a pou pwoteksyon ijyenik kont transmisyon [[maladi kontajye]] oswa polisyon patikil lè. Pwoteksyon ki founi pa efikasite filtrasyon raman reglemante : donk li trè varyab. 

Nan sans legal la, li pa ni ekipman medikal, ni [[ekipman pwoteksyon endividyèl]], ni yon aparèy respiratwa filtran : li pa ka dwe sètifye kòm sa yo. 

Lòt mas konparab yo rele [[Mask chirijikal| mas chirijikal]] (medikal), sa yo rele FFP1, medikal (FFP2 ak FFP3) ak ki pa medikal (mas anti-pousyè : FFP1). 

== Deskripsyon ==
Mas baryè la kouvri tout nen, bouch ak manton. Li se ki te fèt, jeneralman sou zòrèy yo, pa bann elastik oswa lanyè. Men li pa ansanm tout otou figi a. Li kapab nan diferan fòm (plise,an bèk  kanna) ak nan diferan gwosè (nonm, fanm, adolesan, pitit). 

Nan Lafrans yon gid sou kondisyon minimòm, metòd tès, pwodiksyon ak itilizasyon dekri konsepsyon mas baryè.&lt;ref&gt;{{fr}} {{Cite web|url=https://www.afnor.org/actualites/coronavirus-telechargez-le-modele-de-masque-barriere/|title=AFNOR SPEC S76-001|last=AFNOR|date=27 mas 2020|website=afnor.org|access-date=25 avril 2020|archive-date=2020-04-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428061619/https://www.afnor.org/actualites/coronavirus-telechargez-le-modele-de-masque-barriere/|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

=== Efikasite ===

== Itilizasyon ==
Pou pwoteje tèt yo kont [[Maladi kowonaviris 2019|Covid-19]], òganizasyon Mondyal Sante, OMS, pa rekòmande nan mwa avril 2020 popilasyon pote mas sa yo.&lt;ref&gt;{{fr}} {{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/fr/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public/q-a-coronaviruses|title=Maladie à coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) : questions-réponses|last=[[OMS]]|date=27 mas 2020|website=who.int|access-date=25 avril 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Vreman vre, pote mas sa a ka pafwa bay yon santiman fo nan sekirite.&lt;ref&gt;{{fr}} {{Cite web|url=https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2020/03/09/un-faux-sentiment-de-securite|title=Coronavirus : porter un masque, un faux sentiment de sécurité|last=St-Yves|first=Amélie|website=journaldemontreal.com|publisher=Le Journal de Montréal|access-date=28 mas 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot;&gt;
Shopping in rubber gloves and a face mask Sainsbury&amp;#039;s north Finchley London 15 March 2020 coronavirus COVID 19 scare.jpg|Fè makèt nan [[Lond]] nan mwa mas 2020 la 
Man with cloth mask and straw hat Grenoble-France 20200324.jpg|Grenob (nan [[Frans]]) nan mwa mas 2020 
Picking up Prescriptions at Ochsner 7 April 2020 - In Car.jpg|Nan peyi [[Etazini]] an avril 2020 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Istwa ==
[[Fichye:165-WW-269B-11-trolley-l.jpg|alt=|thumb| Pote mas pandan [[grip panyòl an 1918]] :  chofè yon tramwe nan [[Siyatèl]] refize yon moun ki vle monte san pote yon mas.]]

Pwofesyonèl sante te souvan itilize mas sa a ant fen 19yèm syèk la nan mitan an nan 20yèm syèk la. Nan lane 1960 yo, yo tonbe an initilizasyon nan peyi devlope yo an favè mas chirijikal modèn, men itilizasyon li pèsiste nan peyi an devlopman yo. Pandan pandemi [[kowonaviris]] 2019-2020, itilizasyon yo nan peyi devlope yo te relanse kòm yon dènye rekou akòz mank nan mas chirijikal.

== Gade tou ==
* [[Ekipman pwoteksyon endividyèl medikal‎]], [[Mas pwoteksyon]], [[Mas baryè]], [[Mas chirijikal]], [[Mas pwoteksyon FFP]], [[gan medikal]], [[linèt pwoteksyon]] 
* [[Goutlèt respiratwa]] 
* Esterilizasyon (mikwobiyoloji)

== Referans ==
{{referans}}
== Lyen deyò ==</text>
      <sha1>cjkg9q0l6dbmjev0whbl1opkkggalb8</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Reyalis (penti)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>87953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>881567</id>
      <parentid>881540</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-30T16:43:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denismorcel</username>
        <id>37512</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:2|0|0 */</comment>
      <origin>881567</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="12666" sha1="8rwedv4rqw6zmhxew35jqt838url7z5" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Gustave_Courbet_003.jpg|vignette|''[[Yon antèman nan Ornans]]'' (1849-1850), lwil sou twal pa [[Gustave Courbet]] ([[Musée d'Orsay]] ) ki atis la te wè kòm &quot;lanmò womantis la&quot;.]]

'''Reyalis''' se yon [[mouvman atistik]] ki te parèt an [[Frans]] ak [[Grann Bretay (wayòm)|Grann Bretay]] nan mitan {{s-|19}} la, ki montre klè diferans li ak [[womantis]], ki karakterize pa yon demand pou [[Reyalite|reyèl]], yon reprezantasyon anvan tout koreksyon nan lavi chak jou ak eksplorasyon nan tèm sosyete a. Reyalis se pa yon tantativ pou imitasyon esklav reyalite a, epi li pa limite a penti&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/collections/dossier-courbet/le-realisme.html Ki sa ki réalisme nan penti?], definisyon, Musée d'Orsay.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Li fè eksploze kanon, itilizasyon oswa règ [[penti akademik]] epòk li a, nan yon kontèks ki wè aparisyon [[fotografi]], ideyal [[sosyalis]] ak [[pozitivis]], epi li patisipe. nan fenomèn jeneral kesyone [[esthétique|kategori estetik]] ak [[Yerachi genres|yerachi atistik]]. Pa radikalite li, mouvman sa a te pèmèt diferan [[Avangad (atis)|avangad atistik]] montre tèt yo depi nan fen {{s-|19}}.  

{{Sitasyon blok|Pwoblèm pou reprezante &quot;reyalite&quot; te toujou youn nan enkyetid ki pi ijan nan penti, men se menm nosyon reyalite a ki chanje, de peryòd an peryòd: reyalite espirityèl - pa mwens '' vre'' pase lòt la - dominan sou reyalite materyèl, oswa visevèsa. Tou depan de si fòm nan te vid nan kontni  li, oswa, okontrè, te gen tandans vin demateryalize, Reyalis te pran plizoumwen pouvwa sou atizay.|[[Marcel Brion]]|Pent yo nan tan yo &lt;ref name=&quot; Brion1994&quot;&gt;{{Atik|language=fr|author1=Marcel Brion|title=10: &quot;Kisa &quot;reyalite&quot; ye? »|périodique=Pent yo nan tan yo|place=Paris|editè=Philippe Lebaud|date=1994|paj=163-8.|commentary=Esètasyon sa a se yon vèsyon ki pa pibliye ak revize nan ''Je, Lespri Bondye a ak pent la. men'' pibliye pa Plon an 1966.|li sou entènèt=|konsilte sou=3 janvye 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;|style=dwat}} 

== &quot;Batay&quot; nan reyalis la ==
[[Fichye:Honoré Daumier - L'Exposition Universelle- Ce Monsieur Courbet, fait des figures...Vulgaires - Google Art Project.jpg|vignette|&quot;Mesye Courbet sa a fè figi ki twò vilgè, pa genyen pa genyen. pa gen moun nan lanati ki lèd tankou sa!&quot;: [[Honoré Daumier]] ilistre ak karikatura sa a konfli ki te antoure paviyon Courbet la bò kote [[Exhibition Universal of 1855|Exhibition Universal]] (litografi , 1855, [[Koleksyon Phillips la]]).|alt=]]   

Ane 1836 la te make yon kanpe nan fòtin [[Romanticism|atizay amoure]]: yon ''Sèn nan Hamlet'' pa [[Eugène Delacroix]] te refize nan [[Salon Penti ak Eskilti]]. Kèk ane apre, pent la ta di: &quot;Mwen te lage nan men bèt yo pou trant ane&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;.

Nan fen Salon 1846 la, [[Charles Baudelaire]] te ekri: &quot;Akadism, idealism, idealizasyon. Verite nan atizay ak [[koulè]] lokal yo te mennen anpil lòt moun twonpe. Réalisme te egziste depi lontan anvan gwo batay sa a (...) Womantis se jisteman ni nan chwa sijè yo, ni nan verite egzak la, men nan fason pou santi yo&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Baudelaire Defaÿs [pseud.], '' Salon 1846' ', Paris, frè Michel Lévy, 1846, {{p.|103}} — [http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb300664694 Sous BNF].&lt;/ref&gt;. Kidonk, tèm &quot;réyalis&quot;, nan sans yon konsepsyon estetik selon ki kreyatè a dekri reyalite a san li pa idealize l ki, nan tèt li, se yon ideyal tou, pral enpoze tèt li nan lang fransè a yon ti tan anvan. mitan {{s-|19}} ak deba konseptyèl la ant diferan fason pou reprezante sa ki egziste nan yon fason ideyal, anvan aparisyon mouvman an. Sepandan, e jan Baudelaire eksprime sa, [[Atis akademik|akademis]] ak lekòl amoure tou pote, chak nan fason pa yo, yon ideyal.

Enfliyanse pami lòt pa Delacroix, [[Géricault]] ak [[John Constable|Constable]], vin zanmi ak Baudelaire, angaje politikman paske te make pa [[Revolisyon fransè 1848|revolisyon 1848]], pent [[Gustave. Courbet]] entwodui yon kraze radikal: li itilize tèm &quot;réyalis la&quot; pou deziyen pwòp penti l 'nan 1855&lt;ref group=&quot;N&quot;&gt;Men li eksplike an menm tan an nan tèt katalòg li '' Egzibisyon ak vann 38 penti ak 4 desen ki soti nan travay Mesye Gustave Courbet: “Tit reyalis yo te enpoze sou mwen menm jan tit amoure yo te enpoze sou mesye 1830 yo. Tit yo nan okenn moman te bay yon lide jis sou bagay sa yo; si se te otreman, travay yo t ap superflu. San yo pa eksplike pi gwo oswa pi piti presizyon nan yon kalifikasyon ke pèsonn, nou dwe espere, pa oblije konprann konplètman, mwen pral limite tèt mwen nan kèk mo nan devlopman nan koupe kout nenpòt malantandi. Mwen etidye, andeyò nenpòt lespri sistèm ak san patipri, atizay ansyen yo ak atizay modèn yo. Mwen pa te vle imite kèk plis pase kopye lòt; panse mwen pa t 'rive nan objektif la san fè anyen konsa nan atizay pou dedomajman pou atizay la. Non! Mwen tou senpleman te vle tire nan tout konesans nan tradisyon santiman rezone ak endepandan nan endividyèlman pwòp mwen an. Konesans pou kapab, sa te panse mwen. Pou m kapab tradui koutim yo, lide yo, aspè tan mwen an, dapre apresyasyon mwen an, nan yon mo, fè atizay vivan, se konsa objektif mwen”.&lt;/ref&gt;, sou bò liy lan nan 1855. [[Egzibisyon Inivèsèl|Egzibisyon Inivèsèl Pari]]&lt;ref&gt;{{harvsp|texte=''Mouvman nan penti''|1993|p=70|id=Carrassat-Marcadé}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Egzibisyon disident sa a ke li te rele &quot;Le Realism, by Gustave Courbet, te konstitye yon manifès ak deklanche yon konfli vivan nan jounal yo. [[Maxime du Camp]] ekri ke &quot;Courbet pentire foto tankou yon moun poli bòt&quot;, epi [[Étienne-Jean Delécluze]] fè pwen an nan afime ke &quot;reyalis se yon sistèm nan penti sovaj. kote atizay degrade ak degrade&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;. Courbet, ki defye etikèt, li menm te defini an 1861 sa li te vle di pa sa: &quot;Baz realis la se negasyon ideyal la&quot;. Antretan, sipòtè yo, fè fas ak opozan yo, òganize tèt yo. An 1856, yon peryodik parèt nan [[Pari]] ki rele '[[Reyalis (jounal)|Reyalis]]'', ki te fonde pa [[Louis Edmond Duranty]] ak sipò [[Champfleury (ekriven)|Champfleury]], ki gen entansyon defann. Nouvo estetik nan atizay ak literati&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;, epi ane annapre a, ekriven [[Gustave Flaubert]] te viktim yon pwosè ki te vize ''[[Madame Bovary]]'', jije, nan sèten pasaj, twò reyalis ak Se poutèt sa sansi.

[[Fichye:Courbet LAtelier du peintre.jpg|vignette|wight 1.5| ''[[The Painter's Workshop]]'' (1855): gwo lwil oliv sou twal sa a pa Courbet reprezante antouraj zanmitay pent la, e se poutèt sa, ideyalman, defansè sa li ankouraje yo ([[musée d 'Orsay]]). |alt=]]


== Enpak ==
Yon mouvman okòmansman espesyalman franse, omwen nan polemik li yo, li te jwenn rezonans an [[Ewòp]], nan [[costumbrismo]] Panyòl la, [[Lekòl La Haye|''Lekòl Haagse'']] nan Netherlands, nan [[ Minik]] soti nan 1869, nan peyi Etazini, oswa ak mouvman Larisi nan [[Anbilan]]{{, elatriye}} Penti se pa sèlman mwayen reprezantan mouvman sa a: [[gravure]] pent ki gen eksperyans yon patikilyèman renesans aparan pandan ane 1860-1870, teknik sa a mete tèt li nan sèvis reprezante transfòmasyon ak lavi iben, mond peyizan, pèp la&lt;ref&gt;Gade pami lòt travay editè [[Alfred Cadart]], analize pa [[Janine Bailly-Herzberg]] (Pari, Laget, 1971).&lt;/ref&gt;.

Li byen difisil pou etabli yon fwontyè klè ant romantik ak réalisme nan penti, paske prensipal pent mouvman sa a se pa {{Sitasyon|fotograf bagay yo}}, men se {{Sitasyon|powèt reyalite}} yo. Temwaye konpleksite sa a, [[Charles Baudelaire]] ekri ke &quot;tout bon powèt te toujou reyalis […] e pwezi se sa ki pi reyèl, se sa ki pa konplètman vre pase nan yon lòt mond&quot;&lt;ref name= &quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;.

Yon lòt distenksyon ki ase konplèks pou etabli se sa ki genyen ant reyalis ak [[Natiralism (penti)|natiralism]]: istoryen atizay la [[Marcel Brion]] pale de {{quotation|naturalism nan odè}}, site zèb mouye nan [ [Gustave Courbet|Courbet]], manto peyizan nan [[Jean-François Millet|Millet]], swe chwal kous ak dansè nan [[Edgar Degas|Degas]] , wouj gras nan [[Toulouse-Lautrec ]]… Nou ta ka ajoute frou-frou nan twal yo nan [[Constantin Guys]] ak briye nan pye bwa yo nan [[Camille Corot|Corot]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot; /&gt;, anpil &quot;enpresyon&quot; , opinyon, entèpretasyon, ki pral mennen kritik yo defini lòt kategori, lòt tandans nan ane 1870-1880.

Pou [[Paul Valéry]], pent reyalis mouvman sa a te itilize rafineman, konsiderasyon, travay, ak vèti byen admirab pou dekri objè ki pi òdinè yo, pafwa pi vil yo; men san yo pa reyalize ke yo pa t ap antreprann sa pi lwen pase prensip yo, e ke yo t ap envante yon lòt &quot;vrè&quot;, yon verite pwòp yo fè, ki totalman fantastik''&lt;ref&gt;{{Ouvraj|language=fr|author1= [[Paul Valéry]]|title=Variété|volume=I|place=Paris|publisher=|collection=La Pléiade|year=|isbn=}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Gwo enfliyans [[Jean-François Millet|Millet]] te genyen tou, pami lòt moun sou [[Vincent Van Gogh]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;.

== Reprezantan prensipal nan aktyèl la ==
[[Fichye:Jean-François Millet - The Sower - Google Art Project.jpg|vignette| Yon icon reyalis: ''The Sower'' (1850), Millet ([[Mizeum of Fine Arts, Boston]]).]]
=== Lafrans ===
* [[Alexander Antigna]]
* [[Rosa Bonè]]
* [[Jules Breton]]
* [[Camille Corot]]
* [[Gustave Courbet]]
* [[Honoré Daumier]]
* [[Henri Fantin-Latour]]
* [[Constantin Guys]]
* [[Désiré François Laugée]]
* [[Alphonse Legros]]
* [[Edouard Manet]]
* [[Jean-François Millet]]

=== Almay ===
* [[Wilhelm Leibl]] (1844-1900), [[Sèk Leibl]]
* [[Victor Müller]] (1830-1871)
* [[Wilhelm Trübner]] (1851-1917)
* [[Charles Frederic Ulrich]] (1858-1908)
* [[Adolph von Menzel]] (1815-1905)
* [[Carl Schuch]] (1846-1903)

==== Pozisyon Klaus Herding ====
* {{Lien|language=de|trad=Klaus Herding|fr=Klaus Herding}} (1939-2018), ''Realismus als Widerspruch'', Frankfurt am Main, 1979 ak 1984
Dapre lekti Gilbert Titeux nan tèz li ''Au temps du brame...'' (2004), kat fondasyon teyorik reyalis yo soti nan ''batay reyalis'' nan ane 1830-1870 an Ewòp:
* &quot;objektivifikasyon imaj&quot;, otank posib, (mimesis, konfòmite, chwa sijè, echèl, presizyon, mwayen adekwat, metriz mwayen di yo, pèfòmans);
* &quot;inovasyon mimetik&quot;, ki eksprime yon nouvo dimansyon reyalite, konpare ak yon eta anvan atizay (oswa ak yon lòt atizay kontanporen), (espasyalizasyon, corporelite, pèspektiv, echèl koulè, elatriye);
* &quot;refleksyon nan yon mond òdinè oswa menm rayisab&quot;, ''souvan eksprime tèt li nan detriman nan yon sèten klere teknik (sa nan penti metikuleu), (pwovokasyon, modifikasyon, abstraksyon);''
* &quot;refleksyon konseptyèl&quot;, sou sans nan objè a reprezante (refi nan objektif diferansye).

=== Bèljik ===
[[File:Jan Verhas - The master painter.jpeg|thumb|290px|''The master painter'' pa [[Jan Verhas]]. 1877]]
* [[Charles de Groux]]
* [[Constantin Meunier]]
* [[Frans Verhas]]
* [[Jan Verhas]]
* [[Antoine Wiertz]]

=== Etazini ===
* [[Reyalis Ameriken]]

=== Grann Bretay ===
* [[Hubert von Herkomer]]
* [[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]] (k ap viv ant Pari ak [[Lonn|Lond]])

=== Itali ===
*[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg||vignette|''[[Jwif lapriyè nan sinagòg Yom Kippur|Jwif lapriyè nan sinagòg Yom Kippur]]'', [[Maurycy Gottlieb|Mesye. Gottlieb]], 1878]][[Giovanni Fattori]], [[Cesare Saccaggi]], [[Giuseppe Pellizza|Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo]], [[Antonio Mancini]], [[Vincenzo Caprile]] ak mouvman an nan [[Macchiaioli]]

=== Polòy ===

* [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]

=== Larisi ===
* [[Izaak Levitan]]
*[[Constantin Makovski]]
* [[Vladimir Makovski]]
* [[Ilia Repin]]

== Nòt ak referans ==
=== Nòt ===
{{Références|group=&quot;N&quot;}}

=== Referans===
{{Références}}

[[Kategori:Kouran atistik|Penti]]
[[Kategori:Reyalis]]

== Bibliyografi ==
* [[Champfleury (ekriven)|Champfleury]], ''Reyalis. Lèt pou Madame Sand'', {{date|Sektanm 1855}} — {{li sou entènèt|url=http://www.uni-duisburg-essen.de/lyriktheorie/texte/1855_champfleury.html}}
* {{Ouvraj|language=fr|prenon1=Patricia|ti non1=Fride R. Carrassat|prenon2=Isabelle|ti non2=Marcadé|title=Konprann ak rekonèt mouvman nan penti|place=Paris|editè=[[Éditions Larousse| Larousse]]|ane=1997|ane premye edisyon=1993|isbn=2-03-511342-3|id=Carrassat-Marcadé}}
== Gade tou ==
=== Atik ki gen rapò ===
* [[Reyalis (literati)]], [[mouvman literè]] fransè kontanporen
* [[Natiralis (penti)]]
* [[Natiralis (Atis Figitif)]]
* [[Reyalis (atizay)]]

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{Lòt pwojè|commons=Category:Reyalis|commons tit=Reyalis}}
* [http://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/collections/dossier-courbet/le-realisme.html “Reyalis”], dosye edikatif [[Musée d’Orsay]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reyalis (penti)}}
[[Kategori:Penti]][[Kategori:Kouran atistik|Reyalis]]
[[Kategori:Reyalis]][[Kategori:Pwojè:Krepisaj Wikipedya]]</text>
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      <text bytes="12664" sha1="cwgdb9kzl9m7jcd1xokl3oyy4hg4cwt" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Gustave_Courbet_003.jpg|vignette|''[[Yon antèman nan Ornans]]'' (1849-1850), lwil sou twal pa [[Gustave Courbet]] ([[Musée d'Orsay]] ) ki atis la te wè kòm &quot;lanmò womantis la&quot;.]]

'''Reyalis''' se yon [[mouvman atistik]] ki te parèt an [[Frans]] ak [[Grann Bretay (wayòm)|Grann Bretay]] nan mitan {{s-|19}} la, ki montre klè diferans li ak [[womantis]], ki karakterize pa yon demand pou [[Reyalite|reyèl]], yon reprezantasyon anvan tout koreksyon nan lavi chak jou ak eksplorasyon nan tèm sosyete a. Reyalis se pa yon tantativ pou imitasyon esklav reyalite a, epi li pa limite a penti&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/collections/dossier-courbet/le-realisme.html Ki sa ki réalisme nan penti?], definisyon, Musée d'Orsay.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Li fè eksploze kanon, itilizasyon oswa règ [[penti akademik]] epòk li a, nan yon kontèks ki wè aparisyon [[fotografi]], ideyal [[sosyalis]] ak [[pozitivis]], epi li patisipe. nan fenomèn jeneral kesyone [[esthétique|kategori estetik]] ak [[Yerachi genres|yerachi atistik]]. Pa radikalite li, mouvman sa a te pèmèt diferan [[Avangad (atis)|avangad atistik]] montre tèt yo depi nan fen {{s-|19}}.  

{{Sitasyon blok|Pwoblèm pou reprezante &quot;reyalite&quot; te toujou youn nan enkyetid ki pi ijan nan penti, men se menm nosyon reyalite a ki chanje, de peryòd an peryòd: reyalite espirityèl - pa mwens '' vre'' pase lòt la - dominan sou reyalite materyèl, oswa visevèsa. Tou depan de si fòm nan te vid nan kontni  li, oswa, okontrè, te gen tandans vin demateryalize, Reyalis te pran plizoumwen pouvwa sou atizay.|[[Marcel Brion]]|Pent yo nan tan yo &lt;ref name=&quot; Brion1994&quot;&gt;{{Atik|language=fr|author1=Marcel Brion|title=10: &quot;Kisa &quot;reyalite&quot; ye? »|périodique=Pent yo nan tan yo|place=Paris|editè=Philippe Lebaud|date=1994|paj=163-8.|commentary=Esètasyon sa a se yon vèsyon ki pa pibliye ak revize nan ''Je, Lespri Bondye a ak pent la. men'' pibliye pa Plon an 1966.|li sou entènèt=|konsilte sou=3 janvye 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;|style=dwat}} 

== &quot;Batay&quot; nan reyalis la ==
[[Fichye:Honoré Daumier - L'Exposition Universelle- Ce Monsieur Courbet, fait des figures...Vulgaires - Google Art Project.jpg|vignette|&quot;Mesye Courbet sa a fè figi ki twò vilgè, pa genyen pa genyen. pa gen moun nan lanati ki lèd tankou sa!&quot;: [[Honoré Daumier]] ilistre ak karikatura sa a konfli ki te antoure paviyon Courbet la bò kote [[Exhibition Universal of 1855|Exhibition Universal]] (litografi , 1855, [[Koleksyon Phillips la]]).|alt=]]   

Ane 1836 la te make yon kanpe nan fòtin [[Romanticism|atizay amoure]]: yon ''Sèn nan Hamlet'' pa [[Eugène Delacroix]] te refize nan [[Salon Penti ak Eskilti]]. Kèk ane apre, pent la ta di: &quot;Mwen te lage nan men bèt yo pou trant ane&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;.

Nan fen Salon 1846 la, [[Charles Baudelaire]] te ekri: &quot;Akadism, idealism, idealizasyon. Verite nan atizay ak [[koulè]] lokal yo te mennen anpil lòt moun twonpe. Réalisme te egziste depi lontan anvan gwo batay sa a (...) Womantis se jisteman ni nan chwa sijè yo, ni nan verite egzak la, men nan fason pou santi yo&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Baudelaire Defaÿs [pseud.], '' Salon 1846' ', Paris, frè Michel Lévy, 1846, {{p.|103}} — [http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb300664694 Sous BNF].&lt;/ref&gt;. Kidonk, tèm &quot;réyalis&quot;, nan sans yon konsepsyon estetik selon ki kreyatè a dekri reyalite a san li pa idealize l ki, nan tèt li, se yon ideyal tou, pral enpoze tèt li nan lang fransè a yon ti tan anvan. mitan {{s-|19}} ak deba konseptyèl la ant diferan fason pou reprezante sa ki egziste nan yon fason ideyal, anvan aparisyon mouvman an. Sepandan, e jan Baudelaire eksprime sa, [[Atis akademik|akademis]] ak lekòl amoure tou pote, chak nan fason pa yo, yon ideyal.

Enfliyanse pami lòt pa Delacroix, [[Géricault]] ak [[John Constable|Constable]], vin zanmi ak Baudelaire, angaje politikman paske te make pa [[Revolisyon fransè 1848|revolisyon 1848]], pent [[Gustave. Courbet]] entwodui yon kraze radikal: li itilize tèm &quot;réyalis la&quot; pou deziyen pwòp penti l 'nan 1855&lt;ref group=&quot;N&quot;&gt;Men li eksplike an menm tan an nan tèt katalòg li '' Egzibisyon ak vann 38 penti ak 4 desen ki soti nan travay Mesye Gustave Courbet: “Tit reyalis yo te enpoze sou mwen menm jan tit amoure yo te enpoze sou mesye 1830 yo. Tit yo nan okenn moman te bay yon lide jis sou bagay sa yo; si se te otreman, travay yo t ap superflu. San yo pa eksplike pi gwo oswa pi piti presizyon nan yon kalifikasyon ke pèsonn, nou dwe espere, pa oblije konprann konplètman, mwen pral limite tèt mwen nan kèk mo nan devlopman nan koupe kout nenpòt malantandi. Mwen etidye, andeyò nenpòt lespri sistèm ak san patipri, atizay ansyen yo ak atizay modèn yo. Mwen pa te vle imite kèk plis pase kopye lòt; panse mwen pa t 'rive nan objektif la san fè anyen konsa nan atizay pou dedomajman pou atizay la. Non! Mwen tou senpleman te vle tire nan tout konesans nan tradisyon santiman rezone ak endepandan nan endividyèlman pwòp mwen an. Konesans pou kapab, sa te panse mwen. Pou m kapab tradui koutim yo, lide yo, aspè tan mwen an, dapre apresyasyon mwen an, nan yon mo, fè atizay vivan, se konsa objektif mwen”.&lt;/ref&gt;, sou bò liy lan nan 1855. [[Egzibisyon Inivèsèl|Egzibisyon Inivèsèl Pari]]&lt;ref&gt;{{harvsp|texte=''Mouvman nan penti''|1993|p=70|id=Carrassat-Marcadé}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Egzibisyon disident sa a ke li te rele &quot;Le Realism, by Gustave Courbet, te konstitye yon manifès ak deklanche yon konfli vivan nan jounal yo. [[Maxime du Camp]] ekri ke &quot;Courbet pentire foto tankou yon moun poli bòt&quot;, epi [[Étienne-Jean Delécluze]] fè pwen an nan afime ke &quot;reyalis se yon sistèm nan penti sovaj. kote atizay degrade ak degrade&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;. Courbet, ki defye etikèt, li menm te defini an 1861 sa li te vle di pa sa: &quot;Baz realis la se negasyon ideyal la&quot;. Antretan, sipòtè yo, fè fas ak opozan yo, òganize tèt yo. An 1856, yon peryodik parèt nan [[Pari]] ki rele '[[Reyalis (jounal)|Reyalis]]'', ki te fonde pa [[Louis Edmond Duranty]] ak sipò [[Champfleury (ekriven)|Champfleury]], ki gen entansyon defann. Nouvo estetik nan atizay ak literati&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;, epi ane annapre a, ekriven [[Gustave Flaubert]] te viktim yon pwosè ki te vize ''[[Madame Bovary]]'', jije, nan sèten pasaj, twò reyalis ak Se poutèt sa sansi.

[[Fichye:Courbet LAtelier du peintre.jpg|vignette|wight 1.5| ''[[The Painter's Workshop]]'' (1855): gwo lwil oliv sou twal sa a pa Courbet reprezante antouraj zanmitay pent la, e se poutèt sa, ideyalman, defansè sa li ankouraje yo ([[musée d 'Orsay]]). |alt=]]
== Enpak ==
Yon mouvman okòmansman espesyalman franse, omwen nan polemik li yo, li te jwenn rezonans an [[Ewòp]], nan [[costumbrismo]] Panyòl la, [[Lekòl La Haye|''Lekòl Haagse'']] nan Netherlands, nan [[ Minik]] soti nan 1869, nan peyi Etazini, oswa ak mouvman Larisi nan [[Anbilan]]{{, elatriye}} Penti se pa sèlman mwayen reprezantan mouvman sa a: [[gravure]] pent ki gen eksperyans yon patikilyèman renesans aparan pandan ane 1860-1870, teknik sa a mete tèt li nan sèvis reprezante transfòmasyon ak lavi iben, mond peyizan, pèp la&lt;ref&gt;Gade pami lòt travay editè [[Alfred Cadart]], analize pa [[Janine Bailly-Herzberg]] (Pari, Laget, 1971).&lt;/ref&gt;.

Li byen difisil pou etabli yon fwontyè klè ant romantik ak réalisme nan penti, paske prensipal pent mouvman sa a se pa {{Sitasyon|fotograf bagay yo}}, men se {{Sitasyon|powèt reyalite}} yo. Temwaye konpleksite sa a, [[Charles Baudelaire]] ekri ke &quot;tout bon powèt te toujou reyalis […] e pwezi se sa ki pi reyèl, se sa ki pa konplètman vre pase nan yon lòt mond&quot;&lt;ref name= &quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;.

Yon lòt distenksyon ki ase konplèks pou etabli se sa ki genyen ant reyalis ak [[Natiralism (penti)|natiralism]]: istoryen atizay la [[Marcel Brion]] pale de {{quotation|naturalism nan odè}}, site zèb mouye nan [ [Gustave Courbet|Courbet]], manto peyizan nan [[Jean-François Millet|Millet]], swe chwal kous ak dansè nan [[Edgar Degas|Degas]] , wouj gras nan [[Toulouse-Lautrec ]]… Nou ta ka ajoute frou-frou nan twal yo nan [[Constantin Guys]] ak briye nan pye bwa yo nan [[Camille Corot|Corot]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot; /&gt;, anpil &quot;enpresyon&quot; , opinyon, entèpretasyon, ki pral mennen kritik yo defini lòt kategori, lòt tandans nan ane 1870-1880.

Pou [[Paul Valéry]], pent reyalis mouvman sa a te itilize rafineman, konsiderasyon, travay, ak vèti byen admirab pou dekri objè ki pi òdinè yo, pafwa pi vil yo; men san yo pa reyalize ke yo pa t ap antreprann sa pi lwen pase prensip yo, e ke yo t ap envante yon lòt &quot;vrè&quot;, yon verite pwòp yo fè, ki totalman fantastik''&lt;ref&gt;{{Ouvraj|language=fr|author1= [[Paul Valéry]]|title=Variété|volume=I|place=Paris|publisher=|collection=La Pléiade|year=|isbn=}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Gwo enfliyans [[Jean-François Millet|Millet]] te genyen tou, pami lòt moun sou [[Vincent Van Gogh]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Brion1994&quot;/&gt;.

== Reprezantan prensipal nan aktyèl la ==
[[Fichye:Jean-François Millet - The Sower - Google Art Project.jpg|vignette| Yon icon reyalis: ''The Sower'' (1850), Millet ([[Mizeum of Fine Arts, Boston]]).]]
=== Lafrans ===
* [[Alexander Antigna]]
* [[Rosa Bonè]]
* [[Jules Breton]]
* [[Camille Corot]]
* [[Gustave Courbet]]
* [[Honoré Daumier]]
* [[Henri Fantin-Latour]]
* [[Constantin Guys]]
* [[Désiré François Laugée]]
* [[Alphonse Legros]]
* [[Edouard Manet]]
* [[Jean-François Millet]]

=== Almay ===
* [[Wilhelm Leibl]] (1844-1900), [[Sèk Leibl]]
* [[Victor Müller]] (1830-1871)
* [[Wilhelm Trübner]] (1851-1917)
* [[Charles Frederic Ulrich]] (1858-1908)
* [[Adolph von Menzel]] (1815-1905)
* [[Carl Schuch]] (1846-1903)

==== Pozisyon Klaus Herding ====
* {{Lien|language=de|trad=Klaus Herding|fr=Klaus Herding}} (1939-2018), ''Realismus als Widerspruch'', Frankfurt am Main, 1979 ak 1984
Dapre lekti Gilbert Titeux nan tèz li ''Au temps du brame...'' (2004), kat fondasyon teyorik reyalis yo soti nan ''batay reyalis'' nan ane 1830-1870 an Ewòp:
* &quot;objektivifikasyon imaj&quot;, otank posib, (mimesis, konfòmite, chwa sijè, echèl, presizyon, mwayen adekwat, metriz mwayen di yo, pèfòmans);
* &quot;inovasyon mimetik&quot;, ki eksprime yon nouvo dimansyon reyalite, konpare ak yon eta anvan atizay (oswa ak yon lòt atizay kontanporen), (espasyalizasyon, corporelite, pèspektiv, echèl koulè, elatriye);
* &quot;refleksyon nan yon mond òdinè oswa menm rayisab&quot;, ''souvan eksprime tèt li nan detriman nan yon sèten klere teknik (sa nan penti metikuleu), (pwovokasyon, modifikasyon, abstraksyon);''
* &quot;refleksyon konseptyèl&quot;, sou sans nan objè a reprezante (refi nan objektif diferansye).

=== Bèljik ===
[[File:Jan Verhas - The master painter.jpeg|thumb|290px|''The master painter'' pa [[Jan Verhas]]. 1877]]
* [[Charles de Groux]]
* [[Constantin Meunier]]
* [[Frans Verhas]]
* [[Jan Verhas]]
* [[Antoine Wiertz]]

=== Etazini ===
* [[Reyalis Ameriken]]

=== Grann Bretay ===
* [[Hubert von Herkomer]]
* [[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]] (k ap viv ant Pari ak [[Lonn|Lond]])

=== Itali ===
*[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg||vignette|''[[Jwif lapriyè nan sinagòg Yom Kippur|Jwif lapriyè nan sinagòg Yom Kippur]]'', [[Maurycy Gottlieb|Mesye. Gottlieb]], 1878]][[Giovanni Fattori]], [[Cesare Saccaggi]], [[Giuseppe Pellizza|Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo]], [[Antonio Mancini]], [[Vincenzo Caprile]] ak mouvman an nan [[Macchiaioli]]

=== Polòy ===

* [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]

=== Larisi ===
* [[Izaak Levitan]]
*[[Constantin Makovski]]
* [[Vladimir Makovski]]
* [[Ilia Repin]]

== Nòt ak referans ==
=== Nòt ===
{{Références|group=&quot;N&quot;}}

=== Referans===
{{Références}}

[[Kategori:Kouran atistik|Penti]]
[[Kategori:Reyalis]]

== Bibliyografi ==
* [[Champfleury (ekriven)|Champfleury]], ''Reyalis. Lèt pou Madame Sand'', {{date|Sektanm 1855}} — {{li sou entènèt|url=http://www.uni-duisburg-essen.de/lyriktheorie/texte/1855_champfleury.html}}
* {{Ouvraj|language=fr|prenon1=Patricia|ti non1=Fride R. Carrassat|prenon2=Isabelle|ti non2=Marcadé|title=Konprann ak rekonèt mouvman nan penti|place=Paris|editè=[[Éditions Larousse| Larousse]]|ane=1997|ane premye edisyon=1993|isbn=2-03-511342-3|id=Carrassat-Marcadé}}
== Gade tou ==
=== Atik ki gen rapò ===
* [[Reyalis (literati)]], [[mouvman literè]] fransè kontanporen
* [[Natiralis (penti)]]
* [[Natiralis (Atis Figitif)]]
* [[Reyalis (atizay)]]

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{Lòt pwojè|commons=Category:Reyalis|commons tit=Reyalis}}
* [http://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/collections/dossier-courbet/le-realisme.html “Reyalis”], dosye edikatif [[Musée d’Orsay]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reyalis (penti)}}
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[[Kategori:Reyalis]][[Kategori:Pwojè:Krepisaj Wikipedya]]</text>
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    <title>Desen</title>
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      <text bytes="6347" sha1="p8i9jg5twoc80d5f6b4p17hc3hl39uq" xml:space="preserve">[[Fichye:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|vignette|dwat|[[Leonardo da Vinci]], ''[[Vitruvian Man]]'' (anviwon 1492)&lt;ref&gt;[[:fr:Gallerie dell'Accademia de Venise|Gallerie dell'Accademia de Venise]]&lt;/ref&gt;.]]

'''Desen''' se yon teknik reprezantasyon vizyèl sou yon sipò plat. Tèm '''desen''' an dezinye tou de aksyon an nan desen, travay grafik la ki kapab lakòz, ak fòm nenpòt bagay.

“Desen lineyè” reprezante objè pa [[kontou]] yo, [[Kwen (jeometri)|bò yo]] ak kèk liy karakteristik; pi lwen pase limit sa a, desen an devlope lè li reprezante volim nan pa [[Lonbraj|lonbrajs]], souvan pa mwayen [[Hatching|hatchings]], li enkòpore [[koulè]], epi li rantre, san tranzisyon klè, [[Penti (atiza)|penti a]].

Mo a te ekri yon fason endiferan kòm &quot;desen&quot; oswa &quot;desen&quot; jiska {{s-|XVII}}, ki vle di nosyon entansyon, pwojè, nan yon travay ki gen plis dimansyon, nan [[achitekti]], nan penti, nan [[gravi]].

Ogmantasyon pwodiksyon endistriyèl nan {{s-|19}} yo te fè yon distenksyon solid ant desen [[atizay]] ak [[desen teknik]], yon fòm desen lineyè trè kodifye ki vize plis pou kominike enfòmasyon egzak la. nesesè pou fabrike oswa itilize yon objè oswa bilding osi byen ke bay yon evokasyon vizyèl nan li. Soti nan mitan {{s-|XX}}, ''{{lang|en|[[design]]}}'', yon mo angle ki konbine de siyifikasyon ''desen'' oswa ''desen''. '', deziyen sa youn nan pwomotè li yo, [[Raymond Loewy]], rele'' estetik endistriyèl''.''

== Ki sa ki se yon &quot;desen&quot;? ==
=== Istwa ===
Siyifikasyon tèm &quot;desen&quot; la evolye ak istwa [[ati vizyèl]]. Desen mo a soti nan 'designer', ak enfliyans nan Italyen 'disegno' ki vle di reprezantasyon grafik (1444). Tèm Italyen an vle di tou de pratik la ak pwojè oswa entansyon an. Doub sans sa a te konsève ak mo franse &quot;dessein&quot;. Se sèlman nan mitan {{s-|XVIII}} desen (san ''e'' apre ''ss'') pa vle di anyen ankò pase reprezantasyon. Tèm angle &quot;design&quot;, ki soti nan Italyen &quot;{{lang|it|designo}}&quot; ak franse &quot;dessein&quot;, te kenbe siyifikasyon pwojè oswa konsepsyon. Yo dwe konsidere tou de siyifikasyon mo a, menm si amatè a ka enterese nan desen ki pwodui kòm preparasyon pou yon travay ansanm ak sa ki gen anpil valè nan tèt yo {{harv|Jacquet|2010}}.

Desen, kòm yon pwojè pou yon travay, yo jwenn tout kote depi nan [[Mwayennaj]] nan atizay plastik, ki gen ladan [[goldsmithing]] ak [[mod (rad)|mod]]. Li rezime epi devlope panse atistik otè a, epi li pèmèt li prezante li bay kliyan li yo oswa moun ki ap sipòte li, nan yon fòm ki pi lejè epi ki mande mwens tan pase kreyasyon final la. Desen yo pa t jeneralman gen entansyon pou yo konsève; sepandan, daprè [[Paul Valéry]], {{quote|enkyetid pou moun nan ak moman ki te genyen sou travay la nan tèt li ak dire a, kondisyon fini an te sanble […] kontrè ak &quot;verite&quot;, &quot; sansiblite” ak manifestasyon “jeni” […] desen an te vo penti a&lt;ref&gt;{{Ouvraj|prenon1=Paul|ti non1=Valéry|otè lyen1=Paul Valéry |titre=Degas, dans, desen |piblikatè =Gallimard |koleksyon=Folio |ane=1965 |ane premye edisyon=1938 |pasaj=50}}.&lt;/ref&gt;}}. Gou a konsa deplase nan direksyon pou pwojè, etid ak desen preparasyon; evolisyon sa a te kòmanse an Frans nan fen {{s-|18yèm}}. Premye ekspozisyon desen ki soti nan kabinè wa a te fèt nan [[Musée du Louvre|Louvre]] an 1797&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien web |url=http://www.culture.gouv.fr/documentation/manuscrits/ AMN-Recherches/D-DA-DE-Louvre-Dessins.pdf|title=Achiv Kabinè Desen - desen, pastèl, emaye ki pentire|site=culture.gouv.fr}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Eleman materyèl ===
Sipò a se pi souvan [[papye]], men li kapab nenpòt lòt materyèl. Desen sou [[tablo nwa]] gen, menm plis pase lòt yo, yon vokasyon pou [[impermanans]]&lt;ref&gt;{{sitasyon|Se la mwen anseye elèv mwen yo fè desen sou yon modèl vivan, pwofesè Philippe Comar di. Modèl […] poze […] devan anviwon ven elèv k ap desine sou tablo a. Desen etid sa yo pa kenbe, menm lè yo trè bon epi elèv la te travay sou yo pou de zè de tan! Nou efase yo ak yon eponj epi rekòmanse!}}, {{atik |title=Swiv gid-la…nan Lekòl Fine Arts nan Pari| périodique=Leonard |editè=mize Louvre |nimewo=187 |date=janvye 2014 |pasaj=26—29}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Nou desine swa sou fèy ki lach, swa sou kaye oswa kaye, ak kreyon oswa chabon pou teknik sèk, pandan teknik mouye depoze [[lank]] ak [[Plim (desen)|plim ]] oswa [[bwòs]].

Nenpòt bagay ki ka kite yon tras ka itilize kòm yon zouti, kòmanse ak [[dwèt]]. [[Lakrè]], chabon, kreyon, plim, bwòs, [[plim]]s (boul, plim, tubulaires), [[Felt-tip pen|felt-tip plim]] depoze materyèl la sou sipò a; [[Pwen sèk|pwen]], [[Chisel (gravi)|chisel]] oswa [[kouto]] retire li, pou fè desen [[gravi|grave]] oswa [[grafiti]]. Depi nan fen {{s-|XX}}, nou fè desen sou [[òdinatè]].

== Teknik ==
Teknik desen an evolye ak sipò yo ak zouti. Mesye pre-istorik te trase sou mi yo, sou [[Ròch|wòch]], sou zo, yo sèvi ak sou yon bò ensizyon ak sou lòt men an pigman ki gen koulè yo aplike lè l sèvi avèk zouti rudimantè. Desen pi pre konsepsyon aktyèl parèt ak sipò tankou papiris, parchemin, Lè sa a, papye, ak trase zouti tankou calame a (wozo), plim [[zwazo]] koupe. Nan Lès la, bwòs la domine. Women yo te itilize [[Pwen metal (desen)|pwen metal]], zansèt modèn [[kreyon]] plon sou yon sipò prepare, kouvwi ak yon melanj, jeneralman ki gen pigman, nan Espay blan, jansiv arab ak zo. repa.

Nan fen {{s-|19}} la, [[Jules Adeline]] te defini desen kòm reprezantasyon objè ki sèvi ak kout plim oswa kreyon, pami desen yo ak [[Twa kreyon| de ak twa kreyon]], ki se wòch nwa a, lakre blan ak [[sangwen]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Ouvraj|prenon1=Jules |ti non1=Adeline |otè lyen1=Jules Adeline |titre=Leksik tèm atizay |subtitle=nouvo edisyon |date=1900 |ane premye edisyon=1884 |pasaj=147-149 “Desen”|li sou entènèt=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k205929n }}.&lt;/ref&gt;, men tou [[chabon]]&lt;ref&gt;{{harvsp|Adeline|1900|p=215}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Nou menm tou nou fè distenksyon ant enstriman oksilyè desen yo, [[Règleman (enstriman jeyometri)|règ]] ak [[Konpas (jeometri)|konpas]] ke nou fè san yo pa nan desen amen lib.

Desen jodi a benefisye de pyès ki nan konpitè ak [[lojisyèl]] [[informatik]] ki, libere li de pwodiksyon materyèl, pèmèt liy lis ak posiblite enfini pou koreksyon {{incise|si sepandan se objektif atis la|pwen}}.

==Referans==
{{Références}}
[[Kategori:Pwojè:Krepisaj Wikipedya]]</text>
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    <title>Oranj (koulè)</title>
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      <text bytes="11784" sha1="f2ayoqbwy2vywtjymmfl3to0ye7elp2" xml:space="preserve">{{Gade omonim|Oranj}}
[[file:Oranges macro.jpg|vignette|Tranch [[zoranj (fwi)|zoranj]] (fwi a).]]
'''Oranj''' se yon [[chan kwomatik]] ki gen koulè klere ki, sou [[sèk kwomatik]], pran plas ant [[wouj]] ak [[jòn]].

Koulè zoranj yo se [[Koulè cho ak fre|koulè cho]]; koulè cho yo defini pa pwoksimite yo nan zoranj. Yo konsidere yo eksitan ak pwovokan.

== Kolorimetri ak pèsepsyon koulè ==
Estanda {{nobr|AFNOR |nm}} a {{unit|605|nm}}, saturation mwayen ak segondè ak klète.

Jaden vwazen yo se [[wouj]] ak [[jòn]], pami koulè klere ak satire yo. Tout koulè ki gen menm longèdonn dominan, men ki gen mwens saturation ak liminozite, se [[Mawon (koulè)|mawon]], sa yo ki gen gwo liminozite, men ki pa trè satire, se [[bèlj]].

Tèm ''zoranj'' ka espesifye pa adjektif tankou ''klè'' oswa ''entans'', ki estanda a defini tou, epi yo itilize pou modifye yon koulè menm jan an, ''jòn'', ''wouj'' 'oswa ''woz'', tou depann de karakteristik koulè, klète ak saturation lonbraj ki dekri&lt;ref&gt;{{harvsp|Sève|2009|p=248-250}}; {{harvsp|id=PRV2|PRV{{ind|2}}|p=159}} {{harvsp|id=PRV3|PRV{{ind|3}}|p=122}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

[[Koulè konplemantè]] yon zoranj se yon [[ble]]. Avèk [[iliminan]] D65 (limyè lajounen), konpleman zoranj ki gen longèdonn dominan ant {{unit|584|nm}} ak {{unit|605|nm}} se ble ki gen tandans nan direksyon vèt ak ble-vèt ki gen longèdonn dominan. se ant {{inite|482|nm}} ak {{inite|490|nm}}.

=== Sentèz oranj ===
Nan [[sentèz soustraktif]], ooranj yo jwenn pa yon konbinezon de filtè jòn ak [[magenta (koulè)|magenta]].

Avèk koloran [[penti (materyèl)|penti]], [[kreyon]], [[plim-fet]], zoranj yo jwenn nan melanje yon anpil nan [[jòn]] ak yon ti kras nan [[wouj. (koulè)|wouj]]. Pwopòsyon an se jeneralman 3 a 4 pati jòn nan yon pati wouj&lt;ref&gt;Cantin, C., Richard, D. ak Trudel, T. 1990. RUDIMENTS OF PLASTIC ARTS. Sant Edikasyon ak Kiltirèl, Inc., Quebec.&lt;/ref&gt;. Sepandan, pigman wouj ki gen tandans nan direksyon zoranj ak zoranj pigman yo souvan itilize.

Nou ka jwenn pigman zoranj trè lumineux bay prèske [[koulè optimal|pi bon]] koulè; men nou pa ka repwodui koulè sa yo pa [[sentèz aditif]] sou yon ekran televizyon oswa òdinatè. Nou dwe sakrifye swa liminozite oswa pite.

Zoranj yo jwenn nan [[enpresyon]] pa [[pwosesis kat koulè]] menm plis limite. Kat koulè zoranj, konpare ak yon zoranj pi, pase pou yon [[bèj]] oswa yon [[mawon (koulè)|mawon]] zoranj. [[Enpresyon]] ka sèlman reyalize koulè zoranj klere ak pigman espesifik.

=== Oranj pou web la ===
Nan navigatè entènèt ak aplikasyon ki sòti, anpil mo kle ki gen &quot;zoranj&quot; envoke koulè konvansyonèl yo.
{| class = &quot;wikitable centre&quot;
|+ [[X11 Non Koulè]] ak [[Koulè Entènèt|HTML/CSS]]/[[Graphique Vektè Évolutive|SVG]]
| Mo
| Egzanp
| Tradiksyon
| Kòd
|-
! DarkOrange
|bgcolor=&quot;#FF8C00&quot;| &amp;nbsp;
| oranj nwa
| #FF8C00
|-
! Orange
|bgcolor=&quot;#FFA500&quot;| &amp;nbsp;
| oranj
| #FFA500
|-
! OrangeRed
|bgcolor=&quot;#FF4500&quot;| &amp;nbsp;
| oranj-wouj
| #FF4500
|}

== Koloran ==
[[Endèks Koulè]] lis anviwon 80 pigman zoranj (P0), kèk ladan yo gen plis zoranj-wouj pase zoranj, epi yo dwe ajoute kèk pigman ki klase kòm wouj (PR)&lt;ref&gt;{{harvsp|id= PRV3| PRV{{ind|3}}|p=122}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.
=== Pigman ak koloran ===
[[File:Echantillonnage au nuancier des Manufactures nationales.jpg|vignette|Tablo koulè zoranj kolore epi itilize pou faktori tapisri Gobelins ak Beauvais, 2018]]
Pa gen ansyen lank ki pwodui yon koulè zoranj. Li toujou posib pou fè yon zoranj pa melanje pigman wouj ak pigman jòn; men melanj sa a toujou pi mat pase konpozan li yo, sitou kòm nuans sa yo deplase lwen sa yo t ap chèche&lt;ref&gt;[[George Field (chemist)|Field]], ''Chromatography'' (1869), te site pa {{harvsp|Ball|2010|p=65-66}}.&lt;/ref&gt;:

* De sulfid asenik natirèl, [[realgar]] (zoranj-wouj oswa wouj vermillion) ak [[orpiment]] (soti nan jòn sitwon rive jòn an [[lò]]) yo te konnen depi [[Lantikite]]. Realgar dekonpoze, nan limyè a, nan yon melanj de [[Orpiment (pigman)|òpiman]] ak [[arsenolit]]. De pigman sa yo tou de trè toksik, epi tou yo gen dezavantaj nan reyaji chimikman, akòz souf la yo lage, ak lòt pigman yo ak ki yo melanje. Pou menm rezon an yo anti-seche nan lwil oliv. Pigman sa yo te itilize pou ekri nan lèt an lò san lò, nan tanpera ze, kote toksisite yo te itilize kòm yon konsèvasyon. Yo te abandone&lt;ref&gt;{{harvsp|id=PRV3|PRV{{ind|3}}|p=130-132}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ;
* nan Mwayennaj yo, yo te itilize [[minimòm]] plon (wouj) pou fè mineral zoranj la. Men, dapre [[Cennino Cennini]], {{quote|li bon sèlman sou panèl, paske si ou itilize li sou miray, le pli vit ke li ekspoze a limyè, li vin nwa epi li pèdi koulè li&lt;ref&gt;Cennino Cennini. , Liv Atizay la, chap. XLI.&lt;/ref&gt;}}. Vreman vre, li vin nwa lè ekspoze a [[sulfid idwojèn]] oswa sulfid&lt;ref&gt;{{harvsp|id=PRV3|PRV{{ind|3}}|p=90}} &lt;/ref&gt;. Se poutèt sa konplètman eskli melanje li ak orpiment fè li plis zoranj;
* dekouvèt chrome an 1797 pa [[Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin]] enpòtan: ak zoranj sa yo nan [[chrome]], [[atis]] yo gen pigman zoranj a dispozisyon yo{{sfn|Ball|2010|p=230}}. [[Joseph Mallord William Turner|Turner]], [[Enpresyonis yo]], [[Vincent Van Gogh|Van Gogh]] te apresye chrome zoranj, byenke li te pi chè ak mwens vivan pase kadmyòm zoranj envante yon ti tan apre, ak estabilite yo. te kesyone, ak melanje ak lòt koulè sijè a restriksyon. Sepandan, pouvwa koloran yo wo anpil&lt;ref&gt;{{harvsp|id=PRV2|PRV{{ind|2}}|p=88-89}}, {{harvsp|Ball|2010|p=231}}.&lt;/ref&gt;;
* an 1820, yon famasi [[Friedrich Stromeyer]] te pwodui yon [[sulfid Kadmyòm]] jòn ki bay yon koulè zoranj anba sèten kondisyon sentèz ki enfliyanse gwosè grenn yo. Li te antre nan katalòg machann koulè apati 1850{{sfn|Ball|2010|p=226}}. Sa a se premye vre klere, klere zoranj la. Swasant ane pita, yon zoranj menm pi fon te fè nan presipite sulfid Kadmyòm ak sulfid sodyòm ak Selenyòm. Kadmyòm zoranj, klase PY37 ak PO20 nan [[Endèks Koulè]], reyalize karakteristik ekselan nan klète ak saturation, ki te fè yo konpare ak [[koulè optimal|koulè optimal]]; yo opak&lt;ref&gt;{{harvsp|id=PRV2|PRV{{ind|2}}|p=11-15}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ;
* zoranj devlope nan {{s-|XX}} ([[pigman azoyik|azoyik]], [[perinonn]], [[kwinakridonn]], [[izoyindolin]] ak [[piwòl]]) ofri altènativ pi bon mache ak transparan nan Kadmyòm, ki nesesè pou kèk aplikasyon.

Sispèk toksisite konsènan pigman Kadmyòm ansanm ak pri segondè yo pou mete restriksyon sou itilizasyon yo. Komèsan koulè pi souvan ofri pigman &quot;kadmyòm zoranj&quot; ki se imitasyon ki baze sou pigman òganik.

=== Koloran manje ===
Nan manje, koulè zoranj la asosye ak fwi citrus tankou [[zoranj (fwi)|zoranj]], ak lòt fwi tankou [[joumou]], ak rasin tankou [[kawòt]].

Koulè zoranj la souvan itilize pou prezante pwodwi ki gen [[vitamin A]] ([[beta-karotèn]]) ak [[vitamin C]], ki fwi zoranj yo rich. [[Vitamin C]] tablèt yo souvan atifisyèlman koulè zoranj ak aromatize ak zoranj.

''[[oranj jòn S]]'' (E110) yo itilize pou koloran pwodwi manje: sirèt, sirèt, krèm glase, krèm glase, siwo, bwason gaze, likè, kavya, kochon pwason, kribich, pwason sèk ak bon plat. , vlope charcuterie, kwout fwomaj, patisri, desè, biskwit.

Yo itilize karotenoid ([[E160]]) pou koulè manje somon kiltivatè yo, ki bay vyann yo koulè zoranj. Yo itilize tou pou koulè bè, mimolèt ak po fwomaj.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-----
! align=&quot;sant&quot; | Koulè
! align=&quot;sant&quot; | Kode
! align=&quot;sant&quot; | Orijin
! align=&quot;sant&quot; | Non chimik
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | zoranj jòn || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 107
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | [[jòn 2G]]&lt;br /&gt;entèdi an Ewòp ak Etazini
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | zoranj jòn || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E110
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | sentèz
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | [[zoranj jòn S]]
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | '''Lonbraj&lt;br /&gt;jòn rive zoranj'''
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | '''E 160-a&lt;br /&gt;a 160-f'''
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Natirèl&lt;br /&gt;[[abiko]] pigman,&lt;br /&gt;
nan [[kawòt]],&lt;br /&gt;nan [[woma]],&lt;br /&gt;
pwason, elatriye.
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | '''[[karotenoid]]'''
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Jòn zoranj wouj || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 160(A) I)
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | [[Beta-karotèn|β-karotèn]]
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Jòn zoranj wouj || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 160(A)II)
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | [[Karotenoid]] melanje (alfa-, β-, gamma-)
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Jòn zoranj wouj || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 160(B)
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | [[Annatto]] (oswa [[annatto]]), bixin, norbixin
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Jòn zoranj wouj || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 160(C)
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Ekstrè [[paprika]], [[kapsantin]], [[capsorubin]]
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Jòn zoranj wouj || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 160(D)
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | [[Likopèn]]
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Jòn zoranj wouj || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 160(E)
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | [[Apokarotenal]] 8' (C30)
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Jòn zoranj wouj || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 160(F)
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Ethyl ester nan -apokarotenik asid-8' (C30)
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Jòn zoranj wouj || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 161
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | [[Xanthophyll]]s
|-----
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Jòn zoranj wouj || align=&quot;sant&quot; | E 162
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | ...
| align=&quot;sant&quot; | Wouj [[beetroot]], [[betanin]]
|}

== Apendis ==
{{Lòt pwojè
|wiktionary=orange|wiktionary title=zoranj
|commons=Kategori:Oranj (koulè)}}

=== Etimoloji ===
Non &quot;oranj&quot; nan koulè a ​​soti nan sa ki nan fwi a, ki te entwodwi nan {{s-|XI}} pa [[Arab]] yo (''narandj'') Lè sa a, [[Espay|Espanyòl]] ( '' naranja''), ki soti nan mo [[Sanskrit]] ''{{lang|sa|नारङ्ग}}'' ({{lang|sa-Latn|nāraṅga}}). Tèm &quot;zoranj&quot; pou deziyen yon fwi ateste nan {{s-|XIII}}, pou yon koulè nan {{s-|XVI}} ([[Trezò lang franse|Trezò lang franse a]]). Lè sa a, li souvan ekri ''orenge''&lt;ref&gt;Jiskaske {{ouvrage |prénom1=Antoine |nom1=Furetière |titre=Dictionnaire universel |traduction titre=Diksyonè Inivèsèl |tome=2 |année=1702 |passage=s.n. &quot;Orenge&quot; |lire en ligne=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5542578m}} omwen.&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Adjektif ki asosye a se envaryab nan franse, yo te abrevyasyon la nan &quot;nan koulè zoranj (fwi a)&quot;. Se poutèt sa, nou pral di &quot;flè zoranj&quot;, ki vle di &quot;flè koulè zoranj&quot;; mak pliryèl la sèlman aplike nan non fwi a&lt;ref&gt;[http://atilf.atilf.fr Trésor de la Langue Française]&lt;/ref&gt;. Adjektif &quot;zoranj&quot; nòmalman dakò nan sèks ak nimewo.

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Références|groupe=alpha}}
{{Références}}

=== Bibliyografi ===
* {{Ouvrage |prénom1=Philip |nom1=Ball |traducteur=Jacques Bonnet |titre=Histoire vivante des couleurs |sous-titre=5000 ans de peinture racontée par les pigments |titre original={{lang|en|Bright Earth: The Invention of Colour}} |lieu=Paris |éditeur=Hazan |année=2010 |isbn=}}
* {{Ouvrage |prénom1=Jean |nom1=Petit |prénom2=Jacques |nom2=Roire |prénom3=Henri |nom3=Valot |titre=Encyclopédie de la peinture |sous-titre=formuler, fabriquer, appliquer |tome=1 |lieu=Puteaux |éditeur=EREC |année=1999 |isbn= |id=PRV1}}
* {{Ouvrage |prénom1=Jean |nom1=Petit |prénom2=Jacques |nom2=Roire |prénom3=Henri |nom3=Valot |titre=Encyclopédie de la peinture |sous-titre=formuler, fabriquer, appliquer |tome=2 |lieu=Puteaux |éditeur=EREC |année=2001 |isbn= |id=PRV2}}
* {{Ouvrage |prénom1=Jean |nom1=Petit |prénom2=Jacques |nom2=Roire |prénom3=Henri |nom3=Valot |titre=Encyclopédie de la peinture |sous-titre=formuler, fabriquer, appliquer |tome=3 |lieu=Puteaux |éditeur=EREC |année=2005 |isbn= |id=PRV3}}
*{{Ouvrage|prénom1=Robert|nom1=Sève|titre=Science de la couleur|sous-titre=Aspects physiques et perceptifs|lieu=Marseille|éditeur=Chalagam|année=2009|isbn=}}

== Lyen deyò ==
* {{Autorité}}
* {{Bases}}
* {{Dictionnaires}}


[[Kategori:Oranj (koulè)|*]]
[[Kategori:koulè]]</text>
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    <title>Stellantis North America</title>
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'''Stellantis North America''' ofisyèl '''FCA US''',&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Corey |title=Automaker FCA US admits paying off union leaders; fined $30M |url= https://apnews.com/article/business-0c24a927078573a51ec3f370c52696e5 |access-date=January 25, 2022 |agency=The Associated Press |date=August 17, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; se yon sipòtè Ameriken nan gwoup otomobil [[Peyiba|Olandè]] an [[Stellantis]], Li konnen pou maketing [[Chrysler]], [[Dodge]], [[Jeep]], [[RAM (otomobil)|RAM]], [[SRT]] ak [[Mopar]] mak, osi byen ke distribye [[Alfa Romeo]], [[Fiat]] ak [[Maserati]] mak yo nan [[Amerik]] di Nò. Li te orijinèlman fonde an 1925 kòm '''Chrysler Corporation''', youn nan twa pi gwo manifaktirè machin yo nan [[Etazini]], dèyè [[General Motors]] ([[Chevrolet]]) ak [[Ford]].

[[File:Stellantis.svg|center|240px]]

== Tradiksyon == 

* [[Lòt kreyòl]]:
* [[Franse]]:
* [[Angle]]:
* [[Alman]]:
* [[Panyòl]]:

== Istwa == 
Istwa mo sa

== referans ==

== Kèk lyen ==

[[Kategori:1925]]
[[kategori:mak]]</text>
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'''Stellantis North America''' ofisyèl '''FCA US''',&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Corey |title=Automaker FCA US admits paying off union leaders; fined $30M |url= https://apnews.com/article/business-0c24a927078573a51ec3f370c52696e5 |access-date=January 25, 2022 |agency=The Associated Press |date=August 17, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; se yon sipòtè Ameriken nan gwoup otomobil [[Peyiba|Olandè]] an [[Stellantis]], Li konnen pou maketing [[Chrysler]], [[Dodge]], [[Jeep]], [[RAM (otomobil)|RAM]], [[SRT]] ak [[Mopar]] mak, osi byen ke distribye [[Alfa Romeo]], [[Fiat]] ak [[Maserati]] mak yo nan [[Amerik]] di Nò. Li te orijinèlman fonde an 1925 kòm '''Chrysler Corporation''', youn nan twa pi gwo manifaktirè machin yo nan [[Etazini]], dèyè [[General Motors]] ([[Chevrolet]]) ak [[Ford]].

[[File:Stellantis.svg|240px|droite]]

== Tradiksyon == 

* [[Lòt kreyòl]]:
* [[Franse]]:
* [[Angle]]:
* [[Alman]]:
* [[Panyòl]]:

== Istwa == 
Istwa mo sa

== referans ==

[[Kategori:1925]]
[[kategori:mak]]
&lt;references /&gt;

== Kèk lyen ==</text>
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    <title>Raoul Dufy</title>
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'''Raoul Ernest Joseph Dufy''', fèt {{dat nesans|3 jen 1877}} nan [[Le Havre|Havre]] e li te mouri {{dat lanmò|23 mas 1953}} nan [[Forcalquier]], se yon [[Pent|pennt]], [[desenè]], [[graveur|graveur]], [[illustrateur]] liv, [[seramist]], kreyatè [[Tèkstil|twal]], [[tapis]] ak mèb, [[Dekorasyon (atizay)|dekoratè]] enteryè, espas piblik ak [[teyat]] [[franse]].

== Biyografi ==
Raoul Dufy se dezyèm nan onz pitit (Jean - tou yon pent - se setyèm lan) Léon Marius Dufy, kontab nan yon konpayi metaliji, mizisyen amatè ki gen talan, ak madanm li ki fèt Marie Eugénie Ida Lemonnier, natif natal nan Honfleur&lt;ref&gt; {{Web link |author=Michaël Debris, MuMa Le Havre |title=Frères de Dufy|url=http://www.muma-lehavre.fr/fr/dufy-le-havre/freres-de-dufy |site= muma- lehavre.fr |konsilte sou=2021-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Apati 1893, li te suiv kou aswè [[Charles Lhullier]] nan [[École supérieure d'art et design Le Havre-Rouen|École municipal des beaux-arts du Havre]]. Li te rankontre [[Raimond Lecourt]], [[René de Saint-Delis]] ak [[Othon Friesz]] ak ki lè sa a li te pataje yon atelye nan [[Montmartre]] e ki ta rete youn nan zanmi ki pi fidèl li yo. Li te pentire peyizaj Norman nan aquarelle.

An 1900, gras ak yon bous, li antre nan [[Beaux-Arts de Paris|École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts]] nan [[Pari]], nan atelye [[Léon Bonnat]] kote li jwenn [[Othon. Friesz]]{{sfn|Jacques Lassaigne 1974|p=83|id=jl}}. Li trase anpil. Premye egzibisyon li nan [[Salon des artistes français]] te fèt an 1901, answit li te ekspoze, an 1903, nan [[Salon des indépendants]]{{sfn|Jacques Lassaigne 1974|p=83|id=jl}}. Pent [[Maurice Denis]] achte yon tablo pou li. Li te pentire anpil nan anviwonman Le Havre, e an patikilye plaj [[Sainte-Adresse]] te fè popilè pa [[Eugène Boudin]] ak [[Claude Monet]]. An 1904, ak zanmi l [[Albert Marquet]], li te travay, toujou sou motif la, nan [[Fécamp]].

Nan 1903-1904 ak 1906-1907, Dufy te rete nan [[Martigues]] nan [[Provence]] epi li te pentire yon seri de paysages ki reprezante vil la ak kanal li yo.

Enfliyanse pa [[Fauvism]] e an patikilye pa penti ke [[Henri Matisse|Matisse]] te ekspoze nan [[Salon d'Automne]] 1905{{sfn|Jacques Lassaigne 1974|p=83|id=jl }}, li travay ak [[Othon Friesz]], [[Raimond Lecourt]] ak Albert Marquet sou penti nan lari ki dekore ak drapo, festival vilaj, plaj.

An 1908, li te pran konsyans de enpòtans kapital [[Paul Cézanne]] pandan gwo retrospektiv 1907 la, li te abandone Fauvis. Li kreye etid sou pye bwa, chwal, modèl estidyo ak lavi toujou. Menm ane sa a, li te ale nan [[L'Estaque]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/2/http://www.estaque.com/peintres / index.html|title= L'Estaque ak pent yo: Cézanne, Braque, Dufy…|site=[[Internet Archive]]}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, toupre Marseille ak [[Georges Braque]]. Yo te pentire, souvan kòt a kòt, menm motif ak Cézanne, Dufy sitou siyen ''[[Pye bwa nan L'Estaque (Dufy)|Pye bwa nan L'Estaque]]''.

Li te rete nan [[Villa Médicis|villa Médicis libre]], ki te akeyi jèn pent ki san resous, nan [[Orgeville-en-Vexin|Orgeville]] ak [[André Lhote]] ak [[Jean Marchand (pennt) |Jean Marchand]]. Nan konpayi yo, li te deplase nan direksyon pou konstriksyon enfliyanse pa kòmansman [[Kubism]] nan [[Georges Braque]] ak [[Pablo Picasso]].

An 1910 li te kreye woodcuts pou ''[[Le Bestiaire ou Cortège d'Orphée|Bestiaire]]'' pa [[Guillaume Apollinaire|Apollinaire]], li te fè lòt pou ''Lejand Powèm Lafrans ak Brabant''. pa [[Émile Verhaeren]]. Travay sa a te ba li lide pou l kreye twal enprime {{sfn|Jacques Lassaigne 1974|p=83|id=jl}}.

[[File:Dufy Les Allies.jpg|vignette|''Les Alliés'' (1914), kare swa enprime, [[Le Havre]], [[André-Malraux Museum of Modern Art]].]]
[[File:Victory rooster.jpg|vignette|alt=Gouach preparasyon Dufy pou twal Bianchini-Férier te fè.|''Le Coq de la Victoire'' (1918), kare swa Raoul Dufy ki te fèt pou Charvet. ]]
[[Fichye:Vue de la terrasse de Sainte-Adresse, soleil couchant.jpg|vignette|View of the Sainte-Adresse terrace, setting sun]]
Nan 1911, li marye ak yon fanm ki soti nan Nice, Eugénie-Émilienne Brisson (1880-1962). Gran Couturier [[Paul Poiret]] te rele ki te enpresyone pa gravure ''Bestiaire'' Guillaume Apollinaire, li te kòmanse kreye modèl pou twal alamòd ak twal dekoratif, enprime sèten twal yo Lè sa a, te fè lè l sèvi avèk koupon an bwa grave. Avèk Paul Poiret, li te monte yon ti biznis dekorasyon twal ak enprime, &quot;La Petite Usine&quot;. Se la li te enprime premye rido li yo ak twal ki ta fè Paul Poiret {{sfn|Jacques Lassaigne 1974|p=83|id=jl}} pi popilè. Yon ane apre, li te anboche pa kay swa Lyon [[Bianchini-Férier]] pou ki li te kreye modèl inonbrabl ki baze sou tèm pi renmen li yo ([[nayad]]s, bèt, zwazo, flè, papiyon ...), ki pral dwe &quot;mape&quot; pou resi sou [[Jacquard looms|Jacquard tise]]. Kolaborasyon sa a ap kontinye jiska 1930.
== Atizay Raoul Dufy ==
=== Enpresyonism ===
Premye Raoul Dufy te vin anba enfliyans [[Eugène Boudin]] ak [[Enpresyonism]], men li pa te kenbe touche vigil la: pwòp pa l la, yon lòt bò, te vin pi laj ak wòdpòte, jan yo ka wè. nan ''La Plage de Sainte-Adresse'' (1904) ak ''Aprè manje midi'' (1905-1906). Li nesesè souliye yon metriz byen bonè nan [[aquarelle]], ak deja endikasyon nan pwòp style lavni li nan yon travay tankou ''{{date-|14 jiyè 1898}} nan Le Havre'' kote [[koulè]] yo ye. ranpli nan [[lank Endyen]].

=== Fauvis ===
Raoul Dufy dekouvri [[Henri Matisse]] ak [[Paul Signac]]. Nan ''The Village Square'' (1906), woz yo ak vèt yo pran nan liy jistis epè en achitekti a. Lonbraj yo klè. Yon ti drapo franse nan yon syèl toujou enpresyonis anonse koulè klere nan lari [[Le Havre|Havre]] ki te kouvri ak drapo, ke li te pentire nan konpayi [[Albert Marquet|Marquet]].

Nan ''Le Port du Havre'' (1906), lafimen ki soti nan bato yo tire nan ak carquois ak ondulasyon ki pral pita vin aksantu nan pwòp style Dufy a. Tach blan yo nan koule yo ak bato yo vini, ak kèk drapo franse, limen moute yon ansanbl ki toujou yon ti kras twò mat yo dwe vrèman sovaj.

Nan lòt men an, ''Roz toutouni nan yon fotèy vèt (Claudine de dos)'' (1906) se trè klèman [[Fauvism|Fauvist]] nan style. Palèt la pwòch ak ''Enteryè'' Matisse nan [[Collioure]] oswa ''[[La Raie verte (Matisse)|La Raie verte]]'' nan 1905. Remake piki segondè yo trete ak gwo, paralèl. kou, ki fè sonje Cézanne, byenke Dufy poko gen yon bon konesans sou travay pent sa a.

{{block quote|Nan ''Roz toutouni ak fotèy vèt oswa Claudine nan dèyè'' nan 1906, nan [[musee de l'Annonciade]] nan Saint-Tropez, Dufy, kote li se pwobableman sèlman toutouni nan peryòd sa a, konstwi plan senplifye nan lonbraj ak limyè sou kò a contorted nan modèl la ke li soumèt imajinasyon li nan fòm. Sa a gwo plak limyè ki kouvri do l ', ak jwèt la Limit nan janm yo plake ak okr wouj reponn a arabesk la klè nan bra a. Toutouni sa a se yon feat; sa desen pèdi nan sensualite, li genyen nan fòs ekspresyon kolore&lt;ref name=&quot;cabanne&quot;&gt;Pierre Cabanne, ''Libète Desen ak imajinasyon koulè'', Katalòg egzibisyon &quot;Raoul Dufy, yon lòt gade&quot; soti nan 2003. , mize Maillol nan Pari ak mize Fine Arts nan Nice.&lt;/ref&gt;.}}

=== Kibism Cezannian ===
[[Fichye:Dufy, Arbres à l'Estaque.jpg|vignette|''[[Trees at L'Estaque (Dufy)|Pye bwa nan L'Estaque]]'', [[1908]].]]
An 1907, Dufy te kapab admire penti [[Paul Cezanne]] pandan retrospektiv nan [[Salon d'Automne]]. Pou konprann Cézanne sou motif li te pentire yo, li te ale nan [[L'Estaque]] ak [[Georges Braque]], yon lòt rezidan Le Havre pa adopsyon, ki te ale nan menm lekòl minisipal bèl atizay ak '[[Othon Friesz]] ak Dufy.

Nan ''L'Estaque'' (1908), fòm yo, jis sijere pa liy ble nan distans la, sonje ''Montagne Sainte-Victoire'' nan travay matirite Cézanne a. Kay yo nan ''Village bò lanmè a'' (1908) yo redwi a jeyometri senp. Manyen yo se &quot;Cézanne&quot; (oblik epi aplike ak yon bwòs plat), ton yo ti kras kontraste. Dufy a ''Tree at l'Estaque'' (1908) te kapab siyen pa [[Georges Braque]] nan ''Maisons à l'Estaque'' (1908). Kare tankou moso [[Ròch|wòch]], kay Braque ak Dufy yo pa gen plis mineral pase syèl la, lanmè a oswa pye bwa yo. Menm jan ak Cezanne, sijè reyèl nan penti yo se volim ak pwofondè. Sepandan, Dufy byen vit chape nan lòt rechèch, pandan y ap Braque t'ap chache devlope ak itilize resous yo nan jeyometris nan motif.

{{block quote|''Arbres à l'Estaque'', ki nan [[mize Cantini]] nan Marseille, fè pati yon seri rechèch sou volim ki divize an plan jeyometrik sipèpoze ki ankadre pa kòf paralèl, pafwa enfleksyon nan ojiv ki balanse aranjman yo. Amoni nan okr ak vèt, barik yo gri ak branch nan pye bwa yo, se fè espre modere. Braque, ki te egzekite yon seri menm jan an ansanm ak li, tou kenbe jeyometri senp sa a ak osterize. Se estrikti entèn bagay sa yo ke tou de pouswiv, men Dufy pa pral kite tèt li fèmen nan chema Cézannian ke Braque pral eksplore&lt;ref name=&quot;cabanne&quot;/&gt;.}}

Raoul Dufy [[pap]] menm pwoche bò preske abstraksyon [[kibism]] sentetik. Li rete atache ak lizibilite nan penti li yo. Koulè li genyen nan klere ak divèsite. Li seposib ke Dufy te enfliyanse [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]] ki souvan te adopte lide lòt pent yo. ''The Bird Cage'' (1923) pa pent Panyòl la gen anpil resanblans ak ''The Bird Cage'' (1913-1914), jis jiska tit travay la ki diferan sèlman pa yon pliryèl. Men, pandan ke nan Picasso koulè a ​​ini ak liy lan, zòn plat yo nan Dufy enpoze tèt yo san okenn relasyon nesesè ak yon alisif, desen rudimentaire, nan {{citation|abreviyasyon grafik senp}}, ekri [[Pierre Cabanne]]&lt;ref name=&quot;kabin&quot;/&gt;.

=== Analiz ===
Travay Dufy gen ladann apeprè {{inite|3000 twal}}, {{inite|6000 gwo [[watercolor]]s}}, {{inite|6000 desen}}, woodcuts, [[litografi]] s, [[tapestry]]s, [[Textile art|twal]]…

1913 se ane enpòtan an e ''La grande baigneuse'' ak fòm masiv li yo se yon adieu [[kibism]]. Nan background nan nan kò masiv li a, trete kòm yon atikilasyon nan pati silendrik, manti yon jaden [[flè]] redwi a volim men ki gen anpil kay konstitye yon prefigurasyon nan opinyon yo nan [[Vence]].

Nan ''The Abandoned Garden'' (1913), estil pwòp Raoul Dufy a prèske etabli: koulè klere detèmine zòn relativman abitrè yo ajoute desen yo nan divès eleman yo.

Dufy reyalize ke, pou je a, koulè pa fè pati yon bagay endefektable: yo pa kalite ki pa ta egziste deyò nan yon sibstans. Yo gen pwòp lavi yo, objè debòde, ak sa a espesyalman nan eksperyans nan pèsepsyon nan mouvman. Pakonsekan sèvi ak sa [[Pierre Cabanne]] rele {{quote|flak dlo nan koulè jukstapoze}}. Disosyasyon ant koulè ak desen se pafwa trè bon jan, ak Dufy souvan enstale objè redwi a yon deskripsyon sou twa oswa kat gwo zòn ki gen koulè.

[[watercolor]], [[gouache]], ki te vin pi enpòtan apre 1930, te ofri l plis posiblite pou l kontinye eksperyans sa a. &quot;Fak [[dlo]]&quot; anba yo gaye sou papye ki te deja mouye epi lonje sou yon tablo desen. Lè yo sèk, li trase objè yo divès kalite nan modèl la ak yon bwòs amann. ''Le Bel Été'' (1940) se yon egzanp remakab. Teknik sa a mande anpil konfyans, akeri grasa pratik san rete [[desen]].

== Travay ==
  &lt;!-- lis ki pa konplè --&gt;
* 1904: ''[[Yat la ak drapo nan Le Havre]]'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|69|81|cm}}, [[André-Malraux Museum of Modern Art|MuMa - Art Museum modern André Malraux]] nan [[Le Havre|Havre]]
* 1905: ''Rido pyebwa nan Falaise'', lwil sou twal, 46,5 x 55,3 cm, [[Fondasyon Bemberg]] nan [[Toulouse]]
* 1905 ''Mache nan Marseille'', lwil sou twal, 60 x 73cm [[Petit Palais (Jenèv)]] [[Genèv]], [[Swis]]&lt;ref&gt;Marielle Latour ak Jean Boissieu, ''Marseille ak pent yo, edisyon Jeanne Laffitte, 1990, p.47.&lt;/ref&gt;
* 1906: ''[[Les Posteres à Trouville]]'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|65|81|cm}}, [[National Museum of Modern Art]] nan [[Pari]]
* 1906: ''[[La Rue pavoisée]]'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|81|65|cm}}, [[National Museum of Modern Art]] nan [[Pari]]
* 1907: ''Jeanne dans les fleurs'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|90.5|77.5|cm}}, [[Museum of modern art André-Malraux|MuMa - Musée d'art moderne André Malraux]] at [[Le Havre|Havre]]
* 1908: ''[[Pye bwa nan L'Estaque (Dufy)|Pye bwa nan L'Estaque]]'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|44.5|37|cm}}, [[Pari]], [[National Museum of Modern Art]]
* 1908: ''Bòt ke nan pò Marseille'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|73|60|cm}}, [[National Museum of Modern Art]], [[Pari]]&lt;ref name= &quot;retro&quot;&gt;Travay ekspoze nan retrospektiv Salon d'Automne 1973, paj 37 nan katalòg Salon&lt;/ref&gt;
* 1909, ''Pechè ak yon filè'', lwil oliv sou twal, {{dunity|219|66|cm}}, [[Pari]], [[mize nasyonal atizay modèn]]&lt;ref name = &quot;retro&quot; /&gt;
* 1911, ''Gran Benyen an''
* 1914, ''Bather''
* 1924, ''Chwal sirk'', aquarelle ak gouache sou papye vout, 53 x 72 cm, [[Bemberg Foundation]] nan [[Toulouse]]
* 1925, ''Baccarat''
* 1926, ''L'Estacade et la Plage du Havre'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|35.5|77.5|cm}}, [[Mize atis modèn André-Malraux|MuMa - Mize atizay modèn André Malraux ]] nan [[Le Havre|Havre]]
* 1926, ''Hotel Sube ([[Saint-Tropez]])'' - [[The Phillips Collection]] nan Washington
* 1926, ''Way la ak promenade [[Nice]]'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|38|46.5|cm}}, [[Mize Atizay modèn vil Pari|MAM]] , [[Pari, Frans
* 1926, ''Twa Maren yo'', [[Petit Palais (Geneva)|Petit Palais mize nan Jenèv]]
* 1928, ''Enteryè ak fenèt ouvè'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|66|82|cm}}
* 1928, ''Ceres nan lanmè'', aquarelle, {{dunity|52|65.5|cm}}
* 1928, ''Basin nan Deauville oswa Kago Blan'', lwil sou twal, {{dunity|38.5|46|cm}}.
* 1928, Deauville, ''Le champ de courses'', lwil sou twal, [[Musée de l'Annonciade|musee de L'Annonciade]], [[Saint-Tropez|St. Tropez]]

== Egzibisyon ak retrospektiv ==
[[File:Painted Bollard, Winchester 13.jpg|vignette|[[Bollard]] nan style ''Regates at [[Cowes]]'' ak ''Villerville'' nan vil la. [[Winchester (Winchester)|Winchester]].]]
* Atelye nan Vence ak toutouni oswa toutouni soti nan atelye a, 1945, [[Mize Fine Arts ak Akeyoloji Joseph-Déchelette]], Roanne
* Raoul Dufy, Kunsthaus Wien, 1996, [[Vyèn (Otrich)|Vyèn]]&lt;ref&gt;{{web link |language=de |title=Raoul Dufy |url=https://www.kunsthauswien.com/de/ ausstellungen/raoul-dufy/ |sit=kunsthauswien.com |konsilte sou=07-04-2023}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
*''Raoul Dufy - Le Plaisir'', [[mize atizay modèn nan vil Pari]], 2008, Paris
* ''Raoul ak Jean Dufy - Konplisite ak rupture'', [[Marmottan Monet museum]], 2011, Paris
* ''Dufy - The happiness of living'', [[Palais Lumière]], {{dat-|11 fevriye 2017}} - {{dat-|5 jen 2017}}, Évian
* ''Raoul Dufy in Le Havre'', [[André-Malraux modern art museum]], {{dat-|18 me 2019}} - {{dat-|3 novanm 2019}}, Le Havre
* ''Dufy's Paris'', [[musee de Montmartre]], {{date-|19 me 2021}} - {{dat-|2 janvye 2022}}, Paris
* ''Raoul Dufy, entoksikasyon koulè'', [[Hôtel de Caumont (Aix-en-Provence)|Hôtel de Caumont - Art Center]] (ki te òganize pa [[mize atis modèn nan Pari]] ak [[Culturespaces]]), {{dat-|06 me 2022}} - {{dat-|18 septanm 2022}}, Aix-en-Provence

== Mache Atizay ==
Penti Dufy Raoul yo ap chache apre pa pèseptè atravè mond lan. Pa egzanp, 5 fevriye 2007, yo te vann lwil sou twal ''La Foire aux onions'' (88 cm x 115 cm) nan [[Sotheby's]] nan [[London]] pou £4,052,000.&lt;ref name=&quot;artvalue-23-21920&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20190808100646/http://www.artvalue.com/default.aspxID=23&amp;ARTISTE_ID=21920&amp;force=true&amp;lang=FR&amp;cp_checked=0&amp;NB_COL=1&amp;PRICEDEV=1&amp;ORDRE=3&amp;cp_checked= Rezilta vann piblik yo].&lt;/ref&gt;, 5 me 2004, lwil sou twal ''Adresse à Sainte-'Fête '' soti nan 1906 (63.5&amp;nbsp;cm x 79.4&amp;nbsp;cm) te vann nan [[Sotheby's]] nan [[New York]] pou $3,144,000&lt;ref name=&quot;artvalue-23-21920&quot; /&gt; oswa nan 20 avril 2009, lwil la sou twal ''Senn peze'' (140&amp;nbsp;cm x 161&amp;nbsp;cm) pandan Koleksyon Gérard Oury nan [[Artcurial]] nan [[Pari]] pou yon sòm 570,570€ ak frè&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20241130090739/http://www.artvalue.com/default.aspx?ID=23&amp;ARTISTE_ID=21920&amp;force=true&amp;page=3&amp;lang=FR&amp;NB_COL=2&amp;PRICEDEV=1&amp;ORDRE=1&amp;cp_checked=0 Rezilta vann piblik].&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Referans}}

== Gade tou ==
{{Lòt pwojè|commons=Kategori:Raoul Dufy}}

=== Bibliyografi ===
* {{Liv|language=fr|author1=Diksyonè [[Bénézit]]|title=Diksyonè kritik ak dokimantè pent, skultur, konsèpteur ak graveur tout tan ak tout peyi|volim=4|editè=edisyon Gründ |ane= 1999|mwa=janvye|total paj=13440|pasaj=822-826|isbn=2-7000-3014-1}}.
* [[Raymond Cogniat]], ''Raoul Dufy'', Flammarion, Lugano, Itali, 1967.
* Maximilien Gauthier, ''Raoul Dufy (1877-1953)'', Paris, Flammarion, 1955.
* [[René-Jean]], ''Raoul Dufy'', koleksyon “Les artistes nouveau”, Paris, Crès, 1931.
* Sophie Krebs (dir.), ''Raoul Dufy, Le Plaisir'', katalòg ekspozisyon, Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris, Paris, Paris-Musées, 2008.
* [[Stéphane Laurent (istoryen)|Stéphane Laurent]], &quot;Fiat Lux: Raoul Dufy and [[Robert Mallet-Stevens]]'s Palais de la Lumière (Palais limyè)&quot;, nan ''West 86th: A Journal of Decorative Arts, Design History, and Material Culture'', 2018, {{p.|52-77}}
* [[Karin Müller]], ''100 krim kont atizay'', L'Écailler 2012. Yo rakonte zafè fo Dufy yo ([[Fernand Legros]]).
* Dora Perez-Tibi, ''Raoul Dufy'', Paris, Flammarion, 2008.
* {{Liv|otè1=Maximilien Gauthier|title=Raoul Dufy (1877-1953)|location=Paris|piblikatè=[[Flammarion Group|Flammarion]]|koleksyon=Gramè estil yo, Gwo atizay nan liv pòch| ane= 1966|total paj=66}}
* {{Liv|language=fr|author1=[[Jacques Lassaigne]]|tit=Enpresyonism, sous ak depase|subtitle=1850-1900|volume=14|editè=Skira|koleksyon=The Great History of painting|ane= 1974|total paj=96|isbn=|id=jl}}
== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Referans}}

== Gade tou ==
{{Lòt pwojè|commons=Kategori:Raoul Dufy}}

=== Bibliyografi ===
* {{Liv|language=fr|author1=Diksyonè [[Bénézit]]|title=Diksyonè kritik ak dokimantè pent, skultur, konsèpteur ak graveur tout tan ak tout peyi|volim=4|editè=edisyon Gründ |ane= 1999|mwa=janvye|total paj=13440|pasaj=822-826|isbn=2-7000-3014-1}}.
* [[Raymond Cogniat]], ''Raoul Dufy'', Flammarion, Lugano, Itali, 1967.
* Maximilien Gauthier, ''Raoul Dufy (1877-1953)'', Paris, Flammarion, 1955.
* [[René-Jean]], ''Raoul Dufy'', koleksyon “Les artistes nouveau”, Paris, Crès, 1931.
* Sophie Krebs (dir.), ''Raoul Dufy, Le Plaisir'', katalòg ekspozisyon, Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris, Paris, Paris-Musées, 2008.
* [[Stéphane Laurent (istoryen)|Stéphane Laurent]], &quot;Fiat Lux: Raoul Dufy and [[Robert Mallet-Stevens]]'s Palais de la Lumière (Palais limyè)&quot;, nan ''West 86th: A Journal of Decorative Arts, Design History, and Material Culture'', 2018, {{p.|52-77}}
* [[Karin Müller]], ''100 krim kont atizay'', L'Écailler 2012. Yo rakonte zafè fo Dufy yo ([[Fernand Legros]]).
* Dora Perez-Tibi, ''Raoul Dufy'', Paris, Flammarion, 2008.
* {{Liv|otè1=Maximilien Gauthier|title=Raoul Dufy (1877-1953)|location=Paris|piblikatè=[[Flammarion Group|Flammarion]]|koleksyon=Gramè estil yo, Gwo atizay nan liv pòch| ane= 1966|total paj=66}}
* {{Liv|language=fr|author1=[[Jacques Lassaigne]]|tit=Enpresyonism, sous ak depase|subtitle=1850-1900|volume=14|editè=Skira|koleksyon=The Great History of painting|ane= 1974|total paj=96|isbn=|id=jl}}

=== Atik ki gen rapò ===
* ''[[Gazette du bon ton]]''
* [[Modern Art Circle]]

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{koneksyon}}
* [https://catalogue-raisonne-raoul-dufy.fr/ Sit ofisyèl katalòg raisonné Raoul Dufy].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200313163932/http://www.raoul-dufy.com/ Raoul Dufy sit entènèt].
* [http://www.culture.gouv.fr/public/mistral/joconde_fr?ACTION=CHERCHER&amp;FIELD_2=AUTR&amp;VALUE_2=DUFY%20RAOUL Raoul Dufy] nan [http://www.culture.gouv.fr/ baz done Joconde] .
* [[wikibooks:Raoul Dufy|Travay Raoul Dufy]] (domèn piblik nan Kanada).
* [http://collection.centrepompidou.fr/#/artworks?layout=mosaic&amp;page=0&amp;filters=authors:DUFY+Raoul↹DUFY+Raoul Works by Raoul Dufy] nan [[mize nasyonal atizay modèn]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dufy, Raoul}}
[[Kategori:Raoul Dufy| ]]
[[Kategori:Pent franse nan 19yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori:Pent franse 20yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori:Pent franse fauv]]
[[Kategori:Pent franse kibis]]
[[Kategori:Pent peyizaj franse]]
[[Kategori:Pent maren franse]]
[[Kategori:Pòtre franse]]
[[Kategori:Pint toutouni]]
[[Kategori:Pent taurin]]
[[Kategori:Pent nan Ceret]]
[[Kategori:Pent Norman]]
[[Kategori:Pint Normandi]]
[[Kategori: Graveur franse 20yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori: Graveur Norman]]
[[Kategori: Kòmandan Legiyon Onè a te monte nan lane 1949]]
[[Kategori:Manm Komite Nasyonal Gravure Fransè]]
[[Kategori:Armory Show]]
[[Kategori:Elèv nan Lekòl Nasyonal Fine Arts nan 19yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori:Nesans an jen 1877]]
[[Kategori:Nesans nan Le Havre]]
[[Kategori:Nesans nan Seine-Inférieure]]
[[Kategori:Lamò nan mwa mas 1953]]
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[[Kategori:Lamò nan Forcalquier]]
[[Kategori:Lamò nan Basses-Alpes]]
[[Kategori:Psonalite antere nan Nice]]</text>
      <sha1>7fwl2qwvzmpug8unpl3zntzddg0dr0n</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Polly Apfelbaum</title>
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{{Gade omonim|Apfelbaum}}
{{Infobox atis
|charter = atis
|imaj=US artist Polly Apfelbaum, 2021. 01.jpg
|caption=Polly Apfelbaum nan 2021 nan Atelier Amden, Swis.
}}

'''Polly Apfelbaum''', ki fèt nan [[Abington Township (Montgomery County, Pennsylvania)|Abington]], nan [[Pennsylvania]], {{dat|4 jiyè 1955}}, se yon [[Artis vizyèl. atis]] [[Atis kontanporen|kontanporen]] [[Etazini|Ameriken]], prensipalman li te ye pou [[desen]], [[eskilti]]yo ak moso twal ki kolore li yo, ke li dekri kòm {{quote |penti ki tonbe}} oswa {{quote|eskilti ki tonbe}}. Li ap viv ak travay nan [[New York]].

Nan travay li yo, li chèche twouble fwontyè ki genyen ant atizay enstalasyon, penti, eskilti , ant [[Minimalism (atis)|minimalis]], [[ekspresyonism abstrè]] ak [[art pòp]], anfòm nan diferan kontèks politik ak eritaj lagè atizay daprè Ameriken.

== Biyografi ==

Polly Apfelbaum te fèt nan dat {{dat-|4 jiyè 1955}} nan [[Abington Township (Montgomery County, Pennsylvania)|Abington]], nan [[Montgomery County (Pennsylvania)|Montgomery County]] nan [[Pennsilvani]]&lt;ref name=&quot;nmwa&quot;&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://nmwa.org/art/artists/polly-apfelbaum/|title=Polly Apfelbaum|site=[[National Museum of Women nan Atizay]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

An 1978, li te jwenn yon [[Bachelor of Fine Arts|diplòm lekòl segondè nan Fine Arts]] nan {{Lien|Tyler School of Art and Architecture}} nan {{Lien|langue=en|trad=Elkins Park, Pennsylvania. |fr=Elkins Park (Pennsylvania)|texte=Elkins Park}}, nan Pennsylvania&lt;ref name=&quot;nmwa&quot;/&gt;. Apfelbaum te resevwa fòmasyon tou nan {{Link|langue=en|trad=State University of New York at Purchase|fr=State University of New York at Purchase}}&lt;ref name=&quot;nmwa&quot;/&gt;{{ ,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;storeIII&quot;/&gt;.

Li te viv ak travay nan New York ( Nouyòk ) depi li gradye e li te montre regilyèman travay li nan Etazini ak aletranje depi premye egzibisyon solo li an 1986&lt;ref name=&quot;nmwa&quot;/&gt;.

Apfelbaum te vin konnen nan lane 1990 yo, patikilyèman pou sa atis la rele penti tonbe li yo&lt;ref name=&quot;nmwa&quot;/&gt;. [[Enstalasyon (atiza)|enstalasyon gwo echèl sa yo]] konpoze de plizyè santèn moso twal velours koupe ak kolore ak men yo ki ranje sou planche a. Yo egziste kòm yon ibrid ant penti ak eskilti epi okipe yon espas Limit ant de estil yo. Lane Relyea di ke travay Apfelbaum se yon pati penti ak eskilti, e petèt tou fotografi, mòd, ak pwosesis materyèl san fòm. travay se tou de penti ak eskilti, e petèt fotografi ak mòd ak pwosesis materyèl san fòm tou{{sfn|Relyea|2003| p=35}}.}}|group=alpha}}}}.

An 2003, yo te inogire yon gwo premye retrospektiv travay Apfelbaum nan [[Institute of Contemporary Art (Philadelphia)|Institute of Contemporary Art nan Philadelphia]]&lt;ref name=&quot;icaphila&quot;&gt;{{Web link| language=en|url =https://web.archive.org/web/20170920215115/http://icaphila.org/exhibitions/1781/polly-apfelbaum|title=Polly Apfelbaum|site=[[Institute of Contemporary Art (Philadelphia)|Enstiti pou Art contemporain Philadelphia]]|date=2003|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Egzibisyon an te vwayaje jiska 2004 nan [[Rosenthal Contemporary Art Center]] nan [[Cincinnati]] ak nan {{Link|Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art}} nan [[Kansas City (Missouri)|Kansas City]]. Pou make egzibisyon an, yon katalòg ki kouvri 15 ane nan travay atis la te pibliye pa Institute of Contemporary Art nan Philadelphia.

Polly Apfelbaum eseye lòt mwayen tou, tankou engraving, sitou pwodui [[litografi]] koulè nan [[Tamarind Institute]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https ://www.clevelandart.org/art/2012.466|title=Avi sou travay ''Rainbow Love Mountain Ranch, New Mexico'' (2007)|sit=[[Cleveland Museum of Art]]|accessed on=2022 -10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; oswa [[Engraving Wood|gravure bwa]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://www.clevelandart.org/art/ 2020.273|title=Avi sou travay ''Atomic Mystic Cosmic 16'' (2017)|sit=[[Cleveland Museum of Art]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;{{, }}&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|langue= en|url=https://www.durhampress.com/artists/56-polly-apfelbaum/works/6-heart-and-soul/21141-polly-apfelbaum- heart-and-soul-2020/|title=Notice nan seri ''Kè ak nanm'' (2020)|site=durhampress.com|accessed on=2022-10-17}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

An 2018, Apfelbaum se te youn nan atis [[Christian Dior (konpayi)|Christian Dior]] te chwazi pou l ofri yon konsepsyon altènatif ak youn nan pwodwi prensipal li yo, valiz [[Lady Dior]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|langue=fr-FR |title=Dior Lady Art: 11 atis pral revize sak Lady Dior la |url=https://www.luxe-infinity.com/tendances-mode/dior-lady-art-iconique-lady-dior-bag/ |sit=Luxe Infini |date=2018-11-28 |accessed on=2022-09-12}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Prim ak rekonesans ==
An 1998, Polly Apfelbaum te resevwa [[Anonymous Was A Woman prize]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien web|language=en|url=https://www.anonymouswasawoman.org/previous-recipients|title=Previous recipients|sit =[[Anonymous Was A Woman Price]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/reF&gt;. An 2002, li te resevwa yon ''{{Lang|en|Academy Award}}'' nan [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://artsandletters.org/?s=Polly+Apfelbaum|title=Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[American Academy of Arts and Letters]]|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/reF&gt;. Nan ane 2012-2013, li te resevwa [[American Rome Prize|Joseph H. Hazen Rome Prize]], yon rekonpans yo bay yon gwoup seleksyone moun ki reprezante pi wo nivo ekselans nan boza ak syans imen&lt;ref&gt; {{Lien web|language=en|url=https://www.aarome.org/people/rome-prize-fellows/polly-apfelbaum|title=Polly Apfelbaum|site=[[Prix de Rome American]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Li te resevwa tou yon bous Joan Mitchell, yon bous Richard Diebenkorn, yon [[Guggenheim Fellowship]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://www.gf.org/fellows/all-fellows /polly-e-apfelbaum/|title=Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[John Simon Guggenheim Foundation]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/reF&gt;, yon sibvansyon [[atis]]&lt;nowiki&gt; ki soti nan { {Link|New York Foundation for the Arts}} ak yon sibvansyon nan men &lt;/nowiki&gt;{{Link|Pollock-Krasner Foundation}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien web|language=en|url=https://www.pkf-imagecollection. org/artist/ Polly_Apfelbaum/?list_url=%2Fartists%3Fsort%3DAE%26page%3D1%26letter%3DA|title=Polly Apfelbaum, nan lis atis k ap resevwa sibvansyon an|sit={{Link|Pollock-Krasner Foundation} }|accessed on= 2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ReF&gt;.

== Travay ==
Polly Apfelbaum te kòmanse karyè li nan ane 1980 yo lè li te kreye ti [[eskilti an bwa|eskilti an bwa]]&lt;ref name=&quot;frac&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;henryart&quot;/&gt;. Pandan l ap chèche konbine eskilti ak travay ki genyen de dimansyon, atis tankou [[Helen Frankenthaler]], [[Morris Louis]] ak [[Jackson Pollock]]&lt;ref name=&quot;nmwa &quot;/&gt; enfliyanse li.

Li te vin konnen deseni ki vin apre a ak &quot;travay sou tè a&quot; li yo; Apfelbaum ta refere yo pale de &quot;eskilti afesman&quot;), [[enstalasyon (atizay)|enstalasyon]] ki melanje penti ak eskilti ak sijè ki adopte {{quote| fòm ki tou de jewometrik ak òganik, oswa totalman endefini ak motif floral abstrè }}&lt;ref name=&quot;frac&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;frithstreetgallery&quot;/&gt;. Li sèvi ak plizyè kalite twal (velours, payèt, elatriye), [[seramik]], ajil modèl ak desen epi li chwazi [[koulè]] trè klere pou konpozisyon li yo&lt;ref name=&quot;frac&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;frithstreetgallery&quot;&gt;{{Lyen Web|language=en|url=https://www.frithstreetgallery.com/artists/7-polly-apfelbaum/|title=Polly Apfelbaum|site=Frith Street Gallery| aksè nan= 2022-10-17}}.&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;icaphila&quot;/&gt;. Travay sa yo souvan ranje sou tè a, pwolonje byen lajman epi adapte yo ak plas kote yo ekspoze. {{Quote|Fòm jeneral Apfelbaum yo konpoze de kouch twal kolore konplèks, prèske psikedelik, tankou si yon myriad de pi piti penti te akimile oswa grandi nan yon gwoup santral fòm ak koulè &lt;ref name=&quot;icaphila&quot;/&gt;.}}

Atis la transfòme tèm ak koulè eleman nan [[kilti mas]] (televizyon, piblisite, objè konsomatè) an {{quote|espèk sovaj ak osile sou wout òganik la}}&lt;ref name=&quot;icaphila&quot;/&gt; . {{Sitasyon|Travay Apfelbaum mande pou odyans lan reflechi sou ak eksperyans plezi eksperyans ayestetik&lt;ref name=&quot;icaphila&quot;/&gt;.}} Sèvi ak objè ak materyèl ki anjeneral yo jwenn nan domèn domestik la, Apfelbaum {{citation|Apfelbaum sipoze yon pozisyon politik ak [[Feminis|feminis]], ki defi yerachi nan pratik kiltirèl}}&lt;ref name=&quot;frithstreetgallery&quot;/&gt;.

Li konsa flou fwontyè ki genyen ant atizay enstalasyon, penti, eskilti; ant [[Minimalis (atis)|minimalis]], [[ekspresyonis abstrè]] ak [[za pòp]], anfòm nan diferan kontèks politik ak eritaj lagè atizay apre Ameriken&lt;ref name=&quot;icaphila&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;frithstreetgallery&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;schwarzwaelder&quot;&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=http: //archive.schwarzwaelder.at/artist/polly_apfelbaum |title=Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Galerie nächst St. Stephan]]|accessed on=2022-10-17}}.&lt;/reF&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jsonline&quot;/&gt;.

=== Ekspozisyon remakab ===
[[File:Otis apfelbaum-3.jpg|vignette|''Fas (Jeyometri) Toutouni (Je)'', enstalasyon nan [[Otis College of Art and Design]] (2016).]]
[[File:The Potential of Women (detail).jpg|vignette|''The Potential of Women'', enstalasyon nan Alexander Gray Associates (2017).]]
Polly Apfelbaum te ekspoze anpil depi ane 1980 yo, ki gen ladann egzibisyon solo nan: Burlington City Arts Center (2014)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://www.sevendaysvt.com/vermont/art-review -polly-apfelbaum-bca-center/Content?oid=2356033|title=Art Review: Polly Apfelbaum, BCA Center|author=Pamela Polston|date=2014-04-23|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ; Chanm Lumber (Portland, 2014)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien web|language=en|url=https://www.oregonlive.com/art/2014/04/review_polly_apfelbaums_color.html|title=Polly Apfelbaum's 'Color Stations Portland' nan Lumber Room|author=John Motley|date=2014-04-07|site=The Oregonian|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/reF&gt; ; [[Worcester Art Museum]] (Worcester, 2014)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/2014/12/11/apfelbaum-works-shimmer- with-allusion-worcester/kHVgd8m5JVG0dmGG8YLbsM/story.html|title=Travay Apfelbaum yo briye ak alizyon nan Worcester|otè=Cate McQuaid|date=2014-12-11|sit=[[The Boston Globe]]|accessed=1022- -16}}.&lt;/reF&gt; ; Clifton Benevento (2014)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien web|language=en|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/25/arts/design/polly-apfelbaum-a-handweavers-pattern-book .html|author=Karen Rosenberg|date=2014-07-24|title=Polly Apfelbaum: 'A Handweaver's Pattern Book'|sit=[[New York Times]]|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;; Bepart, [[Waregem]] ([[Bèljik]], 2015)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien web|langue=nl|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922002457/https://www.west-vlaanderen.be/nieuws/Paginas/20150319_deeppurple_0280.aspx|title=Tentoonstellingen 'Deep Purple, Red Shoes' van Polly Apfelbaum en 'Surface Secluded Objects' van Kato Six in Be-Part (Waregem)|date=2015-03-19|site west-vlaanderen.be|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ; 56 Henry (2016)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://www.artforum.com/picks/polly-apfelbaum-56852|title=Polly Apfelbaum - 56 Henry|site=artforum.com |accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/reF&gt; ; [[Otis College of Art and Design]] (Los Angeles, 2016)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/la-et-cm- apfelbaum-otis-review-20161012-snap-htmlstory.html|otè= Christopher Knight|dat=15 oktòb 2016|tit=Pinti ki tonbe ak pèl devosyon Polly Apfelbaum nan chapèl eksklizyon atizay abstrè li|sit=[[Los Angeles Times ]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ; chapèl Saint-Jean ([[Le Sourn]]), nan kad {{26th|edisyon}} Art in the Chapels (2017)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=fr|url= https:/ /www.artpress.com/2017/07/26/lart-dans-les-chapelles-26e-edition/|title=Atis nan chapèl yo - {{26th|edisyon}}|site=[[ Art Press]]| jwenn aksè nan=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ; Alexander Grey Associates (2017)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://www.newyorker.com/goings-on-about-town/art/polly-apfelbaum-10|title=Polly Apfelbaum |sit=[[The New Yorker]]|yo jwenn aksè nan=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/reF&gt;.

Li patisipe tou nan ekspozisyon de moun, sitou: &quot;''Studiowork''&quot; ak {{Lien|Nicole Cherubini}} (2010)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://www. nytimes.com/2010/07/16/arts/design/16galleries-002.html|author=Karen Rosenberg|date=2010-07-16|title=Polly Apfelbaum, Nicole Cherubini, Mark di Suvero|sit=[[ The New York Times]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ; &quot;''Karma Funk Factory''&quot; ak Steven Westfall (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;jsonline&quot;&gt;{{Lien web|language=en|url=https://archive.jsonline.com/entertainment/arts/apfelbaum- and-westfall-unpack-abstraction-at-the-suburban-b99633891z1-361806061.html|title=Apfelbaum ak Westfall depake abstraksyon nan The Suburban|author=Shane Mcadams|date=2015-12-14|accessed on=2022-10 -16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ; &quot;''The Sound of Ceramics''&quot; ak Wang Lu{{Remak|{{Link|langue=d|trad=Q84355035|fr=Wang Lu}} (1982-) se yon konpozitè Chinwa-Ameriken.|group=alpha }} (2016)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://www.browndailyherald.com/article/2016/09/new-exhibit-in-granoff-experiments-with-shape-sound |title=Nouvo ekspozisyon nan eksperyans Granoff ak fòm, son|site=browndailyherald.com|date=2016|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ; &quot;''Erasing Tracing Racing Paint''&quot; ak {{Link|Dona Nelson}} (2016)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|langue=en|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/la-et-cm-polly-apfelbaum-dona-nelson-artists-20160315-story.html|title=Abstraksyon renegat Polly Apfelbaum ak Dona Nelson fè yon demonstrasyon atizay gwan distribisyon|otè=David Pagel|sit=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=2016-03-18|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Travay li te prezante nan plizyè ekspozisyon gwoup nan enstitisyon mize yo, tankou: &quot;''Sense and Sensibility: Women and Minimalism in the 90s''&quot; (1994)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url= https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/427|title=Sans ak sansiblite: Fanm Atis ak Minimalism inan Nineties|sit=[[Mizeum of Modern Art]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, “''Comic Abstraction''” (2007)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt| language=en|url=https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/13|title=Comic Abstraction: Image-Breaking, Image-Making|site=[[Mizeum of Modern Art]]|accessed on=2022 -10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ak &quot;''Lines, Grids, Stains and Words''&quot; (2007)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien web|language=en|url=https://www.moma. org/calendar/exhibitions/42|title=Liny, Grids, Stains, Words|sit=[[Mizeum of Modern Art]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; nan [[Mizeum of Art Modèn] Atizay]] (New York); “''The Night''”, [[San Francisco Art Institute]] (San Francisco); &quot;''Reckless''&quot;, [[Kiasma]] (Helsinki); &quot;''Po ak zo'',&quot; [[Bowdoin College]] (Brunswick); &quot;''Kisa lanmou gen pou wè ak li''&quot;, [[Massachusetts College of Art and Design]] ([[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]){{sfn|Relyea|2003}}; “''Crazy Love, Love Crazy''”, {{Link|Mize Art kontanporen St. Louis}} (Saint Louis); “''Operativo''”, [[Tamayo Contemporary Art Museum]], [[Meksik]], 2001); “''Konsènan Warhol: Sixty Artists, Fifty Years'', [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York, 2012); “''AMERICANA: Formalizing Craft''”, [[Pérez Art Museum Miami]], [[Miyami|Miami]], 2013); “''Pathmakers: Women in Art, Craft and Design, Midcentury and Today'', [[Mize Atizay ak Design]], New York, 2015); “''Pretty Raw: After and Around Helen Frankenthaler'', [[Rose Art Museum]], Waltham, 2015); &quot;''Three Graces''&quot;, [[Everson Museum of Art]], Syracuse, 2015)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://everson.org/news/new-exhibition- pote-travay-de-renowned-contemporary-artists-to-syracuse/|title=Nouvo Egzibisyon pote travay atis kontanporen renome nan Syracuse|date=2021-08-26|site=[[Everson Museum of Art]]|accessed le=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt; ; “''An Irruption of the Rainbow''” ([[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]], Los Angeles, 2016); “''Wall to Wall''” ({{Link|Mize Atizay Kontanporen Cleveland}}, Cleveland, 2016); “''Je moun ki gade a''”, {{Link|Dundee Contemporary Arts}} (Dundee); “''Kòm Penti: Divizyon ak Deplasman,'' [[Wexner Center for the Arts]] (Columbus); “''Flè Obsève, Flè Transfòme,'' [[Mize Andy Warhol]] (Pittsburgh); “''Ekstrèm Abstraksyon''”, [[Albright-Knox Art Gallery]] (Buffalo).

Polly Apfelbaum te envite tou nan biennal yo, sitou {{4th|[[Biennale d'art contemporain de Lyon]]}} an 1997 ak 11yem |[[Biennale de Sydney]] nan ane ki vin apre.

=== Konsèvasyon ===
{{Kolòn|gwosè=30|
* ETAZINI
** {{Link|Bowdoin College Museum of Art}}, [[Brunswick (Maine)|Brunswick]] ([[silkscreen]]s)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https:// artmuseum.bowdoin.edu/artist-maker/info/3102|title=Travay Polly Apfelbaum|sit={{Link|Bowdoin College Museum of Art}}|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Brooklyn Museum]], [[New York]] ([[enstalasyon (atizay)|enstalasyon]])&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://www.brooklynmuseum.org /opencollection/artists/8828/objects|title=Works by Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Brooklyn Museum]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Carnegie Museum of Art]], [[Pittsburgh]] (silkscreens ak yon enstalasyon)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://collection.cmoa.org/?creator=Polly %20Apfelbaum&amp;page=1&amp;perPage=10|title=Works of Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Carnegie Museum of Art]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Cleveland Museum of Art]], [[Cleveland]] ([[print]]s)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://www.clevelandart.org/art/ collection/search?filter-artist=Polly%20Apfelbaum|title=Travay Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Cleveland Museum of Art]]|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Dallas Museum of Art]], [[Dallas]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://collections.dma.org/search?facet_artist_creator=polly %2Bapfelbaum |title=Travay Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Dallas Museum of Art]]|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Des Moines Art Center]], [[Des Moines (Iowa)|Des Moines]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://emuseum.desmoinesartcenter.org/ objects/43367/a-girls-life-in-a-box-through-my-hands-velvet-shadow?ctx=d0b6a5a2166fb40aad1d884e31535628395ab781&amp;idx=0|title=Works by Polly Apfelbaum Center]]|Des Moines| jwenn aksè nan=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

** [[Henry Art Gallery]], [[Seattle]] (penti, enstalasyon, eskilti)&lt;ref name=&quot;henryart&quot;&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://collections.henryart.org /results.php?term=Apfelbaum,%20Polly&amp;module=objects&amp;type=keyword|title=Works by Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Henry Art Gallery]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Iris &amp; B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts]], [[Stanford (California)|Stanford]] (prints)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen Web|language=en|url=http://cantorcollection. stanford.edu/objects-1/info?query=mfs%20all%20%22apfelbaum%22&amp;sort=0|title=Works by Polly Apfelbaum|site=[[Iris &amp; B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts]]|aksede sou =2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Museum of Modern Art]], [[New York]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://www.moma.org/artists/8328|title= Travay Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Mize atizay modèn]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[National Museum of Women in the Arts]], [[Washington DC]] (litografi)&lt;ref name=&quot;nmwa&quot;/&gt;
** [[New Mexico Museum of Art]], [[Santa Fe (New Mexico)|Santa Fe]] (litografi)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://sam.nmartmuseum . org/people/4309/polly-apfelbaum|title=Works of Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[New Mexico Museum of Art]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts]], [[Philadelphia]] (litografi)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://www.pafa.org/museum/collection-artist /polly-apfelbaum|title=Travay Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts]]|aksede sou=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Princeton University Art Museum]], [[Princeton (New Jersey)|Princeton]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://artmuseum .princeton.edu/collections /makers/14698|title=Travay Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Princeton University Museum of Art]]|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Rhode Island School of Design Museum]], [[Providence (Rhode Island)|Providence]] (gravure sou bwa)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://risdmuseum.org/art -design/collection?search_api_fulltext=Polly%20Apfelbaum|title=Travay pa Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Rhode Island School of Design Museum]]|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Speed ​​​​Art Museum]], [[Louisville (Kentucky)|Louisville]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://www.speedmuseum.org/collections/wallflowers -mixed-emotions/|title=Avi sou travay ''Wallflowers (Mixed Emotions'' (1990)|sit=[[Speed ​​​​​Art Museum]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Whitney Museum of American Art]], [[New York]] (silkscreen ak enstalasyon)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https://whitney.org/artists/5128|title =Travay pa Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Whitney Museum of American Art]]|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Worcester Art Museum]], [[Worcester (Massachusetts)|Worcester]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://worcester.emuseum.com/people/8806 /polly-apfelbaum|title=Travay pa Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[Worcester Art Museum]]|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Otrich
** [[Galerie nächst St. Stephan]], [[Vienne (Otrich)|Vyèn]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref name=&quot;schwarzwaelder&quot;/&gt;

* Lafrans
** [[Grand-Large-Hauts-de-France Regional Contemporary Art Fund]], [[Dunkirk]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref name=&quot;frac&quot;&gt;{{Web link|language=fr|url=https ://www.navigart.fr/fracgrandlarge/artwork/430000000000915?layout=grid&amp;page=1&amp;filters=query%3Aapfelbaum&amp;note=7953|title=Avi sou travay ''Single Gun Theory'' (2001) ak ekstrè soti nan nòt biyografik la | navigart.fr/fracgrandlarge|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/reF&gt;

* Izrayèl
** [[Mize Izrayèl la]], [[Jerizalèm]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen web|langue=fr|url=https://www.imj.org.il/en/artistec/polly -apfelbaum |title=Travay Polly Apfelbaum|sit=[[mize Izrayèl la]]|accessed=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

* Syèd
** {{Link|Magasin III}}, [[Stockholm]] (enstalasyon)&lt;ref name=&quot;magasinIII&quot;&gt;{{Lien web|language=en|url=https://www.magasin3.com/en/ artist/polly-apfelbaum-2/|title=Polly Apfelbaum|sit={{Link|Magazen III}}|accessed on=2022-10-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Nòt ak referans ==
=== Nòt ===
{{Referans|group=alpha}}
=== Referans ===
{{Referans}}

== Apendis ==
=== Bibliyografi ===
* {{liv|language=en|name1=Relyea|firstname1=Lane|title=Polly Apfelbaum: kisa lanmou gen pou wè ak li|publisher=Massachusetts College of Art|location=Boston|year=2003|isbn=9780970835765| li sou entènèt=}}.

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{Lòt pwojè
|commons=Kategori:Polly Apfelbaum}}
{{Koneksyon}}
* {{Web link|langue=en|url=https://www.frithstreetgallery.com/usr/library/documents/main/artists/7/apfelbaum-cv.pdf|title=CV Polly Apfelbaum ki gen ladann yon bibliyografi vaste ak atik ak katalòg egzibisyon|sit=Frith Street Gallery|accessed on=2022-10-17}}.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Apfelbaum, Polly}}
[[Kategori:Nesans nan Abington, Pennsylvania]]
[[Kategori:Nesans an Jiyè 1955]]
[[Kategori:Atis vizyèl Ameriken]]
[[Kategori:Atis enstalasyon Ameriken]]
[[Kategori:20yèm syèk pent Ameriken]]
[[Kategori:Pint Ameriken nan 21yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori:Ameriken pent]]
[[Kategori:Skultur Ameriken 20yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori:Skultur Ameriken]]
[[Kategori:Engraveur Ameriken 21yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori:Engraveur bwa]]
[[Kategori:Litograf Ameriken 21yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori:Sekri]]
[[Kategori:Atis feminis]]
[[Kategori:American Rome Prize in Visual Arts]]
[[Kategori:Anonim se te yon fanm prim]]
[[Kategori:Manm Akademi Ameriken pou Arts ak Syans]]
[[Kategori:Etidyan Inivèsite Tanp lan]]</text>
      <sha1>gofu33mtvnizcvjo8rzrfp70p4is478</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Miriam Cahn</title>
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      <text bytes="13629" sha1="ft359xw2wpp089klg8fapeivq1e7i8p" xml:space="preserve">{{Gade omonim|Cahn}}
{{Infobox atis}}
'''Miriam Cahn''', ki fèt {{dat nesans|21 jiyè 1949}} nan [[Basel]], se yon [[Pent|pent]], [[tiwa]], [[fotografi|fotograf]] , [[performer]] ak [[eskiltè]] [[Swis]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|title = Miriam Cahn |url = http://www.paris-art.com/createur/cahn-miriam/1042.html|site = paris-art.com|accessed on = 2015-12-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Biyografi ==
=== Fanmi ===
Miriam Cahn te fèt an 1949 nan Basel. Papa l ', {{Link|langue=de|trad=Herbert A. Cahn|fr=Herbert Adolf Cahn}}, se yon [[Akeyoloji|akeyològ]] ak [[Numismatics|numismatis]] [[Alman|Alman]] ki soti nan yon fanmi [[Jwif ak Jidayis an Ewòp|Jwif]] ki soti nan [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]].

Fanmi an te emigre nan Swis an 1933. An 1953, li te rete nan [[Wòm]].

Ti sè Miriam Cahn komèt swisid a laj 20 an&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|language=of|premye1=Max|ti non1=Glauner|title=Unbedingt, absolut, frei|periodical=[[Republik]]| dat= 2019-03-15|li sou entènèt=https://www.republik.ch/2019/03/15/unbedingt-absolut-frei|accessed on=2023-03-05}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Etid ===
Soti nan 1968 rive 1973, Miriam Cahn te etidye nan [[Basel Design School]] anba [[Armin Hofmann]] nan seksyon grafik&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |langu=pa |otè=Kunstmuseum Bern |tit=Biografi Miriam Cahn. |url=https://www.kunstmuseumbern.ch/admin/data/hosts/kmb/files/page_editorial_paragraph_file/file/1478/20190220_miriam-cahn_biografie.pdf |format=pdf |dat=20 fevriye 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; . Pandan peryòd sa a, li te patisipe nan mouvman [[Feminis|feminis]] ak [[Ekolojis|ekolojis]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. {{refnec|Lè li te ale, li te rejte fòm sa a nan metriz nan atizay epi li te retounen nan desen: {{cita|Mwen te manke ijans la, ekzistansyalite a, emosyonèl la te dechouke pa konesans.}}}}

=== Vwayaj atistik ===
[[Fichye:Miriam Cahn - o.T. 10.05.2012 (2012).jpg|vignette|Miriam Cahn, ''o.T. 10.05.2012'' (2012), pastel sou papye, [[Warsaw]], {{Link|fr=Mize Atizay modèn, Warsaw|lang=en|trad=Mize Atizay modèn, Varsovie|texte=museum of ' Atizay modèn}}.]]
[[File:Miriam Cahn, Brutalitätenskulptur, 2007-2008.jpg|vignette|Miriam Cahn, ''Brutalitätenskulptur'' (2007-2008), Schönthal, {{link|lang=en|fr=Sculpture at Schoenthal}}.]]
{{sitasyon blok|Apre klas konsepsyon grafik, mwen te fè yon plan senk ane, sa vle di mwen te bay tèt mwen senk ane pou wè si atizay se te vrèman chemen mwen. Papa m 'te ban m' lajan epi mwen te fè sèman nan tèt mwen ke mwen pral kapab fè yon viv ak atizay mwen nan fen peryòd sa a. Mwen te gade ki jan galeri yo te travay, pami lòt moun nan Fwa Art la. Mwen te bay yon liv desen nan galri Stampa a. Lè sa a, an 1976, mwen te gen premye egzibisyon mwen la. Se te kòmansman an.|Miriam Cahn, ''Zeichnen/drawing/dessiner''&lt;ref&gt;Miriam Cahn, ''Zeichnen/drawing/dessiner'', [[Freiburg im Breisgau]], Modo, 2014, {{ p. |126}} {{ISBN|978-3-86833-155-4}}.&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Miriam Cahn kòmanse lè l sèvi avèk [[chabon]] ak [[lakre]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Atik|lang = franse|otè1 = Marie-Cécile Burnichon|tit = Miriam Cahn|periodical = [[artpress ]]|nimewo = 354|jou = |mwa = Mas|ane = 2009|issn = |li sou entènèt = http://www.galeriewolff.com/medias/pdfs/mc_artpress_2009.pdf|paj = 93-94 }}. &lt;/ref&gt;. Li sitou fè desen chabon, sou yon gwo echèl sou papye epi pafwa sou mi yo, andedan kay la nan espas egzibisyon men tou deyò nan espas piblik ke li okipe espontaneman ak san otorizasyon alavans. Travay li devlope tou alantou [[eskilti]], pèfòmans, son ak [[fotografi]].

Li te reprezante Swis nan [[Bienal Venice]] an 1984&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|language=fr|title=Labirent emosyonèl Miriam Cahn|periodical=[[Le Temps (Swis)|Le Temps]]| dat= 2014-09-15|issn=1423-3967|li sou entènèt=https://www.letemps.ch/culture/labyrinthe-emotionnel-miriam-cahn|accessed on=2023-03-05}}.&lt;/ref&gt; .

Travay li te fè eksperyans yon repo fòmèl nan fen ane 1980 yo: li te kòmanse sèvi ak [[koulè]] epi anplis desen, piti piti te kòmanse pratike penti&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Atik|language = English| otè1 = Peter Burri|tit = Miriam Cahn nan yon entèvyou ak Peter Burri|periodical = Art, dirèkteman|nimewo = |jou = |mwa = Out|ane = 2001|issn = |li sou entènèt = http:// www.galeriewolff. com/medias/pdfs/mc_interviewpeterburri_2001.pdf|paj =}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, yo pa kapab travay sou tè a ankò&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;/&gt;. Li kòmanse fwote pigman koulè sou papye&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;/&gt;, epi li sèvi ak [[penti lwil oliv]] ki soti nan ane 1990 yo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0 &quot;/&gt;. Travay penti lwil oliv koulè sa a se jodi a anblèm nan pratik li {{Refnec|date=5 Mas 2023}}.

An 2017, egzibisyon nan [[Pari]] {{&quot;|Devoir-aimer}}, prezante silwèt, haggard, hydrocephalus, tou de kolosal ak manyen. Miriam Cahn trete sijè sosyal ak politik: konfli ame, popilasyon vilnerab, refijye. Pou sa, elli vin yon sèl ak sijè li yo mete kò yo reprezante nan tès la&lt;ref&gt;{{Article|language=fr|author1=Judicaël Lavrador|title=Nanm vilnerab Miriam Cahn|periodic=Libération|date=12 jen 2017|issn = |li sou entènèt=http://next.liberation.fr/arts/2017/06/11/les-ames-vulnerables-de-miriam-cahn_1576022|accessed on=2017-07-15|paj=}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Depi ane 1990 yo, travay li te de pli zan pli fè referans ak gwo konfli nan mond lan ([[Lagè Yougoslavi]], [[Gè Gòlf la]], [[atak 11 septanm 2001]], [[ Prentan Arab ]], [[Lagè nan Ikrèn (2022)|lagè nan Ikrèn]])&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Atik|language=fr|author1=Eric Tariant|title=Nan Palais de Tokyo fè rezon an kòlè. &quot;kriye&quot; Miriam Cahn|periodical=[[Le Temps (Swis)|Le Temps]]|date=2023-02-28|issn=1423-3967|li sou entènèt=https://www.letemps.ch/culture /arts/palais-tokyo-resonnent-cris-colere-miriam-cahn|accessed on=2023-03-05|access url=paying}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== 2023 konfli nan Pari ===
Miriam Cahn se sijè a nan konfli nan 2023 sou tablo li ''Fuck Abstraction'' ekspoze nan [[Palais de Tokyo]] nan Pari, ki reprezante yon figi imen mare ak fòse fè sèks oral sou yon lòt figi ki pi gwo. ref&gt;[https://www.20minutes.fr/paris/4035966-20230508-paris-table-accuse-pedopornographie-vandalise-macron-denonce-reach-valeurs Paris: Yon tablo akize de &quot;pedopornography&quot; vandalize , Macron denonse yon atak &quot;sou valè nou yo&quot;], 20 minit, 8 me 2023&lt;/ref&gt;. Travay la te kritike sou [[Rezo Sosyal (entènèt)|rezo sosyal]], apre kòmantè [[Karl Zéro]] ak [[Caroline Parmentier]], manm [[Rasanbleman Nasyonal]], ki akize li kòmkwa li te ankouraje [[pedokriminalite]]. Sepandan, atis la eksplike ke tablo a fè referans ak [[masak Boutcha]], an [[Ikrèn]]: {{&quot;|Men se yon moun ki gen men mare, vyole anvan yo touye epi jete nan lari. Repetisyon imaj vyolans. nan lagè pa gen entansyon choke, men denonse}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|langue=fr|author1=Claire Moulène|title= Yon depite RN vle sansi yon tablo atis Miriam Cahn nan Palais de Tokyo| periodic=Libération|date=2023-03-21|li sou entènèt= https://www.liberation.fr/culture/arts/une-deputee-rn-veut-censurer-un- painting-by-the-artist-miriam -cahn-at-the-palais-de-tokyo-20230321_FK2K4MHGUNEBTFH7EIGAT3PMXM/ |accessed on=2023-05-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|language=fr |otè1=Olivier Perrin |title=Miriam Cahn ak konfli enkwayab ki rive nan egzibisyon li nan Pari|periodical=Le Temps|date=2023-03-08|issn=1423-3967|li sou entènèt=https: //www.letemps.ch/opinions/ revues-presse/miriam-cahn-linvraisemblable-polemic-sabat-expo-paris|accessed on=2023-05-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Tribinal Administratif (Frans)|tribinal administratif]] Paris rejte nan fen {{Dat-|3.2023}} asosyasyon [[Juris for Children]], PornoStop, Innocence in Danger ak Face à l'incest ki mande dropout la&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |langue=fr |author=[[Agence France Presse]] |title=Egzibisyon nan Pari: jistis dèyè atis Swis Miriam Cahn |url=https://www.20min . ch/fr/story/la-justice-derriere-lartiste-suisse-miriam-cahn-463064760787 |sit=[[20minutes.ch]] |date=2023-03-28 |accessed on=2023-03-31}} &lt;/ref&gt;, desizyon konfime nan {{Dat-|14.4}} pa [[State Council (France)|State Council]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |langue=fr |author=vajo ak [[Swiss Telegraph Agency|ats]] |title=Pinti Miriam Cahn ki dekri kòm &quot;pònografi timoun&quot; rete pandye nan Pari |url=https://www.rts.ch/info/culture/arts-visuels/13942635-the-painting-of- miriam-cahn-kalifye-tankou-pedopornografik-reste-pann-nan-paris.html |sit=rts.ch |dat=2023-04-14 |konsilte sou=2023-04-14}} &lt;/ref&gt;. Nan {{dat-|7 me 2023}}, Pierre Chassin, ansyen ofisye eli Fwon Nasyonal, te defigire tablo a, ki te gen entansyon pwoteste kont sa li wè kòm {{quote|sèksyalizasyon yon timoun ak yon moun. granmoun}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|language=fr|title=Yon travay kontwovèsyal Miriam Cahn te vandalize nan Palais de Tokyo|periodique=Le Monde.fr|date=2023-05-07|read in ligne=https ://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2023/05/07/une-uvre-polemique-de-miriam-cahn-a-ete-vandalisee-au-palais-de-tokyo_6172455_3246.html| konsilte sou= 2023-05-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Article|langue=fr|title=Otè deformation travay Miriam Cahn nan Palais de Tokyo ta yon ansyen reprezantan eli nan Fwon Nasyonal la|periodic=Le Monde.fr|date=2023-05-08|li sou entènèt=https://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2023/05/08/l-auteur-of-the- degradation-of-the-work-of-miriam-cahn-at-the-tokyo-palace-se-yon-ansyen-elect-of-the-national-front_6172538_3246.html|accessed on=2023-05-08 |aksè url=paying}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |language=fr |title=Travay Miriam Cahn vandalize - Reprezantasyon vyolans nan atizay |url= https://www. radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/signes-des-temps/l-oeuvre-de-miriam-cahn-vandalisee-la-representation-de-la-violence-dans-l-art-2568426 | site=France Kilti |dat=2023-05-14 |accessed on=2023-06-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Egzibisyon ==
{{...}}
Miriam Cahn reprezante pa galri [[Jocelyn (fim)|Jocelyn]] Wolff&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien web|tit = Miriam Cahn {{!}} Galeri Jocelyn Wolff|url = http://www.galeriewolff.com/artists/miriam-cahn|sit = gallerywolff.com|accessed on = 2015-12-21}}.&lt;/ref&gt; nan [[Romainville]], galri Meyer-Riegger nan [[Bèlen]] ak [[Karlsruhe]] ([[Almay]]) , ak Galeri Elizabeth Dee nan [[New York]] ([[Etazini]])&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|lang = en|dat = |tit =Miriam Cahn|otè=Elizabeth Dee|url = http : //elizabethdee.com/node/-miriam-cahn-winter-2013|sit =elizabethdee.com |accessed = 19 desanm 2015}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

* ''My serial thoughts'', [[Pari]], [[palais de Tokyo]], soti {{dat-|17 fevriye}} rive {{dat-|14 me 2023}}&lt;ref&gt;[https://palaisdetokyo.com/exposition/ma-pensee-serielle/ Gade sou ''palaisdetokyo.com''.]&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Onè ==
&lt;!-- Nan lòd kwonolojik --&gt;
Miriam Cahn se patikilyèman rekonèt nan mond ki pale Alman an&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen Web|tit = Miriam Cahn |url = http://www.galeriewolff.com/artists/miriam-cahn|site = gallerywolff.com|konsilte sou = 2015 -12-15}}.&lt;/ref&gt;:
* 1984: pri nan peyi [[Baden-Württemberg]];
* 1985: bousdetid [[Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst|DAAD]], Bèlen;
* 1988: Pri Hypobank, [[Genèv]];
* 1996: bousdetid [[Landis+Gyr]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen Web|tit = Landis &amp; Gyr Stiftung {{!}} Fellows depi 1987|url = http://www.lg-stiftung.ch/page/ fr/atelierstipendien/alle-ateliergaeste|site =lg-stiftung.ch|accessed on = 2015-12-21}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, [[London]];
* 1997: {{Link|language=of|trad=Karl-Ströher-Preis|fr=Karl Söher Prize|text=Ströher Prize}}, [[Frankfurt]];
* 1998: [[Käthe-Kollwitz prize]]&lt;ref&gt;{{de}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20191017092107/https://www.adk.de/de/akademie/sektionen/bildende-kunst/preise_stipendien/kaethe-kollwitz-preis.htm Lis nan ganyan yo nan Käthe-Kollwitz-Preis la], Akademie der Künste.&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Berlin]];
* 2001: pri nan Fondasyon pou Atizay Grafik nan Swis;
* 2005: [[Meret-Oppenheim Prize]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20170905184322/http://www.bak.admin.ch/kulturschaffen/04163/04171/04172/index.html?lang=fr Ganyan - Meret-Oppenheim Prize ], Biwo Federal Kilti.&lt;/ref&gt;nan [[Biwo Federal Kilti]], Swis;
* 2009: Art Master Prize&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|title = St. Moritz Art Masters: Artists 2009|url = http://www.stmoritzartmasters.com/archive/artists-2009.html|site = stmoritzartmasters.com |accessed on = 2015-12-21}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Saint-Moritz]];
* 2013: {{Link|language=de|trad=Kulturpreis der Stadt Basel|fr=Basel Culture Prize|text=Basel Kunstkredit Prize}}&lt;ref&gt;{{de}} [http://www.kultur.bs. ch/engagements-initiativen/preise.html#page_section3_section3 Basler Kunstpreis], sit canton Bâle.&lt;/ref&gt; ;
* 2014: Oberrheinischen prize&lt;ref&gt;{{de}} [http://galerie-offenburg.de/html/2014.html Oberrheinischen Kunstpreis 2014], {{lang|de|Städtische Galerie Offenburg}}.&lt;/ref&gt; (Upper Rhine) prezante pa Gwoup Sipò Atizay + Kilti nan vil [[Offenburg]].

== Piblikasyon ==
* ''Nou te granmoun'': faks yon kaye desen Miriam Cahn te fè an 1979, 2015 ak 2010&lt;ref&gt;Fòma: {{Dunité|38|27|cm}}, {{nb p.|100 } }, franse/angle/alman.&lt;br&gt;Graphique: Jocelyne Fracheboud.&lt;/ref&gt;, ed. Sant Kiltirèl Swis / Argauer Kunsthaus Aarau, 2014; pibliye nan okazyon an nan egzibisyon an {{&quot;|corporel / körperlich} &lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen web|tit = Swis Sant Kiltirèl / Evènman|url = http://www.ccsparis.com/events/view/ miriam- cahn|sit = ccsparis.com|accessed on = 2015-12-15}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Referans|gwosè=30}}

== Gade tou ==
=== Bibliyografi ===
* {{Liv|otè1 = Andreas Meier|tit = Miriam Cahn|kote = [[Madrid]]|piblikatè = Fundación [[la Caixa]]|ane = 2003|total paj = 197|isbn = |li sou entènèt = | pasaj = |lang orijinal = es/en|author2 = Peter Burri|author3 = Amaya Bozal}}

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{Liens}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Cahn Miriam}}
[[Kategori:Designer Swis]]
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[[Kategori:Pent Swis 21yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori: 20yèm syèk Swis sculpteur]]
[[Kategori:Skultur Swis nan 21yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori:Skultur Swis]]
[[Kategori:Fotwa Swis]]
[[Kategori:Performer]]
[[Kategori:feminis swis]]
[[Kategori:Atis feminis]]
[[Kategori:Nesans an Jiyè 1949]]
[[Kategori:Nesans nan Basel]]</text>
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{{Infobox atis}}
'''Miriam Cahn''', ki fèt {{dat nesans|21 jiyè 1949}} nan [[Basel]], se yon [[Pent|pent]], [[tiwa]], [[fotografi|fotograf]] , [[performer]] ak [[eskiltè]] [[Swis]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|title = Miriam Cahn |url = http://www.paris-art.com/createur/cahn-miriam/1042.html|site = paris-art.com|accessed on = 2015-12-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biyografi ==
=== Fanmi ===
Miriam Cahn te fèt an 1949 nan Basel. Papa l ', {{Link|langue=de|trad=Herbert A. Cahn|fr=Herbert Adolf Cahn}}, se yon [[Akeyoloji|akeyològ]] ak [[Numismatics|numismatis]] [[Alman|Alman]] ki soti nan yon fanmi [[Jwif ak Jidayis an Ewòp|Jwif]] ki soti nan [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]].

Fanmi an te emigre nan Swis an 1933. An 1953, li te rete nan [[Wòm]].

Ti sè Miriam Cahn komèt swisid a laj 20 an.&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|language=of|premye1=Max|ti non1=Glauner|title=Unbedingt, absolut, frei|periodical=[[Republik]]| dat= 2019-03-15|li sou entènèt=https://www.republik.ch/2019/03/15/unbedingt-absolut-frei|accessed on=2023-03-05}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Etid ===
Soti nan 1968 rive 1973, Miriam Cahn te etidye nan [[Basel Design School]] anba [[Armin Hofmann]] nan seksyon grafik&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |langu=pa |otè=Kunstmuseum Bern |tit=Biografi Miriam Cahn. |url=https://www.kunstmuseumbern.ch/admin/data/hosts/kmb/files/page_editorial_paragraph_file/file/1478/20190220_miriam-cahn_biografie.pdf |format=pdf |dat=20 fevriye 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; . Pandan peryòd sa a, li te patisipe nan mouvman [[Feminis|feminis]] ak [[Ekolojis|ekolojis]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. {{refnec|Lè li te ale, li te rejte fòm sa a nan metriz nan atizay epi li te retounen nan desen: {{cita|Mwen te manke ijans la, ekzistansyalite a, emosyonèl la te dechouke pa konesans.}}}}

=== Vwayaj atistik ===
[[Fichye:Miriam Cahn - o.T. 10.05.2012 (2012).jpg|vignette|Miriam Cahn, ''o.T. 10.05.2012'' (2012), pastel sou papye, [[Warsaw]], {{Link|fr=Mize Atizay modèn, Warsaw|lang=en|trad=Mize Atizay modèn, Varsovie|texte=museum of ' Atizay modèn}}.]]
[[File:Miriam Cahn, Brutalitätenskulptur, 2007-2008.jpg|vignette|Miriam Cahn, ''Brutalitätenskulptur'' (2007-2008), Schönthal, {{link|lang=en|fr=Sculpture at Schoenthal}}.]]
{{sitasyon blok|Apre klas konsepsyon grafik, mwen te fè yon plan senk ane, sa vle di mwen te bay tèt mwen senk ane pou wè si atizay se te vrèman chemen mwen. Papa m 'te ban m' lajan epi mwen te fè sèman nan tèt mwen ke mwen pral kapab fè yon viv ak atizay mwen nan fen peryòd sa a. Mwen te gade ki jan galeri yo te travay, pami lòt moun nan Fwa Art la. Mwen te bay yon liv desen nan galri Stampa a. Lè sa a, an 1976, mwen te gen premye egzibisyon mwen la. Se te kòmansman an.|Miriam Cahn, ''Zeichnen/drawing/dessiner''&lt;ref&gt;Miriam Cahn, ''Zeichnen/drawing/dessiner'', [[Freiburg im Breisgau]], Modo, 2014, {{ p. |126}} {{ISBN|978-3-86833-155-4}}.&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Miriam Cahn kòmanse lè l sèvi avèk [[chabon]] ak [[lakre]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Atik|lang = franse|otè1 = Marie-Cécile Burnichon|tit = Miriam Cahn|periodical = [[artpress ]]|nimewo = 354|jou = |mwa = Mas|ane = 2009|issn = |li sou entènèt = http://www.galeriewolff.com/medias/pdfs/mc_artpress_2009.pdf|paj = 93-94 }}. &lt;/ref&gt;. Li sitou fè desen chabon, sou yon gwo echèl sou papye epi pafwa sou mi yo, andedan kay la nan espas egzibisyon men tou deyò nan espas piblik ke li okipe espontaneman ak san otorizasyon alavans. Travay li devlope tou alantou [[eskilti]], pèfòmans, son ak [[fotografi]].

Li te reprezante Swis nan [[Bienal Venice]] an 1984&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|language=fr|title=Labirent emosyonèl Miriam Cahn|periodical=[[Le Temps (Swis)|Le Temps]]| dat= 2014-09-15|issn=1423-3967|li sou entènèt=https://www.letemps.ch/culture/labyrinthe-emotionnel-miriam-cahn|accessed on=2023-03-05}}.&lt;/ref&gt; .

Travay li te fè eksperyans yon repo fòmèl nan fen ane 1980 yo: li te kòmanse sèvi ak [[koulè]] epi anplis desen, piti piti te kòmanse pratike penti&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Atik|language = English| otè1 = Peter Burri|tit = Miriam Cahn nan yon entèvyou ak Peter Burri|periodical = Art, dirèkteman|nimewo = |jou = |mwa = Out|ane = 2001|issn = |li sou entènèt = http:// www.galeriewolff. com/medias/pdfs/mc_interviewpeterburri_2001.pdf|paj =}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, yo pa kapab travay sou tè a ankò&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;/&gt;. Li kòmanse fwote pigman koulè sou papye&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;/&gt;, epi li sèvi ak [[penti lwil oliv]] ki soti nan ane 1990 yo]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0 &quot;/&gt;. Travay penti lwil oliv koulè sa a se jodi a anblèm nan pratik li {{Refnec|date=5 Mas 2023}}.

An 2017, egzibisyon nan [[Pari]] {{&quot;|Devoir-aimer}}, prezante silwèt, haggard, hydrocephalus, tou de kolosal ak manyen. Miriam Cahn trete sijè sosyal ak politik: konfli ame, popilasyon vilnerab, refijye. Pou sa, elli vin yon sèl ak sijè li yo mete kò yo reprezante nan tès la&lt;ref&gt;{{Article|language=fr|author1=Judicaël Lavrador|title=Nanm vilnerab Miriam Cahn|periodic=Libération|date=12 jen 2017|issn = |li sou entènèt=http://next.liberation.fr/arts/2017/06/11/les-ames-vulnerables-de-miriam-cahn_1576022|accessed on=2017-07-15|paj=}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Depi ane 1990 yo, travay li te de pli zan pli fè referans ak gwo konfli nan mond lan ([[Lagè Yougoslavi]], [[Gè Gòlf la]], [[atak 11 septanm 2001]], [[ Prentan Arab ]], [[Lagè nan Ikrèn (2022)|lagè nan Ikrèn]])&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Atik|language=fr|author1=Eric Tariant|title=Nan Palais de Tokyo fè rezon an kòlè. &quot;kriye&quot; Miriam Cahn|periodical=[[Le Temps (Swis)|Le Temps]]|date=2023-02-28|issn=1423-3967|li sou entènèt=https://www.letemps.ch/culture /arts/palais-tokyo-resonnent-cris-colere-miriam-cahn|accessed on=2023-03-05|access url=paying}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== 2023 konfli nan Pari ===
Miriam Cahn se sijè a nan konfli nan 2023 sou tablo li ''Fuck Abstraction'' ekspoze nan [[Palais de Tokyo]] nan Pari, ki reprezante yon figi imen mare ak fòse fè sèks oral sou yon lòt figi ki pi gwo. ref&gt;[https://www.20minutes.fr/paris/4035966-20230508-paris-table-accuse-pedopornographie-vandalise-macron-denonce-reach-valeurs Paris: Yon tablo akize de &quot;pedopornography&quot; vandalize , Macron denonse yon atak &quot;sou valè nou yo&quot;], 20 minit, 8 me 2023&lt;/ref&gt;. Travay la te kritike sou [[Rezo Sosyal (entènèt)|rezo sosyal]], apre kòmantè [[Karl Zéro]] ak [[Caroline Parmentier]], manm [[Rasanbleman Nasyonal]], ki akize li kòmkwa li te ankouraje [[pedokriminalite]]. Sepandan, atis la eksplike ke tablo a fè referans ak [[masak Boutcha]], an [[Ikrèn]]: {{&quot;|Men se yon moun ki gen men mare, vyole anvan yo touye epi jete nan lari. Repetisyon imaj vyolans. nan lagè pa gen entansyon choke, men denonse}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|langue=fr|author1=Claire Moulène|title= Yon depite RN vle sansi yon tablo atis Miriam Cahn nan Palais de Tokyo| periodic=Libération|date=2023-03-21|li sou entènèt= https://www.liberation.fr/culture/arts/une-deputee-rn-veut-censurer-un- painting-by-the-artist-miriam -cahn-at-the-palais-de-tokyo-20230321_FK2K4MHGUNEBTFH7EIGAT3PMXM/ |accessed on=2023-05-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|language=fr |otè1=Olivier Perrin |title=Miriam Cahn ak konfli enkwayab ki rive nan egzibisyon li nan Pari|periodical=Le Temps|date=2023-03-08|issn=1423-3967|li sou entènèt=https: //www.letemps.ch/opinions/ revues-presse/miriam-cahn-linvraisemblable-polemic-sabat-expo-paris|accessed on=2023-05-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Tribinal Administratif (Frans)|tribinal administratif]] Paris rejte nan fen {{Dat-|3.2023}} asosyasyon [[Juris for Children]], PornoStop, Innocence in Danger ak Face à l'incest ki mande dropout la&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |langue=fr |author=[[Agence France Presse]] |title=Egzibisyon nan Pari: jistis dèyè atis Swis Miriam Cahn |url=https://www.20min . ch/fr/story/la-justice-derriere-lartiste-suisse-miriam-cahn-463064760787 |sit=[[20minutes.ch]] |date=2023-03-28 |accessed on=2023-03-31}} &lt;/ref&gt;, desizyon konfime nan {{Dat-|14.4}} pa [[State Council (France)|State Council]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |langue=fr |author=vajo ak [[Swiss Telegraph Agency|ats]] |title=Pinti Miriam Cahn ki dekri kòm &quot;pònografi timoun&quot; rete pandye nan Pari |url=https://www.rts.ch/info/culture/arts-visuels/13942635-the-painting-of- miriam-cahn-kalifye-tankou-pedopornografik-reste-pann-nan-paris.html |sit=rts.ch |dat=2023-04-14 |konsilte sou=2023-04-14}} &lt;/ref&gt;. Nan {{dat-|7 me 2023}}, Pierre Chassin, ansyen ofisye eli Fwon Nasyonal, te defigire tablo a, ki te gen entansyon pwoteste kont sa li wè kòm {{quote|sèksyalizasyon yon timoun ak yon moun. granmoun}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik|language=fr|title=Yon travay kontwovèsyal Miriam Cahn te vandalize nan Palais de Tokyo|periodique=Le Monde.fr|date=2023-05-07|read in ligne=https ://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2023/05/07/une-uvre-polemique-de-miriam-cahn-a-ete-vandalisee-au-palais-de-tokyo_6172455_3246.html| konsilte sou= 2023-05-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Article|langue=fr|title=Otè deformation travay Miriam Cahn nan Palais de Tokyo ta yon ansyen reprezantan eli nan Fwon Nasyonal la|periodic=Le Monde.fr|date=2023-05-08|li sou entènèt=https://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2023/05/08/l-auteur-of-the- degradation-of-the-work-of-miriam-cahn-at-the-tokyo-palace-se-yon-ansyen-elect-of-the-national-front_6172538_3246.html|accessed on=2023-05-08 |aksè url=paying}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |language=fr |title=Travay Miriam Cahn vandalize - Reprezantasyon vyolans nan atizay |url= https://www. radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/signes-des-temps/l-oeuvre-de-miriam-cahn-vandalisee-la-representation-de-la-violence-dans-l-art-2568426 | site=France Kilti |dat=2023-05-14 |accessed on=2023-06-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Egzibisyon ==
{{...}}
Miriam Cahn reprezante pa galri [[Jocelyn (fim)|Jocelyn]] Wolff&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien web|tit = Miriam Cahn {{!}} Galeri Jocelyn Wolff|url = http://www.galeriewolff.com/artists/miriam-cahn|sit = gallerywolff.com|accessed on = 2015-12-21}}.&lt;/ref&gt; nan [[Romainville]], galri Meyer-Riegger nan [[Bèlen]] ak [[Karlsruhe]] ([[Almay]]) , ak Galeri Elizabeth Dee nan [[New York]] ([[Etazini]])&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|lang = en|dat = |tit =Miriam Cahn|otè=Elizabeth Dee|url = http : //elizabethdee.com/node/-miriam-cahn-winter-2013|sit =elizabethdee.com |accessed = 19 desanm 2015}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

* ''My serial thoughts'', [[Pari]], [[palais de Tokyo]], soti {{dat-|17 fevriye}} rive {{dat-|14 me 2023}}&lt;ref&gt;[https://palaisdetokyo.com/exposition/ma-pensee-serielle/ Gade sou ''palaisdetokyo.com''.]&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Onè ==
&lt;!-- Nan lòd kwonolojik --&gt;
Miriam Cahn se patikilyèman rekonèt nan mond ki pale Alman an&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen Web|tit = Miriam Cahn |url = http://www.galeriewolff.com/artists/miriam-cahn|site = gallerywolff.com|konsilte sou = 2015 -12-15}}.&lt;/ref&gt;:
* 1984: pri nan peyi [[Baden-Württemberg]];
* 1985: bousdetid [[Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst|DAAD]], Bèlen;
* 1988: Pri Hypobank, [[Genèv]];
* 1996: bousdetid [[Landis+Gyr]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen Web|tit = Landis &amp; Gyr Stiftung {{!}} Fellows depi 1987|url = http://www.lg-stiftung.ch/page/ fr/atelierstipendien/alle-ateliergaeste|site =lg-stiftung.ch|accessed on = 2015-12-21}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, [[London]];
* 1997: {{Link|language=of|trad=Karl-Ströher-Preis|fr=Karl Söher Prize|text=Ströher Prize}}, [[Frankfurt]];
* 1998: [[Käthe-Kollwitz prize]]&lt;ref&gt;{{de}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20191017092107/https://www.adk.de/de/akademie/sektionen/bildende-kunst/preise_stipendien/kaethe-kollwitz-preis.htm Lis nan ganyan yo nan Käthe-Kollwitz-Preis la], Akademie der Künste.&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Berlin]];
* 2001: pri nan Fondasyon pou Atizay Grafik nan Swis;
* 2005: [[Meret-Oppenheim Prize]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20170905184322/http://www.bak.admin.ch/kulturschaffen/04163/04171/04172/index.html?lang=fr Ganyan - Meret-Oppenheim Prize ], Biwo Federal Kilti.&lt;/ref&gt;nan [[Biwo Federal Kilti]], Swis;
* 2009: Art Master Prize&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|title = St. Moritz Art Masters: Artists 2009|url = http://www.stmoritzartmasters.com/archive/artists-2009.html|site = stmoritzartmasters.com |accessed on = 2015-12-21}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Saint-Moritz]];
* 2013: {{Link|language=de|trad=Kulturpreis der Stadt Basel|fr=Basel Culture Prize|text=Basel Kunstkredit Prize}}&lt;ref&gt;{{de}} [http://www.kultur.bs. ch/engagements-initiativen/preise.html#page_section3_section3 Basler Kunstpreis], sit canton Bâle.&lt;/ref&gt; ;
* 2014: Oberrheinischen prize&lt;ref&gt;{{de}} [http://galerie-offenburg.de/html/2014.html Oberrheinischen Kunstpreis 2014], {{lang|de|Städtische Galerie Offenburg}}.&lt;/ref&gt; (Upper Rhine) prezante pa Gwoup Sipò Atizay + Kilti nan vil [[Offenburg]].

== Piblikasyon ==
* ''Nou te granmoun'': faks yon kaye desen Miriam Cahn te fè an 1979, 2015 ak 2010&lt;ref&gt;Fòma: {{Dunité|38|27|cm}}, {{nb p.|100 } }, franse/angle/alman.&lt;br&gt;Graphique: Jocelyne Fracheboud.&lt;/ref&gt;, ed. Sant Kiltirèl Swis / Argauer Kunsthaus Aarau, 2014; pibliye nan okazyon an nan egzibisyon an {{&quot;|corporel / körperlich} &lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen web|tit = Swis Sant Kiltirèl / Evènman|url = http://www.ccsparis.com/events/view/ miriam- cahn|sit = ccsparis.com|accessed on = 2015-12-15}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Referans|gwosè=30}}

== Gade tou ==
=== Bibliyografi ===
* {{Liv|otè1 = Andreas Meier|tit = Miriam Cahn|kote = [[Madrid]]|piblikatè = Fundación [[la Caixa]]|ane = 2003|total paj = 197|isbn = |li sou entènèt = | pasaj = |lang orijinal = es/en|author2 = Peter Burri|author3 = Amaya Bozal}}

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{Liens}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cahn Miriam}}
[[Kategori:Designer Swis]]
[[Kategori:20yèm syèk pent Swis]]
[[Kategori:Pent Swis 21yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori: 20yèm syèk Swis sculpteur]]
[[Kategori:Skultur Swis nan 21yèm syèk la]]
[[Kategori:Skultur Swis]]
[[Kategori:Fotwa Swis]]
[[Kategori:Performer]]
[[Kategori:feminis swis]]
[[Kategori:Atis feminis]]
[[Kategori:Nesans an Jiyè 1949]]
[[Kategori:Nesans nan Basel]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tee Corinne</title>
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      <text bytes="11783" sha1="epoegltuzcqb4b7wt6fh5yycy9ax6io" xml:space="preserve">{{Gade omonim|Corinne (omonimi) {{!}} Corinne}}
{{Infobox atis
}}
'''Tee A. Corinne''' ({{dat-|3 novanm 1943}} - {{dat-|27 out 2006}}) se yon [[fotografi|fotograf]], [[Otè|otè]] ak [[editè (pwofesyon)|editè]] [[Lesbyanism|lesbyan]] rekonèt kòm yon pyonye nan [[atis madivin]] ak [[Feminis|atizay feminis]]&lt;ref name=&quot;tandfonline&quot;&gt;{{Atik | language =en |prenon1=Stefanie |ti non1=Snider |tit=Beyond the Static Image: Wòl Tee Corinne kòm yon atis pyonye madivin ak istoryen atistik |periodyal=Journal of Madivin Etid |dat=2013-01-14 |li sou entènèt =https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10894160.2012.683383 |accessed on=2020-05-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Biyografi ==
=== Jèn ak fòmasyon ===
Tee Corinne te fèt ak grandi nan [[Florid]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|title=Tee Corinne 1943-2006 Koleksyon Espesyal Achiv Inivèsite {{!}} Bibliyotèk UO|url=https://library .uoregon.edu/speccoll/mss/tee|site=library.uoregon.edu|date=|accessed=2020-05-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Gras a manman l, li te aprann prensip ak teknik atistik byen bonè. Li te pase premye ane kolèj li (1962-1963) ap etidye atis nan [[Newcomb College]] nan [[New Orleans]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Liv|langue=en|premye non1=Claude|ti non1 =Ete|tit =The Queer Encyclopedia of the Visual Arts|piblikatè=Cleis Press Start|date=2012-03-23|total pages=384|isbn=978-1-57344-874-1|li sou entènèt=https: //books.google .fr/books?id=YQNuDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA90&amp;dq=tee+Corinne+Newcomb+College|accessed on=2020-05-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Apre sa, li te retounen nan Florid, kote li te gradye ak yon [[Bachelor of Arts|bachelor's degre]] nan enprime ak penti nan [[University of South Florida]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Liv|language=en| first name1=Robert. |ti non1=Aldrich|non2=Garry|ti non2=Wotherspoon|title=Kiyès ki nan istwa masisi ak madivin kontanporen|subtitle=Soti nan Dezyèm Gè Mondyal la jiska jounen jodi a|editè=Psikoloji Press|ane=2002|paj total= 460|isbn=978-0-415-29161-3|li sou entènèt=https://books.google.fr/books?id=zHCOboO86eAC&amp;pg=PA90&amp;dq=tee+corinne+University+of+South+Florida| aksede sou= 2020-05-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Li te jwenn yon [[Mèt nan sistèm inivèsite Anglo-Saxon|mèt]] nan [[desen]] ak [[eskilti]] nan [[Pratt Institute]] nan New York, an 1968&lt;ref&gt;{{Liv | lang=en|non1=Richard|ti non1=Bolton|tit=Konkou siyifikasyon an|subtitle=Istwa kritik fotografi|editè=[[MIT Press]]|ane=1992|total paj=407|isbn=978 - 0-262-52169-7|li sou entènèt=https://books.google.fr/books?id=Jfe8PgoLzoIC&amp;pg=PA184&amp;dq=%22Tee+Corinne%22+pratt+institut|accessed on=2020-05-17 }} &lt;/ref&gt;. Apre kèk ane nan ansèyman ak vwayaje nan [[Ewòp]], li te atire pa retounen nan peyi a ak k ap viv nan yon kominote. Nan moman sa a, li te plonje nan yon [[Depresyon (psikyatri)|depresyon]]:

&lt;blockquote&gt; “Yon bagay pa t santi bon. Jounen jodi a yo pale sou pwogrè timoun adilt ki gen alkòl ak pwoblèm yo genyen ak depresyon... Anviwon trant an, mwen reyalize ke atizay pa t 'kapab rezoud pwoblèm mwen yo ankò... Mwen te jwenn terapi, separe ak mari m', te vin patisipe ak fanm. e li rantre nan mouvman fanm yo. Mwen te santi m pi byen {{referans nesesè}}. » &lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Karyè ===
Tee Corinne te kòmanse montre ak pibliye travay li nan mitan ane 1960 yo&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|title=Tee Corinne - Biyografi|url=http://www.queer-arts.org/archive/9809 / corinne/corinne_bio.html|site=www.queer-arts.org|date=|accessed on=2020-05-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Ki gen laj 27, li reyalize ke, byenke edikasyon atistik li te pèmèt li reprezante jenital gason, li pa te obsève pwòp tèt li depi anfans&lt;ref name=&quot;tandfonline&quot; /&gt;. “Mwen te konnen ke bagay nou pa gen non oswa foto pou yo se bagay nou rele fou oswa move. Mwen te kwè ke rekiperasyon simagri lèv la se yon fason pou reklame pouvwa pèsonèl pou fanm yo&lt;ref&gt;{{Atik |langue=en |author1= |premye1=Tee A. |ti non1=Corinne |tit=Deklarasyon Atis: Sou Seksyèl Atizay |periodical=Etid feminis |volim=19 |nimewo=2 |dat=1993 |issn=0046-3663 |doi=10.2307/3178374 |li sou entènèt=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3178374 |aksede sou =2020-05-17 |paj=369–376 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. » Li te deside trase imaj [[Human vulva|vulvas]] e li menm li te pibliye, an 1975, ''{{lang|en|Cunt Coloring Book}}'' (lit. &quot;[[Liv koloran]] soti nan [[con]]&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;{{Liv|lang=en|premye non1=Tee|ti non1=Corinne|tit=Cunt Coloring Book|editè=[[Last Gasp]]|ane=1988|paj total =48|isbn=978-0-86719-371-8|li sou entènèt=https://books.google.fr/books?id=qtTZkOz4iXgC&amp;dq=Tee+Corinne|accessed on=2020-05-17}} &lt;/ref&gt;. Apre sa, yon piblikatè pibliye travay la sou non ''{{lang|en|Labiaflowers}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{Ouvraj|langue=en|first name1=Tee|name1=Corinne|title=Labiaflowers|sous - title=Yon liv koloran: Desen|piblikatè=[[Naiad Press]]|ane=1981|paj pou tales=40|isbn=978-0-930044-20-6|li sou entènèt=https://books.google.fr/books?id=7HusPAAACAAJ&amp;dq=Tee+Corinne|accessed on=2020-05-17}} &lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Lien Web|language=en|author1=Wilton, Tamsin|title=Tee Corinne|url=http://www.glbtqarchive.com/arts/corinne_ta_A.pdf| seri =GLBT Ansiklopedi Achiv|dat=|accessed=3 Novanm 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Li te ko-fasilitatè ak [[Ruth Mountaingrove]] nan {{lang|en|Feminist Photography Ovulars}} (1979-1981)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|lang=en| title=Fotografi madivin - III Ovulars and The Blatant Image|url=https://cla.purdue.edu/academic/rueffschool/waaw/Corinne/Essay3.htm|site=cla.purdue.edu|accessed on=2020-05 -17}}&lt;/ref&gt; ak ko-fondatè ''The Blatant Image, A Magazine of Feminist Photography'' (1981-1983)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|title=Lesbian Photography - Blatant Image|url=https :/ /cla.purdue.edu/academic/rueffschool/waaw/Corinne/Blatant.htm|site=cla.purdue.edu|accessed=2020-05-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Li se otè yon woman, twa koleksyon istwa kout, kat liv pwezi ak anpil liv atis ak ti edisyon.

''Fanmi,'' egzibisyon li nan desen medya melanje sou grandi nan yon fanmi alkòl, te sijè a nan yon entèvyou videyo pa Jane Scott Productions. Pòtfolyo atizay li yo te pibliye nan Sijè madivin, Etid feminis, Galeri: Atizay fanm, Advocate, [[Philadelphia, Pennsilvani|Philadelphia]] Gay News, ''The Lesbian Inciter'', ''I Am My Lover'' (premye edisyon, 1979) ak ' 'Femalia.

An 1980, li te youn nan dis atis ki te envite nan [[Great American Lesbian Art Show]], ansanm ak [[Harmony Hammond|Harmory Hammond]].

Nan kòmansman ane 1980 yo, Tee Corinne te devlope relasyon pèsonèl ak atistik solid ak anpil kominote fanm nan Oregon. Kòm li te note nan youn nan maniskri li yo, {{quote|Pan dousman, nan Oregon, mwen te rekonekte ak nivo pwofon kreyativite ki te viv nan mwen epi yo te kòmanse pwodui travay ki fè m plezi} }.

Li te vin abil nan reprezante seksyalite madivin nan yon fason ki evade [[kontan gason an]]. An 1982, li te pwodwi yon seri foto, ki te pibliye sou fòm yon liv ''{{lang|en|Yantras of Womanlove}}''&lt;ref&gt;{{Book|langue=en|premye non1=Claude|name1= Summers|tit =The Queer Encyclopedia of the Visual Arts|piblikatè=Cleis Press Start|dat=2012-03-23|total pages=384|isbn=978-1-57344-874-1|li sou entènèt=https:// liv. google.fr/books?id=YQNuDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA90&amp;dq=Tee+Corinne+University+of+South+Florida%2C+Pratt+Institute|accessed on=2020-05-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Enkyete pou pwoteje vi prive modèl li yo, li itilize teknik ki enplike plizyè simagri, solarizasyon, imaj negatif enprime, ak plizyè ekspoze. Tee Corinne toujou ak konsyans gen ladann fanm ki gen koulè, fanm plis gwosè, fanm ki pi gran, ak fanm ki gen andikap kòm sijè.

Tee Corinne ekri sou atizay pou plizyè piblikasyon epi, depi 1987, li te yon kroniker liv atizay pou Feminist Bookstore News. Yon ko-fondatè ak ansyen ko-prezidan Gay &amp; Lesbian Caucus (yon afilye [[College Art Association]]), li te ko-fonde tou [[Women's Caucus for Art Lesbian &amp; Bisexual Caucus]].

Petèt travay li pi koni se kouvèti premye album gwoup [[alternative rock]] angle [[Sweden]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en-US|name1=Staff|premye non1=Editorial |tit=FOTORECORD NR. 1, SWEDEN|url=http://theharlow.net/photorecord-nr-1-suede/|site=theharlow.net|accessed on=2020-05-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;, ''[[Suede ( album)|Syèd]]'', an 1993. An 1998, foto li yo te parèt sou kouvèti ak manch album ''{{lang|en|Milkshake: A CD To Benefit The [[Harvey Milk]] Institute}} ''&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen Web|lang=en|title=Divès - Milkshake: Yon CD pou benefisye Harvey Milk Institute (CD) nan Discogs|url=http://www.discogs.com/Various -Milkshake- A-CD-To-Benefit-The-Harvey-Milk-Institute/release/2018771|publisher=Discogs.com|date=|accessed=Me 23, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Konfidansyalite ===
An 1966, Tee Corinne te marye ak nonm li te dekri kòm pi bon zanmi l. Li te kraze sendika sa a nan kòmansman ane 1970 yo&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|title=Archives West: Tee A. Corinne papers, 1966-2003|url=http://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:/80444/xv98508 |site=archiveswest.orbiscascade.org|accessed on=2020-05-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;, answit te vin yon koup ak [[Honey Lee Cottrell]]&lt;ref name=&quot;glbtq1&quot;&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |otè1 =Corinne|premye non1=Tee A.|title=Sikatris, Stoma, Sak Ostomi, Portacath: Imajine Kansè nan lavi nou|url=http://www.glbtq.com/features/corinne/corinne_essay.htm|editor= glbtq |accessed on=2012-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929081422/http://www.glbtq.com/features/corinne/corinne_essay.htm|archive-date = 2012-09-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Pandan ane yo, Tee Corrine te fòme relasyon ak [[Caroline Overman]] (kòmansman ane 1980), [[Lee Lynch]] (nan mitan ane 1980), ak [[Bev.fanm ki pi enfliyan ak gason masisi nan deseni a&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|name1=Desk|premye non1=BWW News|title=TEE CORINNE: BODIES OF WORK Prezante pa Jenni Crain nan MBnb Fini 15 septanm|url =https://www.broadwayworld.com/article/TEE-CORINNE-BODIES-OF-WORK-Presented-by-Jenni-Crain-at-MBnb-Ends-September-15-20190911|site=BroadwayWorld.com|accessed le=2020-05-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;, epi an 1997, li te resevwa prim Prezidan Fanm Caucus for Art pou sèvis li bay fanm nan boza&lt;ref&gt;{{Book|language=en| first name1=Robert. | siyati1=Aldrich|non2=Garry|ti non2=Wotherspoon|tit=Ki moun ki nan istwa masisi ak madivin kontanporen|subtitle=Soti nan Dezyèm Gè Mondyal la jiska jounen jodi a|piblikatè=Psychology Press|ane=2002|total paj= 460| isbn=978-0-415-29161-3|li sou entènèt=https://books.google.fr/books?id=zHCOboO86eAC&amp;pg=PA90&amp;dq=Tee+Corinne+University+of+South+Florida%2C+Pratt+ Enstiti|accessed on=2020-05-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Tradiksyon/Referans|en|Tee Corinne|id1=922364944}}
{{Referans}}

== Apendis ==
=== Bibliyografi ===
* Marsha Meskimon, ''The Art of Reflection: Women Artists' Self-portrait in the Twentieth Century'', [[Lonn|London]], Scarlet Press, 1996
* Jan Zita Grover, ''Dykes in Context: Some Problems in Minority Representation in The Contest of Meaning: Critical Histories of Photography'', Cambridge, The MIT Press, 1989.
* Caffyn Kelley, ''Sijè entèdi: Otopòtrè pa atis madivin yo'', North Vancouver, BC: Gallerie, 1992
* Nayland Blake, Lawrence Rinder ak Amy Scholder, ''Nan yon limyè diferan: Kilti vizyèl, Idantite Seksyèl, Pratik Queer,'' San Francisco, City Lights Books, 1995
* Tessa Boffin ak Jean Fraser, ''Stolen Glances: Lesbians Take Photographs'', Lond; San Francisco, Pandora; HarperSanFrancisco, 1991
* Susie Bright ak Jill Posener, ''Nothing But the Girl: The Blatant Lesbian Image: a Portfolio and Exploration of Lesbian Erotic Photography'', London; New York, Cassell, 1996

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{Liens}}

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    <title>Luchita Hurtado</title>
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'''Luchita Hurtado''' ([[Maiquetía]], {{dat nesans|28 oktòb 1920}} — [[Santa Monica]], {{dat lanmò|13 out 2020}}) se yon [[pent]], [[litograf]] ak [[graveur]] [[Etazini|Ameriken]]-[[Venezuela|Venezuelan]].

Li te evolye pandan tout lavi li nan mond atistik la, li rankontre plizyè nan [[atis]] ki pi enpòtan nan {{s-|XX}}. Marye twa fwa, sitou ak atis sureyalis [[Wolfgang Paalen]] ak [[Lee Mullican]], li gen kat pitit. Li te konsakre tèt li nan fanmi li ak 

lavi domestik li, li te kontinye pentire pandan tout lavi li san yo pa fè konnen travay li. Se sèlman atravè kontak ak gwoup atis [[feminis]] yo nan ane 1970 yo ke li te libere tèt li epi li te fè premye ekspozisyon pèsonèl li. Li te finalman dekouvri nan lane 2015 epi toudenkou akeri gwo tap nonmen non an 2018, nan  97 ane.

Nan ane 1940 yo ak ane 1950 yo, Hurtado te pwodui prensipalman penti, desen, ak enprime sou sijè abstrè, peyizaj byomòfik, ak figi totemik ak motif endijèn. Se la li devlope konsepsyon limanite, linivè ak lanati, tèm santral pou li. Apati ane 1960 yo, li te vin pi pre atizay figire pou evoke plis sijè politik ak sosyal, tankou mouvman [[liberasyon fanm]] ak [[mouvman ekolojik]] ki te parèt nan epòk sa a. Li apwofondi vizyon li sou pwòp kò li, sou prezans li, sou pouvwa li: kò li vin santral nan travay li.

== Biyografi ==
=== Jèn ak premye maryaj ak Daniel del Solar ===
==== Premye ane nan Venezyela ====
Luisa Amelia García Rodríguez{{Remak|tèks=Luchita Hurtado refize ti non orijinal li ki sanble etranje pou li e li chwazi pou grann matènèl li: Hurtado&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;. Se te tou non li te chwazi nan ane 1970 yo lè li te defi pa zanmi feminis li, ki te refize pèmèt li pran non mari l, Lee Mullican&lt;ref name=&quot;guardian&quot;/&gt;.|group= alpha}} te fèt. nan [[Maiquetía]], yon vil bò lanmè toupre [[Caracas]], nan [[Venezuela]], nan {{date-|28 oktòb 1920}}&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;&gt;{ {Web link|langue =en|url=https://www.theartstory.org/artist/hurtado-luchita/life-and-legacy/|title=Biyografi Luchita Hurtado|site=theartstory.org|accessed on=2021 -07-22} }.&lt;/ref&gt;. Kèk ane apre nesans li, manman l, Teolinda Rodríguez, kite papa l, Pedro José García, e li te emigre nan [[Etazini]] ak de sè l yo ansanm ak pi gran sè Luisa a Amelia. Manana, matant papa l, ak grann li Rosario, te elve l, ki te aprann li koud, kwoche ak brode. Pandan ke papa l, ke li pa t ap janm wè ankò, te rete nan Venezyela ak ti frè l, Luchita te vin jwenn manman l, ki te vin yon koudyè nan [[New York]] an 1928, lè li te sèlman {{nobr| 8 ane}} &lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;furman2019&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guardian&quot;/&gt;. Li gen anpil souvni sansoryèl nan Venezyela, yon sans odè trè devlope ki kenbe l 'pwòp lanati tout lavi li&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;guardian&quot;/&gt;.

==== Etid nan New York ====
Okòmansman, li te reve pou l pouswiv etid nan [[achitekti]] {{quote|pou konstwi pon}}, li te fè manman l kwè ke li t ap etidye koud pandan li t ap antrene nan [[ Art Students League of New York|Art Students League] ] answit te etidye [[boza (disiplin)|boza]] ak [[teyat]] nan kolèj tifi yo {{Link|language=en|trad= Washington Irving Campus|en=Washington Irving Campus|text=Washington Irving }}. Li te aprann tou [[opera]] ak [[sinema]] la epi li te devlope yon gwo enterè nan mouvman politik [[Antifachism|antifachis]]&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;furman2019&quot;&gt;{{Lyen Web|language=en|url=https:// www.nytimes. com/2019/01/29/t-magazine/luchita-hurtado.html|author=Anna Furman|title=Atis pyonye sa a se sou bò gwo premye retrospektiv li, nan 98 (Pibliye 2019)|sit =[[The New York Times]]|date=2019-01-29|issn=0362-4331|accessed on=2021-07-07}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Reyinyon ak Daniel del Solar ====
Lè li te adolesan, li te vin volontè nan jounal ki pale panyòl ''{{Link|langue=en|trad=La Prensa (San Antonio)|fr=La Prensa (1913-1963)|texte=La Prensa}}' ' nan [[New York ]], kote li te rankontre jounalis chilyen Daniel del Solar, ak ki li te pataje yon gwo koneksyon entelektyèl&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https:// www.theartnewspaper.com/ feature/luchita-hurtado|title=Sonje Luchita Hurtado, pent, ekolojik-gèrye ak temwen yon syèk atis|author=Louis Jebb|site=theartnewspaper.com|date=2020-09-04| jwenn aksè nan=2021-07 -16}}.&lt;/Ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;. Gras a li, li te rankontre anpil pèsonalite [[Amerik Latin ine|Ameriken Latin]] nan domèn atizay ak lèt. Hurtado marye ak Solar, de fwa laj li&lt;ref name=&quot;wagley2017&quot;/&gt;, nan {{nobr|18 ane}}.

Sou envitasyon [[Rafael Trujillo]], ki te diktatè [[Repiblik Dominikèn nan]], koup la te rete nan [[Santo Domingo (vil)|Santo Domingo]] pou kreye yon jounal ak yon piblikatè Madrid. Nan Sendomeng, li te rankontre gwo dyaspora atis ak ekriven Ewopeyen yo ki te kouri met deyò [[Almay Nazi]]&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;. Lè li te vin zanmi ak nyès Héctor Trujillo, chèf lame Dominiken an, li te soufri avansman trè pwononse nan men li e koup la te deside retounen Ozetazini pandan Hurtado te ansent premye pitit yo&lt;ref name= &quot;artstory&quot;/&gt; .

Lè yo te retounen nan New York, Del Solar te entwodui l nan yon mond entelektyèl ki ta fòme kou lavi l ak karyè li, sitou nan rankontre atis [[Lekòl New York]] [[Mark Rothko]] ak [[Robert. Motherwell]] ansanm ak pent Meksiken an [[Rufino Tamayo]], premye atis ki te enfliyanse atizay Luchita Hurtado {{incise|tout moun ap rete bon zanmi|fen}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020 &quot;/&gt;. Tamayo ak Hurtado rankontre regilyèman nan kwizin li pou pentire ak pale biznis, souvan chwazi [[koulè]] nan anviwònman yo epi imajine ki jan yo rkree yo sou twal&lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}{{Note|texte= Gade pou egzanp [https://www.moma.org/collection/works/79030 ''Animals''] pa Rufino Tamayo (1941), sou sitwèb [[MoMA]] la.|group=alpha}}. Li te vin zanmi tou ak sireyalis chilyen an [[Roberto Matta]], ki te asosye ak [[Le Corbusier]] ak [[André Breton]] nan Pari nan fen ane 1930 yo, ak dansè Ameriken ki gen orijin Japonè {{ Link|Ailes Gilmour}}. Li se demi-sè pent ak sculpteur Japonè [[Isamu Noguchi]]. Li menm ak Hurtado te vin pwòch anpil {{incise|{{quote|tankou frè}}, nan pwòp mo pa l}} e souvan te vizite galeri yo ansanm&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;. Tamayo te prezante l tou bay [[Pierre Matisse]], ki an vire prezante l 'bay [[Marc Chagall]], [[Joan Miró]] ak [[Fernand Léger]]&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;.

=== Debut ak depa nan Meksik ak Wolfgang Paalen ===
==== Separasyon soti nan Del Solar ak premye pwofesyonèl ====
{{Medya ekstèn | image1 = [https://www.artnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/1-17artistsluchita-hurtado2.jpg Luchita Hurtado nan ane 1940 yo]&lt;ref name=&quot;wagley2017&quot;/&gt;.}}
Apre nesans Daniel del Solar Jr. nan {{dat-|Jen 1940}} ak Pablo del Solar an 1942, koup la te deplase yon ti tan nan [[Washington D.C.]], kote Del Solar te gen yon opòtinite pwofesyonèl. Sepandan, lèt la kite Hurtado ak de timoun yo menm ane a; Hurtado retounen New York kote li oblije kite pitit li yo lekòl la pou l jwenn travay&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot; furman2019&quot;/&gt;. Li te kòmanse karyè atistik li nan New York nan kòmansman ane 1940 yo, li te travay kòm yon ilistratè mòd pou Condé Nast ak kòm yon muralist pou fenèt ak mi magazen yo. [[Lord &amp; Taylor]]&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;&gt;{{Lyen entènèt. |language=en|url=https://hammer.ucla.edu/exhibitions/2018/made-in-la-2018/luchita- hurtado|title=Made in LA 2018: Luchita Hurtado|site=[[Hammer Museum] ]|date=2018|accessed on=2021-07-09}}.&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot; dailyart&quot;/&gt;. An 1944, li te ekspoze penti vè ak [[murales|mural]] pou [[Bloomingdale's]]&lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://www.latimes .com/ entertainment-arts/story/2020-08-14/painter-luchita-hurtado-dies-at-at-99-obituary|author=Carolina A. Miranda|dat=14 out 2020|title=Pent Luchita Hurtado, ki te vin tounen yon zetwal atizay nan fen ane 90 li, te mouri nan 99|sit=[[Los Angeles Times]]|konsilte sou=2021-07-08}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

[[File:WP um 1940 Kopie.tiff|thumbnail|left|[[Wolfgang Paalen]] nan Meksik an 1940.]]

==== Rankont ak Wolfgang Paalen epi etabli nan Meksik ====
An 1946, Noguchi te prezante l atis sireyalis Ostralyen ak teyorisis atizay [[Wolfgang Paalen]], ki te jis edite magazin kont-sirealis ''DYN''&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;{{ ,}}&lt; non ref = &quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;. Li envite l nan yon ekspedisyon nan [[Meksik]], kote yo vizite [[San Lorenzo (Veracruz)|San Lorenzo]] ak rejyon li yo pou wè sit [[Aztèk|Aztèk]] ak [[Olmèk|Olmèk]. ] nan [[Mexico-Tenochtitlan|Tenochtiltlan]] ak [[La Venta (Meksik)|La Venta]], respektivman. Li te pran plizyè foto travay [[ati pre-kolonbyen]], kèk ladan yo te pibliye an 1952 nan magazin franse ''[[Cahiers d'art]]'' pou ilistre atik &quot;The oldest face of the new world&quot;, ekri pa Paalen&lt;ref&gt;{{atik|language=fr|author=Wolfgang Paalen|title=Pi ansyen figi nouvo mond lan|periodik=[[Kayye Art]]|nimewo=2|mwa= Desanm |ane = 1952|pasaj=171-188}}.&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;lacma&quot;&gt;{{Lyen web|language=en|url=https://www.lacma.org/guides/hurtado|title=Luchita Hurtado: I Live I Die I Will Be Reborn - Photographs for Cahiers d'Arts|site= [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]]|accessed on =2021-07-10}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Paalen ak Hurtado te tonbe damou pandan vwayaj sa a, epi apre plizyè rete nan peyi sa a, yo te marye an 1947 nan yon ti vilaj Meksiken anvan yo te etabli nan kapital la&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;.

Paalen te gen yon gwo estidyo la (tou ki posede pa Hurtado, ki te pwodwi ilistrasyon pou magazin Ameriken yo) kote li te kolekte anpil objè atis pre-kolonbyen, enfliyans nan ki travay Hurtado a nan peryòd la demontre&lt;ref name =&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;{{ ,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;nyt2020&quot;/&gt;. Yo te vin pwòch [[Meksiken muralism|Meksiken muralist]] tankou [[Frida Kahlo]] ak [[Diego Rivera]], ak ki moun yo te vwazen, osi byen ke Panyòl ak surrealist Britanik etabli laba tankou pent yo [[ Remedios Varo]] ak [[Miguel Covarrubias]], sinema [[Luis Buñuel]], fotograf [[Manuel Álvarez Bravo]], powèt [[Edward James]] ak atis [[Leonora Carrington]] ak [ [Gordon Onslow Ford]], ke Paalen te deja konnen nan sèk pwòch André Breton, ansanm ak madanm li, ekriven Jacqueline Johnson, ki te ko-edite dènye nimewo ''DYN''&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/ &gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;nyt2020&quot;/&gt;. An 1948, Hurtado ak Paalen te vwayaje nan [[Los Angeles]] pou vizite [[Man Ray]], ki te pran foto li nan estidyo [[Hollywood]] li a, apre sa te vizite Gordon Onslow Ford ak Jacqueline Johnson nan [[San Francisco]] &lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;.

Lè yo retounen Meksik, Pablo del Solar te mouri ak [[Polyomyélit|polio]]. Li atribiye kòz mistik ki lye ak mitoloji ansyen sivilizasyon lokal yo epi li vle kite Meksik; sou envitasyon Onslow Ford ak Johnson ak Paalen te resevwa opòtinite nan San Francisco, koup la nan vire rete la ane annapre a&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;.

=== Enstalasyon nan San Francisco ak Paalen ak Dynaton ===
{{Medya ekstèn | image1 = [https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Dynaton_frontispiece.jpg Gwoup Dynaton ak Luchita Hurtado ak Jacqueline Johnson nan katalòg egzibisyon ''Dynaton, 1951''] . De goch a dwat: [[Gordon Onslow Ford]], Luchita Hurtado, [[Wolfgang Paalen]], [[Lee Mullican]] ak Jacqueline Johnson.}}

Nan San Francisco, Luchita Hurtado ak Wolfgang Paalen kontinye devlope yon gwo rezo atis lokal ak entènasyonal, ki aktif nan sinema, penti surrealist oswa ki enterese, menm jan ak ka [[Lee Mullican]], nan atizay pre-kolonbyen an, ki li te dekouvri nan magazin ''DYN''. Lè yo te achte yon gwo kay nan [[Mill Valley]], yon kèk kilomèt nan nòdwès San Francisco, anpil vwayaj Paalen te fè nan Meksik, kote li te kontinye pote pyès atis pre-kolonbyen, te gen yon gwo pri epi yo lwe yon chanm nan Mullican pou asire revni. Paalen gen lide li fikse sou Meksik ak travay li yo sou atizay, pandan y ap Hurtado pentire [[watercolor]] nan kwizin nan&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;.

Pandan twazan, Paalen, Mullican ak Onslow Ford te travay sou yon egzibisyon ki ta trè remake: {{foreign quote|language=en|Nouvo Vizyon: Wolfgang Paalen, Lee Mullican, Gordon Onslow Ford}} te kreye an 1951, akonpaye pa 'yon katalòg ki gen ladan redaksyon Paalen ak Johnson ki gen tit ''Dynaton, 1951''. Egzibisyon sa a make kreyasyon gwoup [[Dynaton]], yon mouvman atistik [[Post-surrealism|post-sirealis]] ki gen enfliyans estetik yo enspire pa espirityalite [[sivilizasyon pre-kolonbyen|kilti pre-kolonbyen]] ak [[ Ameriken Natif Natal|Endyen Ameriken]]; byenke parèt nan foto gwoup la nan katalòg la, Hurtado pa fòmèlman yon pati nan gwoup la, men li evidamman tou pre li e atizay li pral enfliyanse pa li&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref non =&quot;latimes2020 &quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;widewalls2019&quot;&gt;{{web link|url=https://www.widewalls.ch/ magazine/luchita -hurtado-serpentine-galleries|title=80 Years of Luchita Hurtado's Art at The Serpentine|site=widewalls.ch|author=Balasz Takac|date=2019-05-25|accessed on=2021-07-08} }.&lt; /ref&gt;. Egzibisyon an konsidere kòm youn nan pi gwo enfliyans nan jenerasyon Beat, kilti ipi, ak yon kritik atizay te rele mouvman sirèalism pou nouvo monn lan. Sireyalis pou nouvo mond lan&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;}}.|group=alpha}}}}. Pandan peryòd sa a, sèk zanmi ak atis li yo te vin pi plis ankò: li te rankontre pent franse ak eskiltè [[Marcel Duchamp]]&lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;/&gt;.

Sepandan, pandan gwosès pwojè sa a, koup la te gen bezwen diferan: Hurtado te vle timoun kontrèman ak Paalen, ki te soufri nan anpil epizòd nan pann nève.Li ante pa lefèt ke anpil moun nan fanmi li te komèt swisid epi li pa t 'vle pase li sou. Yo te divòse evantyèlman an 1950 epi Paalen te ale nan Paris&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;wagley2017&quot;/&gt;.

=== Lavi ak Lee Mullican ak vwayaj ===
[[File:Lee Mullican.jpg|vignette|[[Lee Mullican]], lakay yo nan Santa Monica, an 1970.]]
==== Enstalasyon nan Santa Monica ====
Lè sa a, Luchita Hurtado te deplase nan [[Santa Monica]], premye pou kont li an 1951 ak Lee Mullican, ki moun li marye an 1957 e ak ki moun li te rete jiskaske dènye a lanmò an 1998&lt;ref name=&quot;guardian&quot;/&gt;{{,} &lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;nyt2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;finkel2020&quot;&gt;{{ Lyen entènèt|language=en|url=https: //www.theartnewspaper.com/interview/at-99-i-m-another-person-entirely-luchita-hurtado|author=Jori Finkel|title='A 99, mwen se yon lòt moun nèt': Luchita Hurtado sou konbistib fosil ak nouvo defi ki devan yo|sit=The Art Newspaper|date=2020-02-12|konsilte le=2021-07-09}}.&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}} &lt;ref name=&quot;wagley2017&quot;/&gt;. Yo fè de pitit ansanm: atis {{Link|langue=en|trad=Matt Mullican|fr=Matt Mullican|texte=Matthew Mullican}} (1951-) ak sinatè John Mullican (1962-)&lt;ref name= &quot; latimes2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;nyt2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;. Koup la rete sou trè bon tèm ak Paalen, ki te tounen vin rete nan Meksik &lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;.

Mullican ak Hurtado te etabli lyen [[solid]] ak ekriven, registè, ak atis nan Los Angeles ane 1950 yo, ki gen ladan ekriven [[Christopher Isherwood]] ak patnè li pent [[Don Bachardy]], ki te vwazen yo nan Santa Monica, powèt la. ak aktris [[Iris Tree]], ekriven [[James Agee]], oswa menm konsèpteur yo [[Ray Eames|Ray]] ak [[Charles Eames]] ak registè yo [[Jean Renoir] ] ak [[Charlie. Chaplin]]&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;. Atis Mary Wescher, madanm [[Paul Wescher]], premye direktè [[J. Paul Getty Museum]], te tou pre koup la ak prezante yo bay galeris Paul Kantor, ki te premye ekspoze Hurtado nan yon egzibisyon gwoup nan galri Los Angeles li an 1953, Lè sa a, ankò nan 1954&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020 &quot;/&gt;.

Pou fè sa, Hurtado ap travay kòm yon desinè kostim, asistan ak modèl pou designer mòd {{Link|Matilda Etches}} epi li jwenn yon ti wòl nan fim nan (&quot;{{Lang|en|The Egyptian}}&quot; (1954, pa [[Michael Curtiz]])&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;.

==== Vwayaje nan Ewòp ak Chili ====
Ant 1955 ak 1956, Luchita Hurtado te vizite manman l nan Venezyela ak Matthews; li di li trè enspire pa twopik montay yo&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;. Soti nan 1955 rive 1958, Mullican te nan [[São Paulo]], [[Brezil]], nan kad yon pwogram echanj atis&lt;ref name=&quot;sullivangoss&quot;&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https:/ /www.sullivangoss.com/artists/lee-mullican-1919-1998|title=Biyografi Lee Mullican|site=sullivangoss.com|accessed on=2021-07-26}}.&lt;/ ref&gt;.

Mullican te bay [[Guggenheim Fellowship]] epi fanmi an te vwayaje nan [[Itali]] an 1959, kote yo te rankontre sinatè [[Federico Fellini]], pèseptè atizay [[ Peggy. Guggenheim]] ak atis [[Louise Nevelson]], [[Willem de Kooning]] ak [[Isamu Noguchi]]. Yo te kontinye vwayaj yo nan rès Ewòp lè yo te aprann swisid Paalen nan menm ane sa a. Lè yo te retounen soti nan Ewòp an 1960, yo te rete nan eta New York, anvan yo te retounen nan Kalifòni, kote Mullican te jwenn yon pwofesè nan [[University of California nan Los Angeles]] (UCLA).

Luchita Hurtado ak Lee Mullican te fè dezyèm pitit gason yo John an 1962. Gras a yon bous detid ant UCLA ak [[University of Chile]], fanmi an te vwayaje nan [[Chili]] an 1968, pase nan Venezyela; yo te travèse [[Peru]] ak [[Ekwador (peyi)|Ekwatè]] sou wout yo tounen ane annapre a.

====Enstalasyon nan Taos====
An 1972, Hurtado ak Mullican te bati yon kay nan [[Taos]], kote li te ekspoze nan Galeri Tally Richards an 1970. Li se [[atis rezidans]] nan [[Tamarind Institute]], yon atelye [[litografi]] ki te fonde an 1970, kounye a anba [[University of New Mexico]], nan [[Albuquerque]] . Nan Taos, li te vin pwòch atis [[Agnès Martin (pent)|Agnès Martin]], ki gen penti ki gen yon ton trè klè te gen yon enfliyans sou travay tèks ki gen koulè pal ke Hurtado te pwodwi pandan ane 1970 yo&lt; ref name=&quot;artstory &quot;/&gt;.

===Awakening atistik ak feminis===
{{Medya ekstèn|image1=[https://i.guim.co.uk/img/media/78c1ab0b4e0a2eec02ccb47730f4b148e17daf66/0_173_2206_1323/master/2206.jpg?width=620&amp;quality=85=auto=max&amp;format=85&amp;automax&amp;format=85&amp;automax&amp;format1824 eb184ec62b0 Luchita Hurtado an 1973], nan Kalifòni, foto l pa fil li s Matt Mullican&lt;ref name=&quot;guardian&quot;/&gt;.}}

Pandan tout lavi li, e malgre ankourajman Lee Mullican, Luchita Hurtado te mete pitit li yo, mari l 'ak atizay lèt la anvan pwòp tèt li, penti sèlman nan tan lib li. {{Quote|Mwen te tèlman admire travay Lee a ke tout enèji mwen te konsakre nan travay li [...] e li te trè difisil pou mwen aksepte ke mwen t ap travay tou{{Remak|tèks=Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle: {{foreign quote|language=en|Mwen te tèlman admire travay Lee a ke tout enèji mwen te ale nan travay li […] e li te trè difisil pou mwen aksepte ke mwen menm tou, mwen t ap travay&lt;ref name=&quot; jebb2020&quot;/ &gt;.}}|group=alpha}}}}, li te revele an 2012. Li eksplike ke li pa t janm chèche montre, vann oswa pibliye travay li yo, epi lè li te gen vizitè, li te vire penti li yo anfas miray la. Atitid li te chanje lè li te patisipe nan {{lien|langue=en|trad=Feminist art movement|fr=mouvement Artistique feminist}}&lt;nowiki&gt; nan kòmansman ane 1970 yo: li te rantre nan {{Lang|en|Los Angeles Council of Women Artists }. } (Council of Women Artists of Los Angeles) an 1971 ak ane annapre a te patisipe nan yon ekspozisyon gwoup feminis, &lt;/nowiki&gt;{{foreign quote|language=en|Invisible/Visible}}, nan {{Link|Long Beach Museum of Art } &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{book|language=en|author={{Link|Long Beach Museum of Art}}|title=Envizib/vizib; 21 Atis|subtitle=Katalòg Egzibisyon an 26 Mas Jiska 23 Avril 1972|editè=Mize Atizay|ane=1972|total paj=59|li sou entènèt=https://books.google.fr/books/ about/Invisible_visible_21_Artists .html?id=DU7dGAAACAAJ|id=invisible}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Judy Chicago]] ak Dextra Frankel te òganize. Dènye a eksplike ke nan tablo ''{{Lang|en|Self Portrait}}'' (1971), Hurtado {{quote|gade anba epi li wè tèt li yon fason ke gason pa janm wè fanm{ {Remak|tèks=Original quote an Angle: {{foreign quote|language=en|[atis la] gade anba epi li wè tèt li yon fason gason pa janm wè fanm}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvsp|text=Frankel, 1972| p=30|id= envizib}} te site pa {{atik|language=en|author=Catherine Wagley|title=Luchita Hurtado: Fason gason pa janm wè fanm |periodical=Flash Art|number=321|mwa=Jen-Out |ane=2018|li online=https://flash---art.com/article/the-way-men-never-see-women/#_ednref4}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.|group=alpha} }}}. Li te deja pwodwi yon seri nan ane 1960 yo lè l sèvi avèk pwen de vi sa a: ''{{Lang|es|Yo soy}}''{{Note|texte=Anpil sous ki pale angle tit seri sa a ''{{Lang|en | I am}}'', ki se tradiksyon angle ''{{Lang|es|Yo soy}}'' (&quot;Mwen se&quot;, an panyòl), non orijinal la&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;. |group=alpha|name=yosoy}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{,}}.

{{Medya ekstèn|aliman=gòch|image1=[https://www.lacma.org/sites/default/files/inline-images/LHS.115.jpg Enstalasyon penti Hurtado yo pandan egzibisyon nan bilding Fanm nan]&lt;ref name=&quot;lacma&quot;/ &gt;.}}
Nan ane 1970 yo, Luchita Hurtado, ki te kontinye patisipe nan reyinyon {{Lang|en|Los Angeles Council of Women Artists}}, te kreye yon gwoup ki pi piti ak kèk nan manm li yo ki gen ladan [[Vija Celmins]], [[Alexis Smith. ]], Avilda Moses, [[Mako Idemitsu]], {{Link|Johanna Demetrakas}}, {{Link|Barbara Haskell}}, Susan Titelman, [[Miriam Schapiro]], ak [[Judy Chicago] ] ak ki moun ki rete an kontak pandan plizyè ane{{,}}{{,}}&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;wallstreet&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{Lyen web|language=en|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/artist-luchita-hurtado-breaks-out-at-age-99-11581514007|title=Atis Luchita Hurtado Breaks Out at Age 99|site=&lt;nowiki&gt;[ [Wall Street Jounal]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;|date=2020-02-12|accessed=2021-07-10}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Li te fè premye egzibisyon solo li an 1974 nan [[Woman's Building (Los Angeles)|Woman's Building]] nan Los Angeles, ki gen tit {{foreign quote|language=en|Luchita Hurtado. Grandview One} &lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;. Li montre penti gwo fòma ki parèt nan premye gade yo se abstraksyon jewometrik, men ki sitou gen ladan mo ak fraz entegre. Hurtado te koupe kèk twal nan bann, rekonfigire epi koud tounen ansanm&lt;ref name=&quot;lacma&quot;/&gt;.

Malgre ke Hurtado te patisipe epi pataje kwayans feminis ak anpil gwoup, lè yo te mande l pou l rantre nan yon chapit West Coast nan [[Guerrilla Girls]] yo, li te refize&lt;ref name=&quot;wagley2017&quot;&gt;{{ Web link|langue=en|url= https://www.artnews.com/art-news/artists/a-lifes-work-as-her-career-surges-luchita-hurtado-discusses-her-eight-decades -in-art-7641/|title =Travay yon lavi: Pandan repitasyon l ap ogmante, Luchita Hurtado ap diskite sou Long Karyè li|author=Catherine G. Wagley|date=2017-01-20|accessed on=2021-07-10} }.&lt;/ref&gt;. Li piti piti deplase lwen gwoup atis feminis, ak ki moun li pa pataje menm konsepsyon atis la&lt;ref name=&quot;wagley2017&quot;/&gt;.nan yon echanj nan ekspozisyon: youn prezante [[ati kontanporen Ameriken]] nan peyi Zend, ki te òganize pa Mullican; lòt la prezante atizay Endyen kontanporen nan [[University of California nan Los Angeles]]&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;. Lòt vwayaj te fèt Ozetazini ak plizyè peyi Ewopeyen, e Luchita Hurtado te vin yon grann de fwa nan lane 1994&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;.

Hurtado te fè eksperyans lanmò Lee Mullican an 1998 kòm yon chòk, ki te pèdi, li di, {{quote|lapè nan lespri}} ke li te bezwen pentire. Pi gran pitit gason l ', Daniel del Solar Jr te mouri nan 2012&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;.

=== Yon rekonesans trè an reta ===
Rekonesans li trè an reta&lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;nyt2020&quot;/&gt;: apa de travay li pou [[Bloomingdale's]], [[Condé Nast]], ak de Los Egzibisyon nan Anjeles kote li te patisipe, travay Hurtado te lajman enkoni jiska 2015. Ryan Good, ansyen direktè estidyo pou Lee Mullican, te kataloge byen li lè li te rankontre yon kantite penti ki te siyen &quot;LH&quot;. Lè li kesyone Hurtado, ke li konnen sèlman sou non li marye, li aprann ke li se atis ki dèyè travay sa yo&lt;ref name=&quot;guardian&quot;&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url =https://www.theguardian. com/artanddesign/2020/aug/16/luchita-hurtado-obituary|title=Luchita Hurtado obituary|author=Hettie Judah|date=2020-08-16|sit=[[The Guardian ]]|accessed on=2021-07 -17}}.&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;/&gt;. Good te montre tablo sa yo bay Paul Soto, fondatè Park View Gallery, ki te òganize dezyèm egzibisyon solo atis la: {{foreign quote|language=en|Luchita Hurtado: Selected Works, 1942-1952}}, ki te fèt ap fèt. soti {{date-|Novanm 2016}} rive {{date-|Janvye 2017}}&lt;ref name=&quot;fichehauser&quot;&gt;{{Lyen web|langue=en|url=https://www.hauserwirth.com/ atis /23262-luchita-hurtado|title=Luchita Hurtado|sit=[[Hauser &amp; Wirth]]|accessed on=2021-07-13}}.&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;expoparkview&quot; &gt; {{Lyen web|language=en|url=https://www.parkview2014-2018.com/luchitahurtadomullicannovember16|title=Egzibisyon an “Luchita Hurtado: Selected Works, 1942-1952”|site=Park View Gallery|accessed on= 2021-07-13}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Egzibisyon sa a mete yon gwo dokiman Pwen Enpòtan sou travay la nan Luchita Hurtado, ki toudenkou akeri t'ap nonmen non. Apre yon egzibisyon nan Annenberg Community Beach House nan Santa Monica (2017)&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;, kèk nan travay li yo enkli nan {{foreign quote|language=en|Made in L.A.}} biennial [ [Hammer Museum]] an 2018: finalman li benefisye de enterè espesyalis kritik yo, menmsi li gen {{nobr|97 ane}}&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;. Nan egzibisyon sa a, vitalite ak aktualite nan travay li yo, pi fò nan yo te pwodwi nan ane 1970 yo, obsèvatè grèv. Travay li melanje [[Atis abstrè|abstrakte]] [[Biomòfis|biomòfik]] fòm, motif endijèn ak figi totemik plis figuratif, kote li reprezante pati nan kò fi a&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;{ {,} &lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://www.kcrw.com/culture/shows/art-talk/wrapping-up-2016-with-art|title=Wrapping up 2016 with art |author=Hunter Drohojowska-Philp|dat=2016-12-22|accessed on=2021-07-08}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Li dekri kòm {{sitasyon|nouvo dekouvèt esansyèl{{Remak|tèks=ekspresyon orijinal la: {{quote etranje|langu=en|nouvo dekouvèt cho}}.|gwoup=alpha}}}} egzibisyon an pa ' ' [[Los Angeles Times]]'' epi li te resevwa yon resepsyon trè favorab&lt;ref name=&quot;whyhotdiscovery&quot;&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/ miranda /la-et-cam-luchita-hurtado-hammer-biennial-20180705-story.html|author=Carolina A. Miranda|title=Poukisa Luchita Hurtado nan 97 se dekouvèt cho nan 'Made in LA' Hammer's biennial| dat =2018-07-05|sit=[[Los Angeles Times]]|accessed on=2021-07-13}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Travay li te atire atansyon [[Hans-Ulrich Obrist]], yon konsèvate atizay Swis ak direktè atistik nan [[Serpentine Galleries]] nan Lond, kote li te fè premye ekspozisyon entènasyonal li a, ki gen tit {{quote etranje |lang== ht|Luchita Hurtado: Mwen Viv Mwen Mouri Mwen Pral Reborn}} an 2019&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;{{Web link|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk -england- london-48384280/london-artist-hosts-first-gallery-exhibition-aged-98|title=London atis òganize premye ekspozisyon galri ki gen laj 98 an|sit=BBC|date=2019-05-24|otè=Jamie Moreland ak Michael McKenzie }}.&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;{{Lyen Web|language=en|url=https://www.serpentinegalleries.org/whats-on/luchita -hurtado- i-live-i-die-i-will-be-reborn/|title=Luchita Hurtado: I Live I Die I Will Be Reborn|sit=[[Serpentine Galleries]]|accessed on=2021-07- 10}} .&lt;/ref&gt;. Menm ane a, Luchita Hurtado te enkli nan klasman “''{{Lang|en|TIME 100: Most Influential People 2019}}''”; Lè sa a, li te {{nobr|98 ane}}&lt;ref name=&quot;+2&quot;&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://time.com/collectio

=== Nouvo vwayaj ak lanmò Lee Mullican ===
Fanmi an te vwayaje nan [[End]] an 1980, ki te dirije n/100-most-influential-people-2019/|title=TIME 100: Most Influential People 2019|site=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|accessed on=2021-07-08}}.&lt;/ref &gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://time.com/collection/100-most-influential-people-2019/5567871/luchita-hurtado/|title=100 moun ki pi enfliyan 2019: Luchita Hurtado|otè=Hans Ulrich Obrist|sit=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|accessed=2021-07-08}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Malgre ke li te resevwa rekonesans an reta pou travay li, Hurtado pa te gen okenn resantiman sou li. Nan yon entèvyou 2019 ak yon lòt atis, {{Link|Andrea Bowers}}, pou Ursula magazin, li te di: {{quote|Mwen pa santi kòlè, reyèlman pa. Mwen tankou, ou konnen, &quot;Ki jan estipid nan yo.&quot; Petèt moun ki t ap gade sa m t ap fè yo pa t gen je pou tan kap vini an e, kidonk, pa t gen je pou prezan{{Remak|tèks=Original quotes angle: {{foreign quote |langue=en|Mwen pa santi kòlè, mwen. reyèlman pa fè sa. Mwen santi, ou konnen: 'Ki jan estipid nan yo.' Petèt moun ki t ap gade sa m t ap fè yo pa t gen je pou tan kap vini an e, kidonk, pa t gen je pou prezan&lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;/&gt;.}}|group=alpha}}.}}

{{Medya ekstèn | image1 = [https://dmdlnu87i51n1.cloudfront.net/v1/uk/ck5o3sdy820vu0133jv8y12ls/0x0:1067x1600/960x960/320_in_luchita_hurtadoh_portrait_03.jpg circa 0:201 Hurtadoh_portrait_03.jpg /&gt;.}}

Luchita Hurtado te rete aktif nan domèn atistik jouk li mouri. Nan {{date-|Fevriye 2020}}, [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]] ap montre yon etid enpòtan sou karyè li, ki konplete ak bati sou egzibisyon Lond&lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;/&gt; {{, }}&lt;ref name=&quot;lacma&quot;/&gt;.

Luchita Hurtado te mouri {{date-|13 out 2020}}, de mwa edmi anvan {{nobr|100 ane li yo}}&lt;ref name=&quot;nyt2020&quot;&gt;{{Lyen web|language=en|url= https: //www.nytimes.com/2020/08/14/arts/luchita-hurtado-dead.html|author=Karen Rosenberg|date=2020-08-14|title=Luchita Hurtado, Atis ki te vin tounen yon sansasyon nan Her 90s , Dies at 99|sit=[[The New York Times]]|accessed on=2021-07-08}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Travay ==
Pandan karyè long li, Luchita Hurtado te kenbe yon angajman solid nan eksperimantasyon eksperimantal ak estil, fòm, ak materyèl, ak atravè yon seri medya&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;.

{{Medya ekstèn | aliman = gòch | image1 = [https://www.artnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/1-17artistsluchita-hurtado1.jpg ''Untitled'' soti nan 1942]. Premye lwil oliv atis la li te ye sou twal: yon {{quote|semi-abstraksyon de sèf aplati k ap bwè nan lalin lan} &lt;ref name=&quot;wagley2017&quot;/&gt;. Dapre Tess Thackara, penti sa a ta fè lyen ak surrealist Meksiken ak penti pre-istorik, byenke li poko vizite Meksik oswa gwòt Lascaux ak Altamira&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;/&gt;.}}
Nan ane 1940 yo ak ane 1950 yo, li sitou pwodui penti, desen ak enprime sijè abstrè, peyizaj biomòfik ak figi totemik ak motif endijèn. name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;expoparkview&quot;/&gt;. Enfliyans gwoup Dynaton a te santi nan peryòd sa a, ak modèl abstrè nan koulè klere ki sanble yo trikote ansanm&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;/&gt;. Se la li devlope konsepsyon limanite, linivè ak lanati, tèm santral pou li&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;. Dapre Wagley, zèv li yo {{quote|plis entwitif òganik pase sa yo nan kanmarad li yo [...] dimansyon ak teksti yo soti prensipalman nan fason lank la akimile alantou kreyon an sir{{Remak|tèks =Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle. : {{foreign quote|language=en|Anpil travay nan Park View la montre ki soti nan ane Hurtado te viv nan Meksik gen yon kalite ki pi flate, ki pi entwitif pase òganik parèy li yo. Pa gen okenn sèn kokenn, ak kèk figi idantifye. Dimansyon ak teksti an soti sitou nan fason lank flak dlo alantou kreyon sir&lt;ref name=&quot;wagley2017&quot;/&gt;.}}|group=alpha}}}}.

Apati ane 1960 yo, li te vin pi pre [[atizay figuratif]] pou l evoke plis sijè politik ak sosyal, tankou mouvman [[liberasyon fanm]] ak [[mouvman ekolojik]] ki t ap parèt nan Etazini. tan. Li apwofondi vizyon li sou pwòp kò li, sou prezans li, sou pouvwa li: kò li vin santral nan travay li, epi li asosye li ak senbòl ki defini kondisyon fanm nan: fwi yo reprezante seksyalite li{{Note|texte= Luchita Hurtado. iwonilman konbine de nosyon atravè itilizasyon fwi: tou de senbolis kretyen (pòm nan se [[fwi entèdi]]) ak koub sensual fwi (espesyalman pwa) ki sonje sa yo ki nan kò a nan 'yon fanm&lt;ref name=&quot; artstoryartworks&quot;/&gt;.|group=alpha|non=fwi}}; lenn mouton ak Wicker travay domestik li ak jwèt plas li nan fanmi an&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;. Li melanje tou pati nan kò li ak eleman jaden flè pou reyafime koneksyon ki genyen ant kò imen an ak lanati&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;.

Pandan envantè a te fè an 2015 pa Ryan Good, direktè nan Mullican Estate a, li te idantifye prèske {{unit|1200|penti}} san dat, ki apeprè youn sou ven te siyen &quot;LH&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/ &gt;. Li rapòte tou konnen bijou li te fè pou [[Isamu Noguchi]] ak [[Sam Francis]], rad ki fèt pou [[Agnès Martin (pennt)|Agnes Martin]]&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/ &gt;. Apre dekouvèt sa a pa Good, Luchita Hurtado te gen yon pwomotè (Park View/Paul Soto, nan Los Angeles ak Brussels) pou premye fwa nan lavi li an 2018, nan {{nobr|97 ane fin vye granmoun}}&lt;ref name =&quot;artstory &quot;/&gt;.

=== Surrealism, atizay abstrè ak entegrasyon eleman endijèn ===
{{Medya ekstèn | image1 = [https://www.lacma.org/sites/default/files/inline-images/EX8929_003-HURTA94063-access.jpg ''Untitled'' soti nan 1950]. Yon egzanp yon penti kote Hurtado entegre fòm byomòfik ak motif pre-Kolonbyen kote li kreye {{quote|enèji vibran}} atravè teknik pou aplike yon lave lank sou desen kreyon&lt;ref name=&quot;lacma &quot;/&gt;.}}
Hurtado te angaje nan diferan estil epi li te trase eleman ki soti nan mouvman atizay avan-gard ak modernis {{s-|XX}}, tankou [[Surrealism]], [[Atis abstrè|abstraksyon]] ak [[realis majik] ]&lt;ref name=&quot;dailyart&quot;&gt;{{Lyen Web|language=en|url=https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/luchita-hurtado/|title=Luchita Hurtado: Atizay ak lavi pandan yon syèk|author=Jennifer S. Musawwir|date=2020-09-06|site=dailyartmagazine.com|accessed=2021-07-14}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Kritik atizay ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' [[Christopher Knight (kritik atizay)|Christopher Knight]] kwè ke {{quote|fòm vag sureèl nan desen li yo sonje piktogram yo dans divès kilti, ansyen ak modèn. Men sa yo enkli [[Atis wòch|penti twou wòch pre-istorik]], [[Atis Endyen Nò Ameriken|atizay tribi Nòdwès ak Sidwès]], soulajman [[Atis pre-kolonbyen|pre-Kolonbyen]] ak penti ak eskilti [[Abstraksyon (atizay)|Rezime]]{{Nòt|tèks=Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle: {{foreign quote|language=en|Fòm sireyalis desen li yo raple piktograf dans ki soti nan yon varyete kilti, ansyen ak modèn. Pami yo gen penti gwòt pre-istorik, Art tribi Nòdwès ak Sidwès, soulajman prekolonbyen ak penti ak eskilti abstrè yo&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts /la-ca-cm-hurtado-parkview-20161228-htmlstory.html|author=[[Christopher Knight (kritik atizay)|Christopher Knight]]|title=Luchita Hurtado travay atistik abstrè melanje kilti tankou koulè, pou yon efè eksitan| sit= [[Los Angeles Times]]|date=2016-12-28|accessed on=2021-07-08}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.}}|group=alpha}}.}}

Konsèvate [[Hans-Ulrich Obrist]] {{incise|òganizatè retwospektiv London li a&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;/&gt;}} te di konsènan Hurtado: {{quote|Luchita te toujou gen yon idantite trè likid, sa ki fè li. atizay tèlman pre {{s-|XXI}} la. Nou dwe byen plase l nan kontèks [[avant-garde (ati)|avant-garde]] istorik la, paske li te yon kontanporen [[Frida Kahlo]], li te konnen [[Diego Rivera]] e li te marye ak [[Wolfgang Paalen]], yon figi kle nan [[surrealism]] {{incise|e li se yon figi kle nan sirèalis espirityèl, ki gen yon koneksyon ak atizay pre-Kolonbyen, men youn pa ka fèmen nan la tou|fen. }}{{Remak|tèks=
Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle:
{{foreign quote|language=en|Luchita te toujou gen idantite sa a trè likid, ki fè atizay li tèlman 21yèm syèk. Nou dwe kontèkstualize li klèman ak avangard istorik la, paske li se yon kontanporen nan Frida Kahlo, li te konnen Diego Rivera e li te marye ak Wolfgang Paalen, yon figi kle nan surrealis - epi li se yon figi kle nan sirèalis espirityèl, ak yon koneksyon ak atizay pre-Kolonbyen, men nou pa ka fèmen li nan sa
&lt;ref&gt;[[Hans-Ulrich Obrist]] site nan {{Lyen Web|langue=en|url=https://www.theartstory.org/artist/hurtado-luchita/life-and-legacy/|title=Luchita Hurtado|site=theartstory.org|accessed on=2021-07-13}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.}}
|gwoup=alpha}}.
}} Li ajoute ke li te navige yon syèk nan kontèks diferan ak jwe yon wòl enpòtan nan chak nan yo. Dapre li, nan travay li, Luchita Hurtado twouble fwontyè ki genyen ant monn mikwo ak makroskopik; li se nan forefront nan non sèlman sirèalis espirityèl, men tou, atizay feminis ak mouvman atizay anviwònman an.

=== Apwòch feminis ===
{{Medya ekstèn | aliman = gòch | image1 = [https://www.dailyartmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/LuchitaHurtado1971.jpg ''Untitled'' soti nan 1971]. Nan penti sa a, Lu Chita Hurtado fè yon pòtrè pwòp tèt ou nan pwen de vi sijè a ap gade anba nan pye l, tankou nan ''{{Lang|en|Self Portrait}}'' nan menm ane a&lt;ref name=&quot;dailyart&quot;/&gt; .}}

Nan ane 1970 yo, Luchita Hurtado te patisipe nan {{lien|langue=en|trad=Feminist art movement|fr=mouvement Artistique feminist}}, youn nan etap enpòtan yo te genyen ekspozisyon ''{{Lang|en|Womanhouse } }'' an 1973. Li te swiv pa inogirasyon [[Woman's Building (Los Angeles)|Woman's Building]], kote Hurtado te prezante premye egzibisyon solo li ane annapre&lt;ref name=&quot;dailyart&quot;/&gt;.

Luchita sanble te {{quote|antisipe estrateji atistik feminis ane 1970 yo}}: li te entegre imaj [[matris la]] nan travay li byen anvan [[ati feminis]] entegre menm sijè a pandan atizay feminis la. mouvman nan fen ane 1970 yo&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;.

{{Medya ekstèn | image1 = [https://www.lacma.org/sites/default/files/inline-images/EX8929_046-HW.jpg ''Untitled'' soti nan 1971]. Nan otopòtrè sa yo ki pentire nan pwen de vi atis la ap gade nan direksyon pwòp kò li, nou ka wè manm kò li ansanm ak objè chak jou, yo nan lòd yo tradwi okipasyon li nan lavi domestik ak fanmi&lt;ref name=&quot; lacma &quot;/&gt;.}}
Pami zèv li yo ki pi koni, se seri ''{{Lang|es|Yo soy}}''{{Note|group=alpha|nom=yosoy}} ki soti nan ane 1960 yo: otopòtrè Hurtado te pentire gade pwòp tèt li. kò, souvan nan klozèt, paske se sèl kote li te kapab travay ant leve timoun yo ak kouri kay la&lt;ref name=&quot;ocula&quot;&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https ://ocula.com /artists/luchita-hurtado/|title=Biyografi Luchita Hurtado|site=ocula.com|accessed on=2021-07-14}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Nan ane 1970 yo, atis feminis yo t ap chèche reprann seksyalite yo; Hurtado konplètman anbrase pwòp tèt li: {{quote|Mwen te toujou yon moun trè sexy e mwen te aksepte sèks kòm yon pati nan lavi mwen. Legliz Katolik te fè li yon bagay nwa, kòm yon fason yo kontwole moun. Yo te fè yon bagay sal soti nan li{{Remak|text=Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle: {{foreign quote|language=en|Mwen te toujou yon moun trè sexy, epi mwen te aksepte sèks kòm yon pati nan lavi. Legliz Katolik te fè li yon bagay nwa, kòm yon fason pou kontwole moun. Yo te fè l 'nan yon bagay sal&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;/&gt;.}}|group=alpha}}.}} Yon opozisyon ke nou jwenn nan itilizasyon fwi nan travay li yo{{Remak|group =alpha| name=fruits}}{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;/&gt;. Anne Ellegood, ansyen konsèvatè [[Hammer Museum]] soti 2009 rive 2019, te di konsènan seri sa a: {{quote|ou ka imajine ki jan yo te enpòtan nan epòk sa a an tèm de atis fi ki te reprann kapasite pou yo reprezante pwòp kò yo. epi deplase sa yo rele gade gason an epi kontwole gade sa a{{Remak|tèks=Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle: {{foreign quote|language=en|ou ka imajine ki jan yo te gen sans nan epòk sa a an tèm de atis fi yo te reprann la. kapasite pou reprezante pwòp kò yo epi chanje sa yo rele gade gason an epi kontwole gade sa a&lt;ref name=&quot;artstory&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;.}}| group=alpha}} }}.

Romansye ak kritik {{link|Yxta Maya Murray}}, nan {{'}}''[[Artforum]]'', te dekri zèv li ki dekri fanm toutouni kòm yo te {{quote|mwens konsantre sou plezi ak mwens sou. plezi ak trajectoire kò [la] pase sou sispansyon li nan moman otreman jete&lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;whyhotdiscovery&quot;/&gt;.}}|group=alpha}}} }. Hans-Ulrich Obrist te di ke travay metriz Hurtado a ofri yon pèspektiv ekstraòdinè ki atire atansyon sou kwen yo nan kò nou ak lang nou itilize a pon diferans ki genyen ant tèt nou ak lòt moun. Lè Luchita konbine jès entim nan kò a ak gwo pwen de vi sou syèl la ak latè a, Luchita trase yon tisi konjonktif visceral ant nou tout{{Nòt|tèks=Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle: {{quote etranje|language=en |[Hurtado a] metriz travay ofri. yon pèspektiv ekstraòdinè ki konsantre atansyon sou bor yo nan kò nou yo ak lang ke nou itilize nan pon diferans ki genyen ant tèt nou ak lòt moun. Lè w konekte jès entim kò a ak gwo opinyon sou syèl la ak tè a, Luchita trase yon tisi konjonktif visceral ant nou tout&lt;ref name=&quot;+2&quot; /&gt;.}}|group=alpha}}}}.

=== Enkyetid anviwònman ===
{{Medya ekstèn | aliman = gòch | image1 = [https://web.archive.org/web/20210724214245/https://www.artsy.net/artwork/luchita-hurtado-untitled-8 ''Untitled'' (''{{Lang|es|Aire Agua Mundo Fuego}}'') soti nan 2018]. {{Quote|Mwen trè enplike nan sa k ap pase nan mond lan jodi a, epi se lafen mond lan, e pa gen moun. pa vle koute. Se konsa mwen te rive nan 'lè, dlo, dife...' Se yon fason pou fè yon deklarasyon san kenbe anpil siy. Mwen twò granmoun pou m kenbe siy. Mwen te konn fè li, men mwen pa fè sa ankò [...] Mwen vrèman santi mwen fè pati planèt sa a. Sa a te trè fò ak enfliyan pandan tout lavi mwen. Se poutèt sa mwen rekonèt ke yon pye bwa se kouzen mwen. Mwen gen yon responsablite anvè mond lan, anvè planèt mwen an{{Remak|tèks=Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle: {{foreign quote|language=en|Mwen trè enplike nan sa k ap pase nan mond lan jodi a, epi li nan fen a. mond, e pèsonn pa vle koute. Se konsa mwen te rive nan 'lè, dlo, dife...' Se yon fason pou fè yon deklarasyon san yo pa ale plen klozèt. Mwen twò gran poum kenbe kofr ankò. Mwen te konn fè, men mwen pa fè sa ankò [...] Kounye a se lè ak dlo ak dife, latè. Eleman yo. Se tè a, e se sa mwen enkyete. [...] Mwen santi mwen anpil ke mwen fè pati planèt sa a. Sa a te trè fò ak enfliyan tout lavi mwen. Se poutèt sa mwen rekonèt ke yon pye bwa se kouzen mwen. Mwen gen yon responsablite anvè mond lan, anvè planèt mwen an&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;&gt;{{Web link|langue=en|url=https://www.theartstory.org/artist/hurtado-luchita/artworks/|title =Progresyon atizay|site=theartstory.org|accessed on=2021-07-24}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.}}|group=alpha}}.}}}}

Dapre ''[[New York Times]]'', nan dènye ane li yo, tèm anviwònman travay li yo te vin pi espesifik ak pi ijan, pandan li te adrese pwoblèm [[chanjman klimatik]]. Kèk nan dènye penti ak travay li yo sou papye ajoute tèks tankou ''{{Lang|en|Water Air Earth}}'', ''{{Lang|en|Nou se jis yon espès}}'' ak ''{ ​​{ Lang|en|Manman Lanati}}, ak imaj karakteristik li yo nan figi ak pozisyon lajè ak bra louvri, ki sanble yo melanje nan pye bwa ki antoure yo. Li te di ke lè li te rive nan [[planèt]] sa a, li te espere ke li pa te twò ta pou moun fè yon diferans&lt;ref name=&quot;painter planetarian&quot;&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url= https://www.hauserwirth .com/ursula/24258-painter-planetarian-luchita-hurtado|title=The Painter and the Planetaryan: Luchita Hurtado|sit=[[Hauser &amp; Wirth]]|year=2019|accessed= 2021-07-14}}. &lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;ocula&quot;/&gt;. Gen lòt, ki te repete pèspektiv tèt anba nan travay anvan li yo, te montre glòb k ap parèt tankou tibebe ki soti nan kanal nesans la&lt;ref name=&quot;latimes2020&quot;/&gt;.

Li pèsonnifye lanati nan enkli ak lye moun: li kreye mwatye pye bwa, mwatye karaktè imen ak peyizaj kòporèl; li sèvi ak motif natirèl, k ap chèche kreye sensualite ak branch, fèy ak fwi&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;. Li eksplike vizyon li konsa: {{quote|Latè se planèt mwen an, epi mwen patisipe ak tout moun nan monn sa a...Mwen pran swen sa k ap pase planèt nou an. [...] Nou tout sou planèt sa a epi nou tout konekte, epi fanmi ki pi pwòch nou an se yon pye bwa, paske yo respire epi nou respire{{Nòt|tèks=Sitasyon etranje an Angle: {{quote etranje|lang =en|Tè a se planèt mwen an, e mwen patisipe ak tout moun nan mond sa a... Mwen pran swen sa k ap pase sou planèt nou an. [...] Nou tout sou planèt sa a epi nou tout gen rapò, e pi pwòch fanmi nou an se yon pye bwa, paske yo respire epi nou respire&lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;.}}|group=alpha} }.}}
{{Medya ekstèn | image1 = [https://web.archive.org/web/20250125193253/https://www.hauserwirth.com/artists/23262-luchita-hurtado/?modal=media-player&amp;mediaType=artwork ''Kòd lonbrit Latè a se Lalin nan'' depi 1977]. Sarah Lehrer-Graiwer entèprete travay la jan sa a: {{quote|Wè syèl la kòm yon po lonje mennen nan yon ranvèse pèsepsyon ki envèse espas pozitif ak negatif. Fè chanjman espasyal sibtil men enòm sa a egzèse koneksyon je-sèvo a dousman, sa ki mennen nou nan pi bon kesyon fòm resevwa yo ak sipoze relasyon ant bagay sa yo{{Remak|tèks=Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle: {{quote etranje|language=en |Wè syèl la. kòm yon po lonje enplike yon baskile pèsepsyon ki envèse espas pozitif ak negatif. Fè chanjman espasyal sibtil men enòm sa a fè egzèsis koneksyon an je-sèvo, fòmasyon nou pi byen entèwoje fòm resevwa yo ak sipoze relasyon ant bagay sa yo&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;/&gt;.}}|group=alpha}}}.}}}}
Louise Wise kwè ke penti Luchita Hurtado ki sanble ak kolore, tankou sa yo ki nan seri plim nan fen ane 1970 yo (&quot;{{Lang|en|Sky skins}}&quot;), pa anfòm nan okenn {{incise|[[surrealism] aktyèl. ], [[realism majik]] oswa [[Atis prekolonbyen|atizay tribi]]}} men {{quote|reflete sousi pwofon li pou lanati ak kilti endijèn li te rankontre nan yon lavi ki te rich nan evènman yo{{Remak. |tèks=Sitasyon orijinal la nan lang angle: {{foreign quote|language=en|yo reflete gwo enkyetid li genyen pou lanati ak d kilti endijèn li te rankontre nan yon lavi ki te chaje aksyon&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;/&gt;.}}|group=alpha}}}}. Sarah Lehrer-Graiwer analize ke fizyon ki genyen ant kò a ak anviwònman an, pwòp tèt ou ak Cosmos ke Hurtado opere se reprezantan nan [[anvironmentalism la]] pasyone ki te vin santral ak ijan nan atis la&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot; /&gt; .

Youn nan penti Hurtado yo, ''{{Lang|en|The Last Leaf of Rachel Carson}}'' (&quot;Dènye fèy Rachel Carson&quot;, yon lanmè ak orizon ki fòme pa yon fèy) se yon omaj bay [[Rachel. Carson]], byolojis maren ak otè liv ''[[Silent Spring]]'', ki avèti sou danje ki genyen nan anpwazònman pestisid e ki bay nesans mouvman anviwonmantal nan tout mond lan &lt;ref name=&quot;jebb2020&quot;/&gt;.

=== Seri &quot;Akouchman&quot; ===
{{Medya ekstèn | aliman = gòch | image1 = [https://www.wikiart.org/en/luchita-hurtado/untitled-birthing-2019 ''Untitled'' (''Childbirthing'') soti nan 2019] (acrylique ak lank sou papye).
Nan seri sa a, Luchita Hurtado tou kontinye fè eksperyans ak diferan teknik, kreye akwatint, ki se yon teknik nan '[[gravure]].}}
Nan 2019, Luchita Hurtado te kreye yon seri &quot;pinti akouchman&quot; ki reprezante moman akouchman an wè nan pwen de vi manman an, menm jan ak seri ''{{Lang|es|Yo soy}}''. Tèt tibebe ki fèk fèt la parèt ant janm yo ak je lèt la yo toujou make: li gade manman l ', asire sik la repwodiksyon.&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;/&gt;

Li te abòde tèm matènite nan plizyè okazyon, ke li konsidere kòm youn nan moman kote nou pi fò santi koneksyon nou ak monn natirèl, bèt, terès la {{gen ladann|toujou obsèvasyon sa a ke {{ quote|nou tout se. konekte}}|fen}}. Konsa, li konbine apwòch feminis ak anviwònman an, mete sèn akouchman nan yon anviwònman natirèl, melanje pye bwa ak [[ògàn]] repwodiktif. Seri sa a, ki te pwodwi lè li te gen plis pase {{nobr|95 ane}}, ta fè lyen ki genyen ant fen a ak kòmansman an, lanmò ak nesans {{incise|yon sik lavi ki te fè entim pa pwen de vi yo te adopte, kite la. spektatè deyò sèn nan|fen}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;artstoryartworks&quot;/&gt;

== Egzibisyon ak retrospektiv ==
Pandan ke Luchita Hurtado te travay tout lavi li, li te ekspoze anpil ti {{incise|zanmi li yo menm yo pa t 'tout konnen ke li te yon atis|fen}}. Sa a se gras a egzibisyon premye zèv li yo nan Park View Gallery an 2016 e sitou ak enklizyon plizyè nan zèv li yo nan [[Hammer Museum]] 2018 la ki gen tit {{foreign quote|language= en|Made. nan L. A.}} ke popilarite li ap eksploze, menmsi karyè li gen tan fini epi li gen plis pase {{nobr|90 ane}}&lt;ref name=&quot;painter planetarian&quot;/&gt;.

=== Egzibisyon anvan redekouvèt li yo ===
==== Endividi ====
* [[Woman's Building (Los Angeles)|Woman's Building]], [[Los Angeles]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|Luchita Hurtado. Grandview One}} (1974)&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;

==== Kolektif ====
* Paul Kantor Gallery, [[Los Angeles]] (1953)&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;
* Galeri Tally Richards, [[Taos]] (1970)&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;
* {{Link|Long Beach Museum of Art}}, [[Long Beach (California)|Long Beach]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|Envizib/Vizib: 21 Atis}} (1972)&lt;ref&gt;{ {liv|language=en|author={{Link|Long Beach Museum of Art}}|tit=Envizib/vizib; 21 Atis|subtitle=Katalòg Egzibisyon an 26 Mas Jiska 23 Avril 1972|editè=Mize Atizay|ane=1972|total paj=59|li sou entènèt=https://books.google.fr/books/ about/Invisible_visible_21_Artists .html?id=DU7dGAAACAAJ}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{Link|language=en|trad=Carnegie Art Museum (Oxnard, Kalifòni)|fr=Carnegie Art Museum}}, [[Oxnard]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|The Mystical in Art. Chicano/Latino Penti}} (1994)&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;

=== Egzibisyon apre redekouvèt li yo ===
==== Endividi ====
* Galeri Park View, [[Los Angeles]]: {{quote etranje|language=en|Luchita Hurtado. Travay chwazi, 1942-1950}} (2016)&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;fichehauser&quot;/&gt;
* Galeri Night Club, [[Chicago]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|Lakay}} (2016)&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;fichehauser&quot;/&gt;
* {{Link|Annenberg Community Beach House}}, [[Santa Monica]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|Chifs ak ikon}} (2017)&lt;ref&gt;{{web link|name1=Casuso|premye non1 = Jorge|title=Travay anchanté atis Luchita Hurtado a nan ekspozisyon nan Santa Monica|url=https://www.surfsantamonica.com/ssm_site/the_lookout/news/News-2017/November-2017/11_17_2017_Artist_Luchita_Hurtados_WDisplay_html_Enchanted_Hurtados.html anta Monica Lookout |publisher=surfsantamonica.com|accessed on=2021-07-10}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Serpentine Galleries]], [[London]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|M ap viv mwen mouri mwen pral reborn}} (2019)&lt;ref non =&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref non=&quot;+1&quot; /&gt;
* [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]], Los Angeles: {{foreign quote|language=en|M ap viv mwen mouri mwen pral reborn}} (2020)&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt|language=en|url =https://www.lacma.org/art/exhibition/luchita-hurtado-i-live-i-die-i-will-be-reborn|title=Luchita Hurtado: Mwen Viv Mwen Mouri Mwen Pral Reborn|sit =[[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]]|accessed on=2021-07-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Hauser &amp; Wirth]], [[New York]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|Luchita Hurtado Together Forever}} (2020)&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|title=A Posthumous Kri batay Atis Luchita Hurtado nan nouvo emisyon li a &quot;Together Forever&quot; |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/luchita-hurtado|site=Vogue|accessed on=2021-07-10}}.&lt;/ ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen Web|language=en|url=https://www.hauserwirth.com/hauser-wirth-exhibitions/29566-luchita-hurtado-together-forever|title=Luchita Hurtado: Together Forever|sit=[[Hauser &amp; Wirth]]|accessed on=2021-07-10}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Hauser &amp; Wirth, [[Zurich]], [[Swis]]: {{foreign citation|language=en|Just Down the Street}} (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;fichehauser&quot;/&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot; justdown&quot;&gt;{{Lyen Web|language=en|url=https://www.hauserwirth.com/hauser-wirth-exhibitions/27439-luchita-hurtadojust-street|title=Luchita Hurtado Jis Down the Street|site=[ [Hauser &amp; Wirth]]|accessed on=2021-07-16}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Kolektif ====
* [[Hammer Museum]], [[Los Angeles]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|Made in L.A. 2018}} (2018)&lt;ref name=&quot;hammer&quot;/&gt;
* [[Museum of Fine Arts (Boston)|Museum of Fine Arts]], [[Boston]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|Women Take the Floor}} (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;fichehauser&quot;&gt;*[[Hauser &amp; Wirth]], [[Saint-Moritz]], Swis: {{foreign citation|language=en|Material Actions}} (2019)
*[[Israel Museum]], [[Jerusalem]], Izrayèl: {{foreign quote|language=en|Bodyscapes}} (2020)
*{{Link|Paul Kasmin Gallery}}: {{foreign quote|language=en|Valley of Gold. Sid Kalifòni ak Phantasmagoric la}}, New York (2020)
*[[Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive]], [[Berkeley (California)|Berkeley]]: {{foreign quote|language=en|New Time: Art and Feminisms in the 21st Century}} (2021)
*Galri Carlier | gebauer, [[Bèlen]], Almay: {{foreign quote|language=en|The Youngest Day}} (2021)
*Peter Freeman, Inc.: {{foreign citation|language=en|Eye to Eye}}, New York (2021)
*[[Centre Pompidou-Metz]], [[Metz]], Frans: {{foreign quote|language=en|Arcimboldo Face to Face}} (2021)

==Konsèvasyon==
*ETAZINI
**[[Museum of Modern Art]], [[New York]]&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://www.moma.org/artists/2776|title=Works by Luchita Hurtado|sit=[[MoMA]]|accessed on=2021-07-08}}.
&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Art Institute of Chicago]], [[Chicago]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://www.artic.edu/artists/115312/luchita-hurtado|title= Travay pa Luchita Hurtado|sit=[[Art Institute of Chicago]]|accessed on=2021-07-08}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[San Francisco Museum of Modern Art]], [[San Francisco]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://www.sfmoma.org/artist/Luchita_Hurtado/| title= Travay pa Luchita Hurtado|sit=[[Mize atis modèn nan San Francisco]]|accessed on=2021-07-10}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
** [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]], [[Los Angeles]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|language=en|url=https://collections.lacma.org/node/169635|title=Works pa Luchita Hurtado|sit=[[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]]|accessed on=2021-07-14}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Nòt ak referans ==
=== Nòt ===
{{Referans|group=alpha}}

=== Referans ===
{{Referans}}

== Apendis ==
=== Bibliyografi ===
;Monografi
* {{liv|langu=en|ti non1=Albright|prenon1= Thomas|tit=Atis nan zòn San Francisco Bay, 1945-1980, yon istwa ilistre|kote= Berkeley|piblikatè= University of California Press|ane= 1985}}.
* {{liv|language=en|ti non1=Hopkins|prenon1= David|direktè1=wi|tit=A Companion to Dada and Surrealism|location= Hoboken|editè=Wiley-Blackwell|ane= 2016}}.
* {{liv|lang=en|ti non1=Marta|prenon1=Karen|direktè1=wi|ti non2=Obrist|premye non2=Hans Ulrich|lyen otè2=Hans Ulrich Obrist|tit=Luchita Hurtado|kote=Zurich| Piblikatè=Hauser &amp; Wirth Publishers|ane=2020}}.

;Katalòg egzibisyon
* {{liv|language=en|name1=Konstab|premye1=Joseph|direktè1=wi|ti non2=Lewin|premye2=Rebecca|direktè2=wi|tit=Luchita Hurtado. Mwen Viv Mwen Mouri Mwen Pral Reborn|travay lanati=chat. exp.|place=Cologne|piblikatè=Walther König|ane=2019}}.
* {{liv|language=en|name1=Ellegood|prennon1= Anne|finanm2= Christovale|premion2= Erin|title=Made In L.A. 2018|nati travay=chat. exp.|location=Los Angeles/Munich/New York|piblikatè= Hammer Museum/DelMonico Books/Prestel|ane=2018}}.
* {{liv|language=en|name1=Frankel|premye non1= Dextra|title=Envizib/Vizib. 21 Atis|travay lanati=chat. exp.|kote= Long Beach|piblikatè= Long Beach Museum of Art|ane= 1972}}.
* {{book|language=en|name1=Kamien-Kazhdan|premye1=Adina|director1=wi|title=Bodyscapes|nature travay = chat. exp.|location=Jerizalèm|piblikatè=Mize Izrayèl la|ane=2020}}.
* {{book|language=en|name1=Lehrer-Graiwer|premye non1=Sarah|title=Luchita Hurtado. Ane nwa|travay lanati=chat. exp.|location= New York|piblikatè= Hauser &amp; Wirth Publishers|ane=2019}}.
* {{liv|language=en|name1=Obrist|premye non1= Hans Ulrich|lyen otè1=Hans Ulrich Obrist|direktè1=wi|title=Li Ijan! Yon pwojè Luma òganize pa Hans Ulrich Obrist|nature oeuvre=cat. exp.|place= Kolòy|editè=Walther König|ane= 2020|pasaj= 86-87}}.

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{Koneksyon}}
* {{YouTube|language=en|id=a9r8puY2tjQ|title=Luchita Hurtado: Here I Am {{!}} Art21 &quot;Extended Play&quot;|channel=Art21|date=26 jen 2019|accessed on=16 jiyè 2021 }} .

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hurtado, Luchita}}
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[[Kategori:Feminis Ameriken]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Margot Pilz</title>
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{{Infobox atis}}
'''Margot Pilz''', ki fèt an 1936 nan [[Haarlem]] nan [[Netherlands (peyi konstitiyan)|Netherlands]], se yon [[Atis vizyèl|atis vizyèl]] [[Otrich|Ostralyen]] ak yon pyonye nan atizay [[konseptyèl]] ak [[dijital]]. Li se youn nan premye atis Ostralyen ki konbine òdinatè ak fotografi.

== Biyografi ==
Margot Pilz te fèt an 1936 nan Haarlem nan Oland&lt;ref name=&quot;Vránová&quot;&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |author=Vránová |premye non=Jana |tit=Margot Pilz 7.6. – 30.7.2017 |url=http://www.dumumeni.cz/en/vystavy/detail/id/140 |seri=The Brno House of Arts |dat=2017 |accessed=22 fevriye 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;. An 1939, fanmi li te kouri met deyò nan [[Nazis]] e li te rete nan [[Semarang]], nan [[Santral Java]], nan [[Endonezi]]. Lè [[Japon]] anvayi Endonezi nan mwa mas 1942, yo te voye papa Margot Pilz nan yon kan konsantrasyon nan [[Sumatra]]. Li menm ak manman l te pase dezan nan kan konsantrasyon Lampersari, nan Semarang&lt;ref name=&quot;Time&quot;&gt;{{Lyen web |author=Pilz |premye non=Margot |title=Yon fwa sou tan mwen an – Java 1942 |url =http ://www.margotpilz.at/pdf/MargotPilz_FOLDER.pdf |series=Margot Pilz |editor=KÜNSTLERHAUS WIEN |accessed=23 fevriye 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Rohringer &quot;&gt; {{Atik|otè1=Rohringer|premye non1=Susanne|title=Margot Pilz – Once upon my time – Java 1942: Geschichten ohne Ende|periodical=Artmagazine|dat=23 fevriye 2014|li sou entènèt=http://www .artmagazine .cc/content75802.html|accessed on=14 Avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;MUSA&quot;&gt;{{Lyen Entènèt |title=MARGOT PILZ. Meilensteine ​​​​(Milestones), House of Arts, Jaroslav Král Gallery 7/6/2017–30/7/2017 |url=http://www.musa.at/component/k2/item/3065-musa-tipp -margot -pilz-in-bruenn |seri=Wien Museum, MUSA |accessed on=26 fevriye 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Margot Pilz soufri ak [[typhus]] epi youn nan janm li yo enfekte epi li pral rete pi kout pase lòt la&lt;ref name=&quot;Time&quot; /&gt;.

An 1954, Margot Pilz te ale nan [[Vyèn (Otrich)|Vyèn]] pou etidye fotografi nan {{Link|langue=de|trad=Höhere Graphische Bundes-Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt|fr=Höhere Graphische Bundes-Lehr- ak Versuchsanstalt}}. Soti nan 1971 a 1978 li te travay kòm yon fotograf nan Vyèn. An 1976, li te jwenn Meisterprüfung li (sètifika mèt) nan fotografi&lt;ref name=&quot;MUSA&quot; /&gt;.

Soti nan 1990 pou rive 1992, li te travay nan [[University Teknik nan Vyèn]]. An 1991, li te yon pwofesè vizite nan Inivèsite Nasyonal ak Kapodistrian nan Atèn. Soti nan 1993 rive 1994 li te travay nan Graz University of Technology&lt;ref name=&quot;MUSA&quot; /&gt;.

== Travay ==
Travay li yo reflete kilti avangard ane 1960 yo ak ane 1970 yo nan teknik eksperimantal yo ak aspè pèfòmans yo&lt;ref name=&quot;Meilensteine&quot;&gt;{{Web link |title=Personale im MUSA – Margot Pilz – Meilensteine ​​​​|url=https://www.wien.gv.at/presse/2015/11/18/personale-im-musa-margot-pilz-meilensteine ​​​​|série=Presse-Service Rathauskorrespondenz |dat=18 novanm 2015 |accessed on=26 fevriye 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Li souvan chwazi apwòch feminis, adrese tabou, estereyotip&lt;ref name=&quot;Vránová&quot; /&gt; ak enkyetid anviwònman an. Anpil nan travay li se otobyografik&lt;ref name=&quot;MUSA&quot; /&gt;.

Margot Pilz te pwofondman afekte pa arestasyon li pa ofisye polis an civil pandan twazyèm Festival Fanm nan [[Vyèn]] nan 14 avril 1978. Li te adrese evènman sa yo atravè kreyasyon yon seri oto-portre santre sou kò a, kominike emosyon ak piblik la tou de. atravè jès ekspresif ak nan eta jakèt twal fin blan li te mete nan moman arestasyon an&lt;ref name=&quot;Krauthaker&quot;&gt;{{Liv|premye non1=Eva|ti non1=Krauthaker|title =Avant-Garde Feminis la. Atizay nan ane 1970 yo. The Sammlung Verbund Collection, Vienna|location=Munich, Germany|piblikatè=Prestel|dat=Novanm 2016|total paj=126–137|li sou entènèt=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309734402|accessed= 2 mas , 2019|chapit title=Margot Pilz. Fotografi psikonalitik-performatif}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Jaroslav&quot;&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |title=MARGOT PILZ. Meilensteine ​​​​– House of Arts, Jaroslav Král Galeri 7/6/2017–30/7/2017 |url=http://www.musa.at/en/component/k2/item/3066-musa-tipp- margot- pilz-in-bruenn |seri=Wein Museum MUSA |accessed on=14 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

An 1978, Margot Pilz te rantre nan rezo atis feminis [[IntAkt – Internationale Aktionsgemeinschaft bildender Künstlerinnen]]. Travay li lye ak mouvman feminis nan ane 1970 ak ane 1980. Li eksplore enstitisyon maryaj, kondisyon travay fanm yo ak wòl sosyal yo&lt;ref name=&quot;Jaroslav&quot; /&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Khatchikian&quot;&gt;{{atik|title=Entrelajman diskou: yon istwa vizyèl nan kò|url=http://www.roots-routes.org/ intertwining-discourses-visual-history-of-bodies-alicja-khatchikian/|accessed on=14 avril 2019|periodical=roots§routes|dat=n.d.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Pou travay ''Arbeiterinnenaltar'' (''Lotèl Travayè yo'') ki soti nan ane 1981, li te pran foto travayè yo nan torréfaction kafe Eduscho e li te poze kesyon sou kondisyon travay yo&lt;ref name=&quot;Paar&quot;&gt;{{atik|title=Margot. Pilz: &quot;Wir wissen nicht, ob es Kunst ist&quot; Interview|url=https://derstandard.at/2000026137874/Margot-PilzWir-wissen-nicht-ob-es-Kunst-ist|accessed on= 15 avril 2019| peryodik=Die Standard|dat=25 Novanm 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Pou seri a, ''The White Cell Project'' (1983-1985), li mete sijè li yo ke li foto nan yon [[selil]] ki mezire 165 santimèt sou yon bò, ki konkretize pwa ak kontrent nan atant ak nòm sosyete a. Li envite lòt atis pou kreye travay nan White Cell Project, tankou {{Link|Renate Kordon|langue=de}}, [[Linda Christanell]] ak [[Liesbeth Waechter-Böhm]]&lt;ref name= &quot;Pionierin&quot;&gt; {{Lyen Entènèt |title=Die Pionierin |url=https://www.wienerzeitung.at/nachrichten/kultur/kunst/786503_Die-Pionierin.html |seri=Weiner Zeitung |dat=17 Novanm 2015 |accessed on=14 Avril , 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Pou ''Kaorle am Karlsplatz'', yon enstalasyon nan yon espas piblik an 1982, li te vide sab sou [[Karlsplatz]] nan Vyèn pandan Wiener Festwochen ([[Vienna Festival]]) epi li te enstale chèz tab &lt;ref name= &quot;Vienna2015&quot;&gt;{{Liv|title=Vienna Art Week 2015: kreye byen komen|pasaj=25|location=Vienna|editè=Art Cluster Vienna|dat=23 septanm 2015|li sou entènèt=https://issuu.com/viennaartweek/docs/vaw_2015_magazine_210x280-web_en|accessed 2 mas 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Krasny&quot;&gt;{{Atik|author1=Krasny|premye non1=Elke| title=An Konstriksyon: Nòmalizasyon pran Kòmandman Kunst – Stadt – Normalität, No 4|periodical=Common|number=25|date=25 septanm 2014|li sou entènèt=http://commonthejournal.com/journal/kunst-stadt-normalitaet /under-construction-normalization -takes-command/|accessed on=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;An 1991, li te kreye ''Delphi Digital'' ak [[Roland Alton-Scheidl]] pou [[Ars Electronica]] nan [[Linz]]. Enstalasyon dijital entèaktif mennen vizitè yo kesyone politik anviwònman an ak demokrasi&lt;ref name=&quot;Milestones&quot;&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |title=Margot Pilz – Milestones |url=http://www.musa.at/ en/museum/musa-archive /item/2899-margot-pilz-milestones |seri=Wien Museum MUSA |accessed on=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Nan 2015-2016, li te pwodwi yon vèsyon ak smartphones&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |title=Margot Pilz Meilensteine ​​​​Von der performativen Fotografie zur digitalen Feldforschung |url=http://www.altertuemliches.at/termine/ausstellung/ 36872 |seri=FindArt.cc |aksede nan=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Retrospektiv ''Meilensteine'' (Milestone) montre tout travay li nan Vyèn nan 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;Paar&quot; /&gt;.

Travay li yo fè pati [[Avangard feminis ane 1970 yo ki soti nan koleksyon Sammlung Verbund|''Avangard feminis ane 1970 yo'']]&lt;ref name=&quot;Artlyst&quot;&gt;{{Web link |title= Feminis Avantgarde nan ane 1970 yo eksplore nan galeri Photographers' |url=https://www.artlyst.com/news/feminist-avant-garde-of-the-1970s-explore-at-the-photographers-gallery/ | seri =Artlyst |accessed on=14 Avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Shemilt&quot;&gt;{{Lyen Entènèt |otè=Shemilt |premye non=Elaine |tit=FANM Avant-Garde Feminis nan ane 1970 yo soti nan Koleksyon SAMMLUNG VERBUND, Vyèn |url=https://discovery.dundee.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/28637853/Pressetext_EN.pdf |série=University of Dundee |dat=2018 |accessed on= 22 fevriye 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

An 2018, Margot Pilz, ansanm ak [[Renate Bertlmann]], [[Linda Christanell]], {{Lien|Lore Heuermann|langue=de}} ak [[Karin Mack]], se pami protagonist yo nan fim nan ''Sie ist der andere Blick'' (&quot;Li se lòt gade nan&quot;). Sa a se yon dokimantè ki te kreye pa [[Christiana Perschon]] ak [[Iris Dostal]]. Fim nan konsantre sou atis feminis nan ane 1970 yo ki te fè pati sèn atizay Vyènn nan. Fim nan egzamine fason pratik atistik yo ak angajman yo kominike, pandan y ap diskite sou defi ak obstak yo fè fas ak fason yo simonte yo nan espas pèsonèl ak politik. Fim nan te genyen [[Theodor Körner Prize|Theodor Körner Prize]] an 2018&lt;ref name=&quot;Blick&quot;&gt;{{Web link |title=Sie ist der andere Blick |url=http://www.irisdostal.com/ index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=frontpage |seri=I R I S D O S T A L |accessed on=14 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Ekspozisyon ==
* ''Erweiterte Fotografie'', [[Sesesyon Viennese|Sesesyon]], Vyèn, 1981&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen Entènèt |title=KUNSTBERICHT 1981 |url=https://www.kunstkultur.bka.gv.at/documents/340047/639816/kunstbericht1981_ocr.pdf/55c0e0f9-b086-4240-92a0-9a96b2add764 |publisher=BUNDESMINISTERIUM FÜR UNTERRICHT UND KUNST |accessed=avril 0&gt;19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Orwell et die Gegenwart'', Belvedere 21/Museum of the 20. Jahrhunderts, Vyèn, 1984&lt;ref&gt;{{Book|title=21er HausZurück in die Zukunft —Ein retroperspektiver Blick auf ein Museum|pasage=169|place = Bèlen|editè=Revolver Publishing|dat=2011|li sou entènèt=https://www.belvedere.at/jart/prj3/belvedere/data/documents/presse-dokumente/allgemeine_dokumente/Publikation_21erhaus-dt.pdf|accessed= Avril 14, 2019|editè-premye=Cosima}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''4th Dimension'', Dryphoto, [[Prado Museum|Prado]], [[Florence]], 1984&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |title=Mostre dal 1979 al 2005 |url=http://www . dryphoto.it/new/1979/moostre-dal-1979-al-2005 |seri=Dryphoto |dat=19 desanm 1979 |accessed on=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Identitätsbilder'', [[Viennese Secession|Secession]], Vyèn, 1985&lt;ref name=&quot;XIII&quot;&gt;{{Web link |title=WERKSCHAU XIII INTAKT – DIE PIONIERINNEN |url=http://www.fotogalerie -wien.at/content.php?id=10&amp;ausstellung=155&amp;details=1&amp;PHPSESSID=3a4aff7b1d396b1adae8275077d74fdb |série=Fotogallerie Wien |accessed on=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Meditasyon 85'', {{Link|Steirischer Herbst|langue=de}}, [[Graz]], Otrich, 1985 &lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |title=Margot Pilz |url=http://archiv .steirischerherbst.at/deutsch/Archiv/Personen/Pilz-Margot |seri=Steirischer Herbst |aksede nan=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''The White Cell Project'', [[Fotogalerie Wien]], Vyèn, 1985 &lt;ref name=&quot;SixPack&quot;&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |title=Margot Pilz |url=http://www.sixpackfilmdata.com/ filmdb_persons.php?persid=2802&amp;len=de |série=Six Pack Film Database |accessed on=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Lè yon mouvman'', [[Mize Atizay modèn nan Pari|Mize Atizay modèn nan vil Pari]], [[Pari]], [[Frans]], 1987
* ''Computerkunst 88'', Museum der Stadt Gladbeck, [[Wittringen Castle]], [[Gladbeck]], Almay, 1988
* ''Hinter den Wänden'', Donaufestival, [[Langenlois]], Otrich, 1988
* ''Delphi Digital'', [[Ars Electronica]], [[Linz]], Otrich, 1991 &lt;ref name=&quot;Milestones&quot; /&gt;
* ''Die Auflösung der Fotografie – Der kalte Raum'', Blau-Gelbe Galerie, Vyèn, 1992 &lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |title=Pilz. Die Auflösung der Fotografie – der kalte Raum |url=http://www.basis-wien.at/db/object/1191;jsessionid=9C4BEDCA15810AABC9696C20373AFFBA?wicket:pageMapName=orgLukas |série=Database – Angewandte |accessed on=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Lespri Sen-Lisifè'', Medien Kunst Archiv (MKA), Vyèn, 1992&lt;ref name=&quot;MKA&quot;&gt;{{Lyen web |title=Lespri Sen Lisifè Nr. 3 Otrich 1992 Margot PILZ |url=http://www.mka.at/werk.php?vid=4034&amp;e=1 |série=MKA |accessed on=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Tacit Surveillance'', [[Künstlerhaus]], Vyèn, 1993 &lt;ref name=&quot;Tacit&quot;&gt;{{Lien web |title=Tacit Surveillance Otrich 1992 Margot PILZ |url=http://www.mka.at /werk.php?vid=4033&amp;e=1 |série=MKA |accessed on=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Zeit/Schnitte, Patriarchat'', [[Vienne Festival|Wiener Festtwochen]], Vyèn, 1994
* ''Verstärker/Kaskade'', Künstlerhaus, Vyèn, 1997
* ''Künstlerinnen – Positionen 1945 bis heute'', {{Link|Kunsthalle Krems|langue=de}}, [[Krems an der Donau]], 2003 &lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |title=Künstlerinnen – Positionen 1945 bis heute. Mimosen – Rosen – Herbstzeitlosen |url=http://www.basis-wien.at/db/object/63875 |series=Die Angewandte |accessed=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '' Frau im Bild. Inszenierte Weiblichkeit'', {{Link|text=Museum Moderner Kunst|language=de|trad=Museum Moderner Kunst (Passau)}}, [[Passau]], Almay, 2004
* ''Die Enzyklopädie der wahren Werte'', Künstlerhaus, Vyèn, 2005
* ''Die Liebe zu den Objekten'', {{Link|trad=Niederösterreichisches Landesmuseum|langue=de|fr=Niederösterreichisches Landesmuseum}}, [[Sankt Pölten|Saint-Pölten]], 20087 &lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |title=Die Liebe zu den Objekten |url=https://kultur-online.net/?q=node/872 |série=artCore |dat=23 oktòb 2008 |aksede a=15 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Am Puls der Stadt. 2000 Jahre Karlsplatz, [[Mize Vyèn]], Vyèn, 2008
* ''Matris. Geschlechter – Verhältnisse – Revisionen (MATRIX – genre – relations – revisions)'', {{Link|MUSA Museum Startgalerie Artothek|langue=de}} (MUSA), Vyèn, 2008* ''Werkschau XIII. Intakt – die PionierInnen'', Fotogalerie Wien, Vyèn, 2008&lt;ref name=&quot;XIII&quot; /&gt;
* ''raum_körper_einsatz'', MUSA, Vyèn, 2010
* ''Selebrasyon/Mwen, tèt mwen ak yo'', Künstlerhaus, Vyèn, 2012
* ''Margot Pilz, HERSTORY – 36,000 ane nan deyès ak zidòl'', Fowòm Kiltirèl Ostralyen nan [[New York]], 2012
* ''Actionistinnen'', {{Link|Kunsthalle Krems|langue=de}} &amp; {{Link|Forum Frohner|langue=de}}, Krems, 2014 &lt;ref name=&quot;Birbaumer&quot;&gt;{{Liv|premye non1 = Brigitte Borchardt-|Ti non1=Birbaumer|Prenon2=Ronte|Ti non2=Dieter|title=Aktionistinnen|editè=Kunstmeile Krems|date=2015|isbn=978-3-901261-60-2|li sou entènèt=http: //www .bibliothek-kunstraum.net/node/2127}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Once upon a time - JAVA 1942'', Künstlerhaus, Vyèn, 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;Rohringer&quot; /&gt;
* ''Margot Pilz – Meilensteine. Von der performativen Fotografie zur digitalen Feldforschung'', MUSA, Vienna, 2015 &lt;ref name=&quot;Artlyst&quot; /&gt;
* ''Aging Pride/Die Kraft des Alters'', Konsèvate Sabine Fellner, [[Österreichische Galerie Belvedere|Belvedere]], Vyèn, 2017&lt;ref name=&quot;Aging&quot;&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |title=Aging Pride/Die Kraft des Alters at BELVEDERE |url=http://theartview.blogspot.com/2017/11/aging-pridedie-kraft-des-alters-at.html |série=The Art VieW |dat=20 novanm 2017 |accessed on= 14 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Fanm. Kounye a'', konsèvatè Sabine Fellner, [[Foròm Kiltirèl Ostralyen]], New York (ACFNY), 2018-2019 &lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen Entènèt |langu=en-US |premye non=Lisa |ti non=Davidson |tit =Marke ane katalitik nan dwa fanm yo, Women.Now. se yon egzibisyon ki pisan kwonik enpak yo sou sosyete kontanporen ak atizay... |url=https://www.we-heart.com/2018/11/30/women-now-austrian-cultural-forum-new-york/ |sit=We Heart |dat=2018-11-30 |accessed on=2023-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Prim ak distenksyon ==
* 1983: Staatsstipendium für bildende Kunst &lt;ref name=&quot;Kunstasyl&quot;&gt;{{Web link |title=50 Margot Pilz |url=http://kunstasyl.at/kunstauktion/50-margot-pilz/ |série=Kunstasyl 2018 | jwenn aksè nan=14 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 1985: Römerquelle Fotopreis&lt;ref name=&quot;Kunstasyl&quot; /&gt;
* 1988: Prize Österreichischen Postsparkasse &lt;ref name=&quot;Künstlerhaus&quot;&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |title=Preise und Ehrungen |url=https://www.k-haus.at/de/verein/preise_ehrungen/ |série= Künstlerhaus |aksede nan=14 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 1990: [[Theodor-Körner Prize|Theodor Körner Prize]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Kunstasyl&quot; /&gt;
* 1996: Pfann-Ohmann-Preis, Künstlerhaus, Vyèn &lt;ref name=&quot;Künstlerhaus&quot; /&gt;
* 2008: Goldener Lorbeer, Künstlerhaus, Vyèn&lt;ref name=&quot;Künstlerhaus&quot; /&gt;
* 2009: Goldener Lorbeer, Künstlerhaus, Vyèn&lt;ref name=&quot;Künstlerhaus&quot; /&gt;
* 2011: Preis der Stadt Wien für Bildende Kunst (Prize Vil Vyèn pou Fine Arts) &lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen entènèt |title=kunst- und kulturbericht / frauenkulturbericht der stadt wien 2011 |url=https:// www.wien. gv.at/kultur/abteilung/pdf/kunstbericht2011.pdf |seri=City of Vienna |accessed=14 avril 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Tradiksyon/Referans|lang1=en|art1=Margot Pilz|id1=1183601703}}
&lt;references responsive=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;/references&gt;

== Lyen ekstèn ==
{{koneksyon}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pilz, Margot}}
[[Kategori:Atis feminis]]
[[Kategori:Fanm fotograf]]
[[Kategori:Nesans an 1936]]
[[Kategori:Nesans nan Haarlem]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lojisyèl gratis</title>
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[[Fichye:Heckert_GNU_white.svg|alt=Gnou du projet GNU.|vignette| Logo pwojè GNU, inisyatè mouvman lojisyèl gratis .]]
Yon '''Lojisyèl gratis''' oswa '''lojisyè lib''' se [[lojisyèl]] ki gen itilizasyon, etid, modifikasyon ak repetisyon pa lòt moun nan lide pou distribisyon ka jwenn pèmisyon, teknikman ak legalman &lt;ref name=&quot;def&quot;&gt;« En gros, les utilisateurs ont la liberté d'exécuter, de copier, de distribuer, d'étudier, de modifier et d'améliorer le logiciel. Avec ces libertés, les utilisateurs (à la fois individuellement et collectivement) contrôlent le programme et ce qu'il fait pour eux. Quand les utilisateurs ne contrôlent pas le programme, c'est le programme qui les contrôle ». ([https://web.archive.org/web/20240515095703/https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.fr.html Gnu.org])&lt;/ref&gt;, nan lòd yo garanti sèten libète pwovoke, ki gen ladan kontwòl nan pwogram nan pa itilizatè a ak posiblite nan pataje ant moun &lt;ref&gt;{{En}} {{Référence Harvard sans parenthèses|Stallman R.|2009}} : « ''{{Lang|en}}'' ».&lt;/ref&gt; .

== Òf lojisyèl gratis ==
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float: right; border: 1px solid darkgray;background: White;&quot;
|+Tablo entèaktif bay kèk lojisyèl gratis pi popilè
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Fichye:Heckert_GNU.png|lien=GNU|alt=GNU|70x70px]]
|[[Fichye:Tux.svg|lien=Noyau_Linux|alt=Noyau Linux|81x81px]]
|[[Fichye:BSD_wordmark.svg|lien=Berkeley_Software_Distribution|alt=BSD|70x70px]] 
|[[Fichye:LibreOffice_7.5_Main_Icon.svg|lien=LibreOffice|alt=LibreOffice|52x52px]] 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Fichye:VLC_Icon.svg|lien=VLC_media_player|alt=VLC|54x54px]] 
|[[Fichye:Gimp-wilber-scalable.svg|lien=GIMP|alt=GIMP|70x70px]] 
|[[Fichye:Blender_logo_no_text.svg|alt=Blender|centré|70x70px]]
|[[Fichye:Audacity_Logo_nofilter.svg|lien=Audacity|alt=Audacity|65x65px]] 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Fichye:Firefox_logo,_2019.svg|alt=Firefox|centré|70x70px]]
|[[Fichye:Thunderbird_2023_icon.svg|alt=Thunderbird|centré|70x70px]]
|[[Fichye:Gnomelogo.svg|lien=GNOME|alt=GNOME|91x91px]] 
|[[Fichye:KDE_logo.svg|lien=KDE|alt=KDE|75x75px]] 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Fichye:Apache_HTTP_server_logo_(2019-present).svg|lien=Apache_HTTP_Server|alt=Apache|96x96px]] 
|[[Fichye:TeX logo.svg|80x80px]]
|[[Fichye:PHP-logo.svg|lien=PHP|alt=PHP|80x80px]] 
|[[Fichye:Python-logo-notext.svg|lien=Python_(langage)|alt=Python|66x66px]] 
|}
=== Kèk egzanp ===
Pami lojisyèl gratis ki pi byen konnen pou piblik la se:
* [[sistèm operasyon]] [[GNU]], ki konpoze de yon seri [[lojisyèl]] ak [[bibliyotèk lojisyèl|bibliotèk]];
* [[Linux Kernel|Linux]], yon [[Operating system kernel|operating system kernel]] itilize sitou pa [[GNU]]/[[Linux]] ak [[Android]];
* sistèm operasyon fanmi [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]: [[FreeBSD]], [[OpenBSD]] ak [[NetBSD]];
* [[Biwo suite|biwo suite]] [[OpenOffice.org]], [[Apache OpenOffice]] ak [[LibreOffice]];
* jwè medya [[VLC jwè medya]];
* [[Edisyon imaj]] lojisyèl [[GIMP]];
* Lojisyèl modèl 3D [[Blender]];
* editè son [[Audacity]];
* [[Navigatè Entènèt|Navigatè Entènèt]] [[Mozilla Firefox]] ak [[Chromium (navigatè Entènèt)|Chromium]];
* [[Mozilla Thunderbird]] lapòs elektwonik;
* [[anviwònman biwo|anviwònman biwo]] [[GNOME]] ak [[KDE]];
* manadjè baz done yo [[Ingres (database)|Ingres]], [[MySQL]] ak [[PostgreSQL]];
* lang scripting [[PHP]] ak [[Python (language)|Python]].

Lojisyèl gratis tou jwe yon wòl enpòtan nan fonksyone entènèt la:
* [[Sèvè HTTP]] [[Sèvè HTTP Apache|Apache]];
* [[BIND]] sèvè pou jere non domèn;
* Sèvè lapòs [[sendmail]] ak [[postfix]] yo itilize anpil.
* [[Sistèm chifreman]]: [[OpenSSL]], [[Tor (rezo)|Tor]] ak [[GnuPG]].

Rezo [[Framasoft]], ki gen eslogan se &quot;wout la long men wout la klè&quot;, lis plis pase mil sis san lojisyèl gratis nan anyè li.

=== Lojisyèl gratis nan mache lojisyèl an ===
[[File:Part de marché logiciel libre.jpg|thumb|Pataj nan mache lojisyèl gratis nan mache lojisyèl pandan ane yo]]

Lojisyèl gratis se de pli zan pli etabli tèt li kòm yon altènatif mwens chè nan lojisyèl propriétaires. Li se tou vin tounen yon pwodwi de pli zan pli mete devan pa revandè, swa pou fyab li yo (ka nan founisè sèvè) oswa pou pri lisans zewo li yo, ki pèmèt kliyan an envesti diferans lan nan sèvis ki asosye yo. Espesifik li yo te lakòz tou jwè ekosistèm yo envante [[Modèl biznis lojisyèl sous louvri|modèl biznis espesifik]] pou yo ka finanse tèt yo.

Tablo sa a montre done ki disponib pou Lafrans:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Kwasans ak previsyon nan mache lojisyèl lin nan Lafrans 
|
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2002
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2003
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2004
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2005
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2006
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2007
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2008
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2009
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2010
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2011
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2012
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2013
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2014
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2015
! scope=&quot;col&quot; |2016
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot; |Chif dafè&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;lojisyèl gratis (milyon €)
|60
|100
|140
|250
|440&lt;ref name=&quot;lemagit&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20110919170531/http://www.lemagit.fr/article/bureautique-mysql-oracle-developpement-sgbd-etude-support-openoffice-open-source-ingres/3802/1/open-source-marche-francais-depasse-les-milliard-euros/ Open Source : le marché français dépasse les 1,5 milliard d’euros], sur le site lemagit.fr du 17 jiyè 2009 - consulté le 12 ooktòb 2012&lt;/ref&gt;
|733
|{{formatnum:1100}}
|{{formatnum:1500}}&lt;sup class=&quot;need_ref_tag&quot; style=&quot;padding-left:2px;&quot;&gt;[[Èd:Referans nesesè|&lt;span title=&quot;Ce passage nécessite une référence ; voir l'aide.&quot;&gt;&amp;#x5B;réf.&amp;nbsp;nécessaire&amp;#x5D;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt;
[[Kategori:Atik ak referans nesesè]]
(Europe : {{formatnum:5100}})
|{{formatnum:2200}}
|{{formatnum:2501}}
|{{formatnum:3000}}&lt;ref&gt;{{En}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20100627005135/http://www.progilibre.com/Open-Source-la-revolution-silencieuse_a1139.html Do You Really Need a VPS to Host Your Sites?], sur progilibre.com, 10 octobre 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|
|{{formatnum:4100}}
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot; |Pati nan mache lojisyèl gratis 
&lt;br /&gt;(nan endistri lojisyèl la)
|0,2 %
|0,4 %
|0,5 %
|0,9 %
|1,4 %
|2,1 %
|
|
|
|6 %&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.numerama.com/magazine/21592-le-logiciel-libre-represente-6-du-marche-en-france.html|title=Le logiciel libre représente 6 % du marché en France|date=9 fevriye 2012|website=Numerama|access-date=24 jiyè 2020}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|
|10 %&lt;ref name=&quot;L’open source, un marché à 6 milliards d’euros en France d’ici 2020 / Guide Open Source&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.open-source-guide.com/Actualites/L-open-source-un-marche-a-6-milliards-d-euros-en-france-d-ici-2020 |title=Kopi achiv |access-date=2024-05-10 |archive-date=2016-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426074223/http://www.open-source-guide.com/Actualites/L-open-source-un-marche-a-6-milliards-d-euros-en-france-d-ici-2020 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 13 %&lt;ref&gt;{{lien web |auteur1=Thomas Pontiroli |titre=Le logiciel libre est en croissance et il recrute |url=http://www.clubic.com/pro/legislation-loi-internet/propriete-intellectuelle/logiciel-libre-open-source/actualite-786632-logiciel-libre-france.html |site=clubic.com |date=19 novanm 2015 |consulté le=28 out 2020}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|13 %&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.clubic.com/pro/legislation-loi-internet/propriete-intellectuelle/logiciel-libre-open-source/actualite-786632-logiciel-libre-france.html|title=Le logiciel libre est en croissance et il recrute|last=Thomas Pontiroli|date=19 novanm 2015|website=clubic.com|access-date=28 out 2020}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot; |Kwasans mache&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;lojisyèl gratis 
|
|67 %
|40 %
|79 %
|72 %
|66 %
|
|47 %{{Referans nesesè}}
|30 %
|
|20 %&lt;ref name=&quot;lemagit&quot; /&gt;
|
|33 % depuis 2012 &lt;ref name=&quot;L’open source, un marché à 6 milliards d’euros en France d’ici 2020 / Guide Open Source&quot; /&gt;
|
|15 %
|-
! scope=&quot;row&quot; |Kwasans rès mache a
|
| -4,2 %
|3,8 %
|6,3 %
|6,6 %
|7,1 %
|
|
|
|
|
|
|17 %&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/secteur/high-tech/2015/10/19/32001-20151019ARTFIG00020-les-trois-grandes-tendances-du-marche-des-logiciels-en-france.php|title=Les trois grandes tendances du marché des logiciels en France|last=[[Lucie Ronfaut-Hazard|Lucie Ronfaut]]|date=19 oktòb 2015|website=Le Figaro|language=fr|access-date=13 janvye 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|
|}

: ''Rapò Pierre Audoin Consultants ''

== Nòt ak referans ==

=== Referans ===
{{Referans}}

=== lyen ekstèn ===

* [http://www.gnu.org Pwojè] GNU a :
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20240515095703/https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.fr.html Definisyon li nan lojisyèl gratis]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20240426190113/http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/philosophy.fr.html Filozofi li]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20240523004627/https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/categories.fr.html Kategori li yo nan lojisyèl gratis ak ki pa gratis]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20240514233440/https://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.fr.html Lis lisans li yo ak kòmantè]
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.linux-france.org/article/these/cathedrale-bazar/cathedrale-bazar_monoblock.html|title=La cathédrale et le bazar|last=Eric S. Raymond|year=1998|publisher=Linux-france.org|access-date=27 jiyè 2012|archive-date=2021-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210706005805/http://www.linux-france.org/article/these/cathedrale-bazar/cathedrale-bazar_monoblock.html|dead-url=yes}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.clubic.com/linux-os/article-359004-1-logiciel-libre-zoom-reussites-evolutions.html|title=Logiciel libre : retour sur 5 réussites et leur évolution|last=Stéphane Ruscher|year=2010|access-date=27 jiyè 2012}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/gpl-american-way.fr.html|title=La GNU GPL et l'American Way|last=[[Richard Stallman]]|publisher=GNU.org|access-date=27 jiyè 2012|archive-date=2024-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116045435/http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/gpl-american-way.fr.html|dead-url=yes}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-free.fr.html|title=Pourquoi les logiciels ne doivent pas avoir de propriétaire|last=[[Richard Stallman]]|publisher=GNU.org|access-date=27 jiyè 2012|archive-date=2024-07-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240719185903/https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-free.fr.html|dead-url=yes}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://ifosslawbook.org/|title=International Free and Open Source Software Law Review|last=Ywein Van den Brande, Shane Coughlan, Till Jaeger|year=2011|publisher=Open Source Press|language=en|access-date=27 jiyè 2012}}
[[Kategori:Kominote lojisyèl lib]]
[[Kategori:Lojisyèl lib]]</text>
      <sha1>mel9tgmha9r78cm6flojxo7vd2t45nt</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Carl Benz</title>
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        <username>Denismorcel</username>
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      <text bytes="9581" sha1="6hvyz9hj1r0kgx1e27l5ukygc6t5pq1" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Biyografi|
 | imaj = 
 | non nesans = Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant
 | dat nesans = {{dat nesans|25|Novanm|1844}}
 | kote nesans = [[Mühlburg (Karlsruhe)|Mühlburg]], {{Gran Duche Baden}}
 | dat lanmò = {{dat lanmò|4|avril|1929|28|Novanm|1844}}
 | kote lanmò = [[Ladenburg]], {{Weimar Repiblik}}
 | nasyonalite = {{DEU-d}} [[Almay|Alman]]
 | diplòm = [[Enjenyè]]
 | pwofesyon = [[Endistri]]l, fondatè [[Benz &amp; Cie]]
 | aktivite = [[Envantè]]
 | fòmasyon = [[Enstiti Teknoloji Karlsruhe]]
 | asandan = Benzes yo desann soti nan yon fanmi Huguenots franse, emigre nan Almay apre yo fin revoke edik la nan Nantes.
 | konjwen = [[Bertha Benz]]
 | desandan = [[Richard Benz]]
 | siyati = Carl Benz signature.png
}}
'''Carl Benz''', fèt {{Dat nesans|25|Novanm|1844}} nan Mühlburg, distri [[Karlsruhe]]  li te mouri nan {{Dat lanmò|4|Avril|1929}} nan [[Ladenburg]], se yon [[Almay|envantè alman]], pyonye nan [[otomobil la]], ak fondatè [[Benz &amp; Cie.|Benz &amp; {{Cie}}]] ki te vin [[Mercedes -Benz]] nan [[1926]], apre fizyon an ak {{Lang|de|[[Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft]]}}.

== Biyografi ==
=== Jèn ===
Carl Benz te fèt nan {{dat nesans-|25|Novanm|1844}} sou non ''Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant'' nan [[Mühlburg (Karlsruhe)|Mühlburg]] (jodi a yon distri nan [[Karlsruhe ]]), kòm pitit ilejitim Josephine Vaillant. Manman li se Pwotestan, ki gen zansèt Huguenot, papa l ', Katolik. Johann Georg Benz te soti nan Pfaffenrot (minisipalite jodi a [[Marxzell]]). Li te travay nan ''{{lang|de|Großherzoglich Badische Staatseisenbahnen}}'' (an franse: {{Citation|Chemin de fer d'Etat du Grand Duchy de Baden}}).

Apeprè yon ane apre, nan {{dat|16|Novanm|1845}}, paran li yo te marye nan [[legliz Katolik]] vil la [[St Stephen's Church nan Karlsruhe|St. {{Kisa|temwen an te Michael Kramer ankò.}} Yo chanje non timoun nan ''Karl Friedrich Michael Benz''. Carl Benz te prefere [[òtograf]] ''Carl'' epi li te pibliye ''{{lang|de|Lebenserinnerungen}}'' li (an franse: {{Citation|mémoires}}) anba non ''Carl Friedrich Benz''. Apre maryaj yo, paran li te deplase ak pitit yo nan Karlsruhe. Nan 1846, lè Carl Benz te sèlman dezan, papa l 'te mouri nan nemoni.

Carl Benz etidye [[jeni mekanik]] nan [[Karlsruhe Institute of Technology|University of Karlsruhe]].

Apre lekòl segondè ak etid teknik, lanmou li pou lokomotiv te mennen li nan yon faktori lokomotiv - Karlsruhe Mechanical Engineering Company - pou de ane edmi.

Apre sa, li antre nan biwo teknik Johann Schweizer nan Mannheim. Li konstwi trepye, kabwèt, santrifujeur, elatriye.

Pou l te gen eksperyans nan konstriksyon pon, li te rantre nan frè Benckiser nan Pforzheim&lt;ref&gt;{{Lyen web |language=de |name=Zeno |title=Volltext von »Im Feuerschein der Dorfschmiede«. Benz, Carl Friedrich: Lebensfahrt ... |url=http://www.zeno.org/Naturwissenschaften/M/Benz,+Carl+Friedrich/Lebensfahrt+eines+deutschen+Erfinders/Im+Feuerschein+der+Dorfschmiede |sit =www.zeno.org |accessed on=2020-12-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Premye konpayi, materyo pou konstriksyon ===
Nan [[1871]], li te fonde premye konpayi li, ki te founi materyèl jadinaj, epi ane annapre a marye [[Bertha Benz|Bertha Ringer]] ak ki moun li te fè senk pitit.

=== Fondasyon Benz &amp; Konpayi ===
Nan [[1883]], li te fonde konpayi Benz &amp; Cie. epi li te kòmanse bati motè endistriyèl nan [[Mannheim]].

=== Devlopman premye otomobil Benz li yo ===
[[File:Carl-Benz coloriert.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|Carl Benz]]
[[File:Benz-1.jpg|thumb|[[Benz Patent Motorwagen|Benz Tricycle 1]] soti nan [[1886]]]]
[[File:Benz-velo.jpg|thumb|[[Benz Velo]] soti nan [[1894]]]]
[[File:MHV Benz Ideal 1901 01.jpg|thumb|[[Benz Ideal]] soti nan [[1901]] nan [[Deutsches Museum]] nan [[Munich]]]]
[[File:Benz &amp; Cie. 1909.jpg|thumb|Obligasyon Benz &amp; Cie. Rheinische Gasmotoren-Fabrik AG ki date 1 avril 1909]]

An [[1885]], Benz te devlope Téo (oswa &quot;Teo Tricycle&quot;) lè li enstale yon sèl-silenn ki refwadi ak dlo, yon deplasman yon lit ak senksan swasant wat, ak ignisyon elektrik, valv admisyon kontwole, angrenaj bwat ak diferans. , sou yon bekàklèt ke li jis pran alantou blòk la nan kay li. Soti nan 1885 rive 1887, li te kreye twa vèsyon nan bekàn twa wou: modèl 1, yo te bay kòm yon kado nan mize Alman an 1906, modèl 2, ki te pwobableman transfòme plizyè fwa ak modèl 3 ak wou an bwa a pale&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://auto-turbo.turboblog.fr/index.php?cat=7888 |title=Istwa Mercedes-Benz |access-date=2024-07-08 |archive-date=2008-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309074828/http://auto-turbo.turboblog.fr/index.php?cat=7888 |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Nan {{dat|29|janvye|1886}}, li te depoze [[patant]] DRP-37435&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link|title=Rejis memwa mond lan, patant Benz lan 1886|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/allemagne%20benz.pdf|date=}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Nan dat {{dat|5|Out|1888}}, madanm li [[Bertha Benz|Bertha]], fatige ak atitid pridan mari l 'ki pa vle prezante envansyon l' yo epi li te lajman ipoteke dòt li, kite san li. konesans byen bonè nan maten ak pwototip Benz Patent Motorwagen (modèl 3) pou vwayaje premye vwayaj long distans pa otomobil, {{inite|104|kilomèt}} ki separe [[Mannheim]] ak [[Pforzheim]] &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.bertha-benz.de Bertha Benz Memorial Route]&lt;/ref&gt;. Ekipman sa a (bezwen chanje pil rechaj yo, difikilte pou yo bay [[Etè petwòl|benzin]] nan men famasyen, dlo pou refwadi motè yo, vwayaje retrame nan [[Bertha Benz Memorial Route]]) ak de pitit gason li yo [[Richard Benz|Richard]] ak Eugen, ak yon vitès remakab pou epòk la, nan {{inite|15|km/h}}, ankouraje Carl fè plizyè amelyorasyon nan veyikil la, sitou lè yo ajoute yon vitès adisyonèl pou monte ti mòn yo pi fasil. &lt;ref&gt;Jeroen Booij, ''The crazy outfit of Bertha'', nan: Mercedes Magazine, jen 2008, {{p.|58-63}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

An [[1890]] li te mete tèt yo ansanm ak Friedrich von Fischer, ki te responsab pou [[jesyon|administrasyon]] entèn, ak Julius Ganss, ki responsab lavant. Carl Benz dedye a devlope pati teknik biznis la ki ap pwogrese anpil.

Ane [[1893]] te wè fabrike premye machin Benz kat wou, [[Benz Victoria]], ki te swiv ane annapre pa [[Benz Velo]], ki te vin modèl debaz premye kamyon yo ak otobis nan [[1895]].

Nan [[1896]], premye Benz Kontra-Motè te parèt, ak yon motè ak de silenn opoze orizontal. Premye kamyon Benz lan te fabrike menm ane a. Nan [[1898]], yo te adopte kawotchou ki fèt ak [[kawoutchou (materyèl)|kawoutchou]] pou Benz Confortable la. Nan [[1899]], pwodiksyon te 572 machin ak Benz te vin youn nan pi gwo manifakti otomobil nan epòk la. Ane annapre a, figi sa a te depase, ak fabrikasyon 603 machin.

Premye machin kous Benz lan te parèt nan [[1899]] e li te sous anpil siksè.

Nan [[1910]], Benz &amp; Cie. achte &quot;Süddeutsche Automobil-Fabrik&quot; nan [[Gaggenau]]. Gwo pwomotè otomobil la nan [[Anpi Alman an]], Prince [[Lis wa Lapris|Henry of Prussia]], te itilize sèlman &quot;Benzes&quot;.

Nan dat {{dat|25|Novanm|1914}}, [[Karlsruhe Institute of Technology|University of Karlsruhe]], kote li te etidye, ba li tit [[Doktè honoris causa]].

Ou ka vizite kay li nan [[Ladenburg]] epi yo ka wè youn nan premye machin yo.

Yo antere l nan [[Ladenburg]].

=== Fondasyon Mercedes-Benz ===
Nan [[1924]], Carl Benz ak [[Paul Daimler]] (pitit gason ak siksesè [[Gottlieb Daimler]] ak pwopriyetè mak Mercedes ki te vann pa [[Emil Jellinek|Emil Jellinek-Mercedes]]) te mete enterè yo. an komen. De konpayi yo pral rantre nan [[1926]] epi yo pral tounen konpayi [[Mercedes-Benz]].

== Galeri ==
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; caption=&quot;Diferan machin ki fèt pa Carl Benz&quot;&gt;
Werkstatt Carl Benz.png|Atelye Carl Benz nan Mannheim, Almay
File:Benz Patent Motorwagen (replica) IMG 0850.jpg|Replik Benz Patent Motorwagen ki te konstwi an 1885
File:Benz Patent Motorwagen Engine.jpg|Motè Benz Patent Motorwagen
File:Karl Benz Führerschein.jpg|Premye lisans pou kondwi a, ki te bay Carl Benz nan {{dat|1 out 1888}}
File:Automuseum Dr Carl Benz.jpg|Mize otomobil {{Dr}} Carl Benz nan Ladenburg, Almay
File:Patentmotorwagen mit Karl und Bertha Benz.jpg|Carl ak Bertha Benz, an 1925.
File:berthabenzmemorialrouteschild.jpg|Siy ofisyèl [[Bertha Benz Memorial Route]], ki komemore premye vwayaj long sou Benz Patent Motorwagen pa Bertha Benz an 1888.
File:WslErsteTanke.jpg|Premye estasyon gaz la, famasi a nan Wiesloch, Almay
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Referans}}

== Apendis ==
{{Lòt pwojè|commons=Karl Benz}}
{{Lòt pwojè|commons=Kategori:Vyikil Benz|Tit komen = Machin Benz}}

=== Atik ki gen rapò ===
{{kolòn|gwosè=20|
* [[Bertha Benz Memorial Route]]
* [[Daimler (konpayi)|Daimler AG]]
* [[Mercedes-Benz|Daimler-Benz AG]]
* [[Mercedes-Benz]]
* [[Istwa otomobil]]
* [[Kronoloji otomobil]]
* [[Fritz Held]]
}}

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{koneksyon}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110912103500/http://vea.qc.ca/vea/marques/benz.htm Benz 1885-1926]
* {{Sit ofisyèl|http://www.mercedes-benz.fr|titre=Mercedes-Benz France}}
* {{de}} [http://www.automuseum-dr-carl-benz.de Automuseum Dr. Carl Benz] nan Ladenburg, Almay


{{DEFAULTSORT:Benz, Carl}}
[[Kategori:Nesans nan Karlsruhe]]
[[Kategori:Nesans nan Gran Duche Baden]]
[[Kategori:Enjenyè alman]]
[[Kategori:Envantè alman]]
[[Kategori:Lidè biznis Alman]]
[[Kategori:Pyonye otomobil]]
[[Kategori:Mercedes-Benz Pèsonalite]]
[[Kategori:Doktè Onè nan Enstiti Teknoloji Karlsruhe]]
[[Kategori:Elèv Enstiti Teknoloji Karlsruhe]]
[[Kategori:Pèsonalite lye ak Mannheim]]
[[Kategori:Nesans an novanm 1844]]
[[Kategori:Lamò nan mwa avril 1929]]
[[Kategori:Lamò nan Ladenburg]]
[[Kategori:Benz &amp; Cie.]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Klwazonis</title>
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        <username>Denismorcel</username>
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'''Klwazonis''' se yon [[mouvman atistik]] ki soti nan fen XIXe syèk la.

== Istorik ==
Klwazonis se non ke kritik Édouard Dujardin te jwenn an 1888&lt;ref&gt;{{ouvrage|prénom1=Michel|nom1=Laclotte|responsabilité1=dir.|prénom2=Jean-Pierre|nom2=Cuzin|responsabilité2=dir.|prénom3=Arnauld|nom3=Pierre|responsabilité3=|titre=Dictionnaire de la peinture|éditeur=Larousse|lieu=Paris|année=2003|lire en ligne=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k12005093|passage=159}} ; {{atik|titre=Chronique|périodique=La Justice|jour=11|mois=mars|année=1888|passage=1|lire en ligne=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k772224g/f1}}.&lt;/ref&gt; pou karakterize yon teknik piktiral ki fèt pou penti nan [[Apla|zòn plat]] nan [[koulè]] ki separe pa yon deskripsyon ki pi fonse, tankou nan emaye fèmen &lt;ref name=&quot;Béguin&quot;&gt;{{ouvrage|prénom=André|nom=Béguin|lien auteur=André Béguin|titre=Dictionnaire technique de la peinture|année=1990|passage=171, « Cloisonnement »}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Ukiyo-e|tanpon Japonè]] ke atis yo dekouvri imaj epinal ak [[la primitif]]{{atik|prénom=Édouard|nom=Dujardin|lien auteur=Édouard Dujardin|titre=Aux [[Groupe des XX|XX]] et aux [[Salon des Indépendants|Indépendants]]|périodique=La Revue indépendante|mois=mars|année=1888|lire en ligne=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1050574k/f173}}, atribiye teyori a ak premye devlopman pent [[Louis Anquetin]], ki sepandan te kolabore ak Émile Bernard.
 
Kritik yo wè sistematizasyon nan konpatimantasyon kòm yon devlopman nan [[japonis]]. Moun ki pi enpòtan nan klwazonis la se [[Paul Gauguin]] ; [[Lekòl Pont-Aven]] pral sèvi kòm yon katalis ak difizyon pou teknik sa a. Lòt atis, tankou Maurice Denis, [[Vincent van Gogh]] oswa [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec|Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec,]] te apwoche klwazonis, chak nan fason pa yo. Yon mouvman ki pa dire ki manke yon manifès oswa yon teyori, Klwazonis te disparèt byen vit, alòske atis ki te pratike li te deplase nan lòt bagay &lt;ref&gt;{{atik|prénom=Gustave|nom=Geffroy|lien auteur=Gustave Geffroy|titre=L'art d'aujourd'hui|périodique=Le Journal|année=1897|mois=juin|jour=7|passage=2|lire en ligne=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7617757h/f2}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, ki, nan sa ki gen rapò ak Gauguin, Anquetin ak Bernard, yo te rele [[Sentetis]] &lt;ref&gt;{{Référence Harvard sans parenthèses|Cuzin|2003}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.{{sote|20px}}&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot; caption=&quot;Penti Klwazonis&quot;&gt;
Fichye:Émile_Bernard_Buckwheat_Harvesters_1888.jpg|lien=Fichier:Émile_Bernard_Buckwheat_Harvesters_1888.jpg|alt=Émile Bernard, Les Moissonneurs (1888), New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.| Émile Bernard, ''Les Moissonneurs'' (1888), [[Nouyòk|New York]], Metropolitan Museum of Art .
Fichye:Breton_Women.jpg|lien=Fichier:Breton_Women.jpg|alt=Vincent van Gogh, Bretonnes et enfants (novembre 1888), aquarelle d'après Émile Bernard, Galerie d'art moderne de Milan, Collezione Grassi.| [[Vincent van Gogh]], ''fanm ak timoun Breton'' (novembre 1888 ), Watercolor apre Émile Bernard, Galeri Atizay Modèn nan Milan, Collezione Grassi.
Fichye:Paul_Gauguin_137.jpg|lien=Fichier:Paul_Gauguin_137.jpg|alt=Paul Gauguin, La Vision après le sermon ou La Lutte de Jacob avec l’ange (1888), Édimbourg, Galerie nationale d'Écosse.| Paul Gauguin, ''Vizyon apre prèch la'' oswa ''batay Jakòb ak zanj lan'' (1888), [[Edinbo|Edinburgh]], National Gallery of Scotland .
Fichye:Louis_Anquetin.jpg|lien=Fichier:Louis_Anquetin.jpg|alt=Louis Anquetin, Femme lisant (1890), localisation inconnue.| [[Louis Anquetin]], ''Fanm lekti'' (1890), kote enkoni.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Traduction/Référence|fr|Cloisonnisme}}{{Referans}}{{Lòt pwojè|wiktionary=cloisonnisme}}
[[Kategori:Penti pa kouran]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hiroshige</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>93598</id>
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      <id>881561</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-30T16:34:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denismorcel</username>
        <id>37512</id>
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      <text bytes="2677" sha1="te5pdyr9lv6t6uxtsya1cgz7zb7g9kz" xml:space="preserve">{{infobox Biyografi}}
'''Utagawa Hiroshige''' (歌川広重?){{Nòt|Utagawa Hiroshige est un [[Wikipédia:Transcription_du_japonais#Noms_de_personnes|nom japonais traditionnel]] ; le nom de famille (ou le nom d'école), Utagawa, précède donc le prénom (ou le nom d'artiste).}}, ki gen non nesans Andō Tokutarō (安藤徳太郎), fèt an [[1797 en arts plastiques|1797]] nan  [[Tokyo|Edo]] epi mouri 12 oktòb 1858 nan [[Tokyo|Edo]], se yon desinatè, gravè, ak [[pent]] japonè.  Li gen diferans ak seri estanp sou [[mont Fuji]] ak sou Edo (aktyèl [[Tokyo|Tōkyō]]), ki desine yon fason evokatris peyizaj ak [[Atmosfè Latè|atmosfè]] vil la, nan reprann moman yo lavi chak jou anvan transfòmasyon l nan [[epòk Meiji]] (1868-1912).

Yon otè popilè, aktif ant 1818 ak 1858, li te kreye yon kò nan travay ki gen plis pase 5 400 enprime &lt;ref group=&quot;N&quot;&gt;{{Unité|5400|œuvres}} est le nombre d'estampes en couleurs et de tous formats généralement admis, mais certains experts (Minoru Uchida notamment) avancent un chiffre qui pourrait atteindre {{formatnum:8000}} en tout. Aucun catalogue exhaustif n'ayant été dressé, il est très difficile de vérifier ce chiffre. &lt;/ref&gt; .

== Nòt ak referans ==

=== Nòt ===
&lt;references group=&quot;N&quot; /&gt;

=== Referans ===
{{Referans}}

=== Atik ki gen rapò ===

* ''[[Ukiyo-e]]''
* Enprime
* [[Hokusai]]
* Utamaro
* [[Japonis]]
* Istwa Japon
* Lekòl &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;i id=&quot;mwBUw&quot;&gt;Ukiyo-e&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

=== Lyen ekstèn ===
{{Lòt pwojè|commons=Category:Utagawa Hiroshige|commons titre=Hiroshige}}{{Liens|musique=-}}
* [https://www.beauxarts.com/grand-format/ando-hiroshige-en-2-minutes/ ''Hiroshige en 2 min''], sur ''beauxarts.com''.
* {{En}} [http://ukiyo-e.org/search?q=Hiroshige Plus de 20.000 œuvres d'Hiroshige] sur ''ukiyo-e.org''.
* {{En}} ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20230604033017/https://japanesegallery.com/japanese-gallery-artist/hiroshige-i-utagawa-hiroshige-ando Hiroshige], sur ''japanesegallery.com''
* {{Fr}} [http://expositions.bnf.fr/japonaises/arret/08.htm Dossier sur Hiroshige sur l'exposition virtuelle « L'Estampe japonaise »], par Jocelyn Bouquillard, [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]].
* {{En}} [http://www.hiroshige.org.uk/ hiroshige.org.uk]{{commentaire biblio|Site anglais intégralement dédié au peintre. De loin le site le plus exhaustif sur lui : il contient des centaines d'estampes de grande qualité, une biographie, des analyses d'œuvres par des spécialistes du peintre, des comparaisons entre les différentes versions, etc.}}
[[Kategori:Nesans nan lane 1797]]
[[Kategori:Atik Wikipedya avèk dosye otorite]]
[[Kategori:Japonis]]
[[Kategori:Pages avec des traductions non relues]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ivan Morozov</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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        <username>Denismorcel</username>
        <id>37512</id>
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{{Infobox Biyografi|charte=personnalité du monde des affaires|imaj=&quot;Portrait d'Ivan Morozov&quot; de V. Sérov (Fondation Vuitton, Paris).jpg|lejand=Pòtrè Morozov pa [[Valentin Serov]] (1910) devan yon twal [[Henri Matisse|Matisse]].}}
'''Ivan Abramovich Morozov''', (nan lang ris: Ивáн Абрáмович Моро́зов) (ki fèt nan [[Moskou]] nan 27 novanm 1871 epi li mouri nan 21 jiyè 1921 nan Carlsbad ), se te yon biznisman [[Risi|Ris]] ki te vin tounen yon koleksyonè [[atizay]]. Li se ti frè koleksyonè Mikhail Morozov (1870-1903) ak bòfrè patwon an ak memwa Margarita Morozov (1873-1958).
== Orijin ak karyè ==
Soti nan [[Ansyen Kwayan]] dinasti endistriyèl Morozov yo, ki gen fondatè a se te gran-granpapa li [[Savva Vassilievitch Morozov]] (1770-1862), Ivan Morozov se pitit gason [[Sitwayen onè a (Anpi Ris la). )|boujwa onè]] [[Abram Morozov|Abram Abramovich Morozov]] (1839-1882), endistriyalis anpil rich&lt;ref&gt;Li te dirije Tver Manufacturing Company&lt;/ref&gt;, ak madanm li, [[Varvara Morozova| Varvara Alexeïevna Khloudova]] (1848-1917). Li te batize nan {{dat-|2 desanm 1871}} nan [[Ansyen Ris Otodòks-Ritualis Otodòks (Korelijyonaj)|ansyen-rityalis]] legliz Trinite nan distri [[Iaouza]]. Depi dizan, li te pran leson desen ak gran frè li nan atelye pent Ivan Martynov la, apre sa ak pent peyizaj [[Georgui Khrouslov|Iegor Khrouslov]], ki soti nan mouvman [[Anbilans]] epi finalman ak [[Constantin Korovine]].
[[image:Moscow, Prechistenka 19-12 Aug 2008 01.JPG|thumb|leftChazo Morozov nan [[Moskou]], Ri Prechistenka.]]
Papa l te mouri nan laj karant-twa nan 1882 e dapre dènye volonte l', zafè fanmi yo te jere pa vèv li, [[Varvara Morozova]], ki jiska laj pitit gason l te gouvène yon pwen an fè malgre fòtin imans nan Morozov yo sèlman bay yon ti kòb pòch bay pitit li yo, yo nan lòd yo disipline yo. An 1885, fanmi an te deplase nan ansyen [[chato]] prive chèf yo [[Dolgorouki]], [[Rue Vozdvijenka]]&lt;ref&gt;Sa vle di ri [[Exaltation de la Sainte-Croix ]] apre a. ansyen monastè ki gen menm non ki te lokalize la. Monastè a te disparèt apre [[Dife Moskou (1812)|Dife Moskou]] e otorite yo te detwi legliz la an 1932. Nan epòk sa a, li te youn nan lari ki pi elegant nan Moskou ak anpil vila prive.&lt;/ref&gt;, ki {{Mme}} Morozov te remodel nan style neoklasik. Li te kontinye etid li depi 1891 nan [[Lekòl Politeknik Zurich]], apre sa li te retounen nan [[Larisi]] ​​an 1895 pou l okipe biznis fanmi [[Tver]] Konpayi fabrikasyon an. Pandan frè l yo [[Mikhaïl Morozov|Mikhail]] ak [[Arseni Morozov|Arsène]] te gen ti enterè nan biznis, li te fè fòtin li nan endistri, nan tèt izin twal. Soti nan 1904 rive 1916, li triple [[kapital]] fanmi an.

Li rete Tver e lè li ale Moskou li rete ak frè l Mikhail ak [[Margarita Morozova|sè Margarita]], ki resevwa anpil atis, tankou [[Mikhaïl Vroubel|Vroubel]], [[Valentin. Serov|Serov]] ak [[Constantin Korovin|Korovin]]. Li te bati yon [[teyat]] pou travayè li yo nan Tver an 1898. Li te prezide Asanble Komèsan Moskou yo nan 1898-1899. Nan kòmansman ane 1900, li te deplase Moskou epi li te achte chato li nan 21 Pretchistenka Street nan men vèv tonton l David Morozov&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.storiamundi.com/176/les-collectionneurs-russes-et-lavant-garde-francaise-la-collection-ivan-morozov Les Collectionneurs russes et l’Avant-garde française : La collection Ivan Morozov].&lt;/ref&gt;. Lè sa a, li te kòmanse yon lavi sosyal, envite atis ki gen travay li te kòmanse kolekte epi òganize sware literè nan chanm resepsyon li yo.

Li te mouri nan yon atak kè sou 22 jiyè 1921, a 11 a.m., nan vil [[Karlovy Vary|Carlsbad]]. Yo antere l nan simityè menm vil la&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Ouvraj|langue=fr|auteur1=Natalia Semenova|traducteur=Michèle Kahn|langue originale=russe|préface=Michel Parfenov|titre=Les frères Morozov, collectionneurs et mécènes|titre original=Братья Морозовы|traduction titre=Les frères Morozov, collectionneurs et mécènes|éditeur=Actes Sud|date=2021|pages totales=320|isbn=978-2-3301-3959-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Kèk zèv nan koleksyon li ==
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed-hover&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot; caption=&quot;Zèv divès kalite&quot;&gt;
Fichye:La_gelée_à_Louvecienne_by_Alfred_Sisley_-_Pushkin_museum.jpg|lien=Fichier:La_gelée_à_Louvecienne_by_Alfred_Sisley_-_Pushkin_museum.jpg|alt=Sisley, La Gelée à Louveciennes (1873), musée Pouchkine, toile achetée chez Durand-Ruel en 1903.| Sisley, ''La Gelée à Louveciennes'' (1873), Mize Pushkin, twal ki te achte nan men Durand-Ruel an 1903.
Fichye:Claude_Monet_009.jpg|lien=Fichier:Claude_Monet_009.jpg|alt=Monet, Boulevard des Capucines (1873), musée Pouchkine, toile achetée chez Durand-Ruel en 1907.| [[Claude Monet|Monet]], ''Boulevard des Capucines'' (1873), Mize Pushkin, twal ki te achte nan men Durand-Ruel an 1907.
Fichye:Monet,_Claude_-_Corner_of_the_Garden_at_Montgeron.jpg|lien=Fichier:Monet,_Claude_-_Corner_of_the_Garden_at_Montgeron.jpg|alt=Monet, Coin de jardin à Montgeron (1876), musée de l'Ermitage.| [[Claude Monet|Monet]], ''Kwen Jaden nan Montgeron'' (1876), Mize Hermitage .
Fichye:Monet,_Pond-at-Montgeron.jpg|lien=Fichier:Monet,_Pond-at-Montgeron.jpg|alt=Monet, Étang à Montgeron, (1877), Musée de l'Ermitage.| [[Claude Monet|Monet]], ''Pond at Montgeron'', (1877), Mize Hermitage .
Fichye:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|lien=Fichier:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|alt=Renoir, Portrait de Jeanne Samary en pied (1878), musée de l'Ermitage.| [[Auguste Renoir|Renoir]], ''Pòtre tout longè Jeanne Samary'' (1878), Mize Hermitage .
Fichye:Van_Gogh_The_Night_Cafe.jpg|lien=Fichier:Van_Gogh_The_Night_Cafe.jpg|alt=Van Gogh, Le Café de nuit à Arles (1888), toile vendue en 1930 par l'URSS. Elle se trouve aujourd'hui à la Yale University Art Gallery.| [[Vincent van Gogh|Van Gogh]], ''[[Kafe lannuit|Kafe lannwit nan Arles]]'' (1888), twal ki te vann an 1930 pa [[Inyon repiblik sosyalis sovyetik|Sovyetik]] la. kounye li  nan Yale University Art Gallery .
Fichye:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Landscape_with_Carriage_and_Train_in_the_Background_(1890).jpg|lien=Fichier:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Landscape_with_Carriage_and_Train_in_the_Background_(1890).jpg|alt=Van Gogh, Paysage d'Auvers après la pluie, (1890), Musée des Beaux-Arts Pouchkine.| [[Vincent van Gogh|Van Gogh]], ''Landscape of Auvers apre lapli a'', (1890), Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts .
Fichye:Madame_Cézanne_au_conservatoire,_par_Paul_Cézanne.jpg|lien=Fichier:Madame_Cézanne_au_conservatoire,_par_Paul_Cézanne.jpg|alt=Cézanne, Madame Cézanne dans la serre (1891), Metropolitan Museum of Art, toile achetée par Morozov à Ambroise Vollard en 1910.| [[Paul Cézanne|Cézanne]], ''Madame Cézanne in the Greenhouse'' (1891), Metropolitan Museum of Art, twal ki te achte pa Morozov nan men Ambroise Vollard an 1910.
Fichye:Bathers,_by_Paul_Cézanne,_Pushkin_Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Yorck.jpg|lien=Fichier:Bathers,_by_Paul_Cézanne,_Pushkin_Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Yorck.jpg|alt=Cézanne, Les Baigneurs (étude), vers (1890-1894), Musée des Beaux-Arts Pouchkine.| [[Paul Cézanne|Cézanne]], ''The Bathers (etid)'', alantou (1890-1894), Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts .
Fichye:Cézanne,_Paul_-_Still_Life_with_a_Curtain.jpg|lien=Fichier:Cézanne,_Paul_-_Still_Life_with_a_Curtain.jpg|alt=Cézanne, Nature morte au rideau, (1898), Musée de l'Ermitage.| [[Paul Cézanne|Cézanne]], ''Toujou ak yon rido'', (1898), Mize Hermitage .
Fichye:Paul_Signac_-_Port_of_Marseilles.JPG|lien=Fichier:Paul_Signac_-_Port_of_Marseilles.JPG|alt=Signac, Port de Marseille (1906-1907), musée de l'Ermitage.| [[Paul Signac|Signac]], ''Port Marseille'' (1906-1907), Mize Hermitage .
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Nòt ak referans ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== Lyen ekstèn ==
{{liens}}
[[Kategori:Antreprenè ris]]
[[Kategori:Nesans an novanm 1871]]
[[Kategori:Pages avec des traductions non relues]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Restoran Sirèn nan Asnyè</title>
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      <text bytes="1299" sha1="1f0rihk0sccy530xnplswm6f1v1ites" xml:space="preserve">'''''Restoran Sirèn nan Asnyè''''' se yon lwil sou twal pa [[Vincent van Gogh]] (1853-1890) konsève [[Pari]] nan Musée d'Orsay, sou nimewo envantè RF 2325. Li te konpoze pandan ete 1887 &lt;ref&gt;{{En}} [http://www.vggallery.com/painting/p_0313.htm Van Gogh Gallery]&lt;/ref&gt; e li mezire 54,5 × 65,5  &lt;ref name=&quot;Fiche du musée d'Orsay&quot;&gt;[http://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/collections/oeuvres-commentees/peinture/commentaire_id/le-restaurant-de-la-sirene-11414.html?tx_commentaire_pi1%5BpidLi%5D=509&amp;tx_commentaire_pi1%5Bfrom%5D=841&amp;cHash=a54f6adc6b Fiche du musée d'Orsay]&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Istwa ak deskripsyon ==
Twal sa a lè te pentire Vincent van Gogh t ap rete ak [[Theodorus van Gogh (machann atizay)|frè l Théo]] nan [[Pari]], ri Lepic &lt;ref&gt;A pati de jen 1886 jiska fevriye 1888; oparavan li te abite depi mas rive jen 1886 [[Rue Laval|ri Laval]]. &lt;/ref&gt;. Li reprezante restoran Sirèn nan [[Asnières-sur-Seine|Asnyè]], yon ti vil toupre Pari, nan [[nòdwès]] [[kapital]] la ki sitiye sou bò Seine. Etablisman sa a te chita nan nimewo 7 Boulva Seine (jodi a Quai du Docteur-Dervaux ), toupre pon Asnières la.

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Referans}}

== Gade tou ==

* [[Lis tablo Vincent van Gogh|Lis penti Vincent van Gogh]]
[[Kategori:Tablo reyalize an 1887]]
[[Kategori:Tablo Vincent van Gogh]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lila (Van Gogh)</title>
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'''''Lila''''' a se yon tablo [[Vincent van Gogh]] nan Mize Èmitaj nan [[Sen Pitèboug|Saint Petersburg]].

== Istwa ==
Van Gogh te pentire tablo sa a nan mwa me 1889, pandan [[atis]] la t ap resevwa tretman nan [[Saint-Rémy-de-Provence]] nan lopital pou moun fou [[Théophile Peyron|Doktè Peyron]] a. Lilas sa a te nan jaden lopital kote Van Gogh te trete. Ekspresyon an dramatik nan moman sa yo transkri nan mouvman an nan ti [[pyebwa]] a [[flè]]. Lè li rive nan azil la, yo te entèdi l mache nan peyi a pou premye mwa a, se nan jaden sa a ke li konpoze etid flè ki pi popilè &lt;ref&gt;Ralph Skea, ''Les Arbres de Vincent van Gogh'', Londres, éd. Thames &amp; Hudson, traduction française de Lydie Échasseriaud, 2013 &lt;/ref&gt; . Li te kwè ke kominyon ak lanati - kèlkeswa fòm li - ta dwe pèmèt yon moun antre an kontak ak sa ki pi wo a, « ak [...] yon bagay sa a ki anwo a [...] enkonpreyansib. » &lt;ref&gt;Lettre n°403 à son frère [[Théodore van Gogh (négociant en art)|Théo]], in ''Vincent van Gogh - Les Lettres'' 6 volumes, Arles, Actes Sud, 2009 &lt;/ref&gt;

== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Referans}}

== Bibliyografi ==

* [[Jacob Baart de la Faille]], ''Zèv Vincent van Gogh, katalòg rezone, Ouvraj ki te akonpaye pa repwodiksyon de plis pase 1,600 penti, desen, aquarelle ak engraving pa mèt la'', 6 volim, edisyon G. van Oest, Pari &amp; [[Briksèl]], 1928

== Lyen ekstèn ==

* {{En}} [http://www.vangoghgallery.com/catalog/Painting/305/Lilacs.html ''Lilas''] (Van Gogh Gallery)
* {{En}} [http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/fcgi-bin/db2www/descrPage.mac/descrPage?selLang=English&amp;indexClass=PICTURE_EN&amp;PID=GJ-6511&amp;numView=1&amp;ID_NUM=1&amp;thumbFile=%2Ftmplobs%2FVFO5BKQYYRT_234N216.jpg&amp;embViewVer=noEmb&amp;comeFrom=quick&amp;sorting=no&amp;thumbId=6&amp;numResults=9&amp;tmCond=van+Gogh&amp;searchIndex=TAGFILEN&amp;author=Van%26%2332%3BGogh%2C%26%2332%3BVincent ''Lilas'' (site officiel du musée de l'Ermitage)]
[[Kategori:Me 1889]]
[[Kategori:1889 an Frans]]
[[Kategori:Tablo reyalize an 1889]]
[[Kategori:Tablo Vincent van Gogh]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Perugino</title>
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      <text bytes="1613" sha1="ezg405rcq4pypdc2r0ufsowk7v6d3ud" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|charte=artiste}}
'''Pietro di Cristoforo Vannucci''', oswa '''Perugino''' ( '''''il Perugino''''' ), fèt alantou [[1448 (almanak jilyen)|1448]] nan Città della Pieve, touprèPerugia nan Eta Pap yo e li te mouri nan [[1523 (almanak jilyen)|lane 1523]] nan Fontignano ( ''frazione'' nan Perugia ), se yon [[pent]] Italyen nan Renesans la ki fè pati '. Umbrian lekòl, ki se youn nan mèt yo nan Raphaël . Li sitou pentire penti relijye, miltipliye Madonna elegant ak zanj melankoli.

Li te fèt ant 1445 ak 1450 nan yon ti vil Città della Pieve nan Ombri, ki pa twò lwen Perugia,  pitit gason Cristoforo Vannucci ki te, kontrèman ak sa Vasari te ekri, youn nan notab ki pi rich nan vil la. Papa l 'apranti li nan yon pent modès ki renome ki entwodui l' nan teknik yo nan fresko ak desen .

Pėrugin te fòme  etidyan nan travay Piero della Francesca ak Verrocchio, nan ki li te pwobableman yon etidyan nan [[Florence]] nan fen ane 1460 yo ak kòmansman ane 1470 yo &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Référence Harvard sans parenthèses|Murray|p=13}}.&lt;/ref&gt;, nan konpayi [[Leonardo da Vinci|Leonard de Vinci]]  . Se la li te dekouvri estil flamand nan jaden [[flè]] ak pòtrè naturalistik. Nan 1472, li te kite estati apranti li epi li te resevwa premye lòd li nan men relijye yo nan kouvan San Martino, Camaldolese a pou ki moun li te kreye yon ''Saint Jerome.'' Li te travay sitou nan Umbria, [[Florence]] ak [[Wòm (Itali)|lavil Wòm]], egalman, nan Lucca, Bologne, Venise, Cremona, Ferrara ak [[Milan]] .
==Referans==
{{referans}}

==Lyen ekstèn==
{{liens}}

[[Kategori:Atik Wikipedya avèk dosye otorite]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Machin</title>
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    <id>94542</id>
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      <text bytes="3420" sha1="6fwz5td7lmponcb8swdengo32kr5p09" xml:space="preserve">{{gade omonim}}
[[File:Bonsack machine.png|right|thumb|Machin pou woule sigarèt pa [[James Albert Bonsack]] (1880).]]

Yon '''machin''' se yon [[pwodwi fini]] mekanik ki kapab itilize yon [[sous enèji]]{{efn|Enèji: [[gaz]], [[elektrisite]], ki kondwi pa [[Belt]], [[crank]], traction animal...|group=nòt}} pou fè poukont li, anba gidans yon operatè oswa ou pa, youn oswa plizyè travay espesifik, lè w egzèse yon [[Travay yon moun. fòs mekanik|travay]] sou yon [[zouti]], sou chay yo dwe deplase oswa sou [[materyèl]] ki gen fòm. Yon machin ka fiks ([[machin zouti]], [[machin pou lave]], elatriye) oswa mobil ([[locomotive]], [[mower gazon]], [[machine ekri]], elatriye).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=mhxanh/|title=Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, μηχα^ν-ή|access-date=2026-05-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/machine|title=machine {{!}} Definition of machine in English by Oxford Dictionaries|access-date=2026-05-27|archive-date=2018-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426213204/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/machine|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Etimoloji ==
Tèm &quot;machin&quot; la soti nan Latin ''{{Lang|la|machina}}'', ki soti nan [[Ansyen grèk|grèk]] [[Dorian]] {{Ansyen grèk|μαχανά|makhaná}} ({{Grèk ansyen|μηχανή|mēkhanḗ}} nan [[Ionian-Grenye]]), sa vle di: &quot;Trick&quot;, &quot;[[Istwa nan teknik|envansyon]] enjenyeu”, “aparèy”. Dapre lengwis [[Ernst Robert Curtius]], tèm grèk la gen rapò ak [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] ''mah'', 'pou prepare', 'pou grandi', ''magham'', 'pouvwa', ak [[Gothic|gotik ekriti]] ''mag'', 'je peut', ''mahts'', 'power'&lt;ref&gt;{{Web link |langue=fr |title=« machin »: etimoloji |url=https://www.littre.org/definition/machine |site=littre.org |date= |konsilte sou=29/10/2023}}.&lt;/ref&gt;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Reuleaux&quot;&gt;Karl von Langsdorf (1826) ''Machinenkunde'', quoted in  {{cite book|last=Reuleaux|first=Franz|title=The kinematics of machinery: Outlines of a theory of machines|publisher=MacMillan|year=1876|pages=[https://archive.org/details/kinematicsmachi01reulgoog/page/n524 604]|url=https://archive.org/details/kinematicsmachi01reulgoog}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Istwa ==
{{atik ki gen rapò|Engin}}
Nan epòk [[Ansyen Wòm]], nan teyat la, yo te itilize &quot;mecane&quot; trepye, ki ta pita bay &quot;machine&quot;, epi finalman &quot;machin&quot;.

[[Machin]] te parèt ak itilizasyon [[Mekanis|mekanis]] ([[levye (mekanik)|levye]], [[pouli]], [[Vis Achimèd la]]{{Elatriye}}) pèmèt yon mouvman transfòme nan yon lòt.

Nan aksyon [[konstriksyon]] (BTP), nan kòmansman {{s-|19}}, tèm &quot;machin&quot; la deziyen yon asanble moso bwa ki ranje yon fason ke avèk èd [ [pouli ]] yo, blòk ak [[kòd (zouti)|kòd]], yon ti kantite moun ka retire gwo chay epi mete yo an plas, tankou [[wikt:vindas|vindas]], [[machin nan. ]] (machin yo itilize pou monte gwo moso sou yon sifas ki pwojte), [[tekpye (machin)|tekpye]], gruel la (pi piti teknik ki mete an mouvman pa yon [[wikt:tourniquet|tourniquet]] olye de yon wou. {{sfn|Strandh|1979|p=42}}), [[winch]]{{etc}} ki ka monte ak demonte selon bezwen an. a{{sfn|Strandh|1979|p=52}}.

== Nòt ak referans ==
=== Nòt ===
&lt;references group=&quot;nòt&quot;/&gt;

=== Referans ===
{{Références}}

== Gade tou==
{{Autres projets
|commons=Category:Machines
|wiktionary=machine}}
[[Kategori:Machin]]
[[Kategori:Pou reli]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Kasumbalesa</title>
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{{Infobox Localité}}
'''Kasumbalesa''' se yon lokalite&lt;ref&gt;Geonames, [https://www.geonames.org/922944/kasumbalesa.html 922944 : Kasumbalesa]&lt;/ref&gt; nan teritwa [[sakania]],pwovens [[haut-katanga]] nan repiblik demokratik [[congo]].li rele tou balamba ak kasile.
== Jewografi ==
sitiye sou wout ak chemen fe ([[SNCC]]) ki lye ak [[Lubumbashi]] ak Kitwe, li se pòs fwontyè ant DRC ak Zanbi. Kasumbalesa sitiye 96 km soti nan Lubumbashi.
== Istwa ==
{{...}}
== Administrasyon ==
Avèk 85,614 elektè ki anrejistre nan 2018, aglomerasyon Musoshi-Kasumbalesa gen estati komin riral ki gen plis pase 80 000 elektè, li gen 9 konseye minisipal nan lane 2019&lt;ref&gt;CENI, [https://web.archive.org/web/20180920234927/https://www.ceni.cd/assets/bundles/documents/cadre-legal/cadre-legal_1531157427.pdf ''Répartition des sièges pour les élections''], p.27, 2018&lt;/ref&gt;.
== Popilasyon ==
Resansman an soti nan lane 1984&lt;ref&gt;Citypopulation, [http://www.citypopulation.de/CongoDemRep-Cities.html Cities &amp; Towns], consulté en 2019&lt;/ref&gt;{{,}}&lt;ref&gt;Sauvegarde de :[https://archive.is/20130210151812/http://world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&amp;men=gcis&amp;lng=en&amp;des=gamelan&amp;srt=npan&amp;col=abcdefghinoq&amp;msz=1500&amp;geo=-46#selection-127.0-127.78 ''Word Gazetteer''], 2013&lt;/ref&gt;.{{Demografi|1984=31773|2004=47213|2012=55641|tit=Évolution démographique|charte=commune}}2023 = 1200000
== Anviwònman ==
nan lane 2024,nan kad Jounen Mondyal Anviwònman an, yo mande popilasyon vil Kasumbalesa pou netwaye anviwònman an gras a bon jesyon dechè plastik ak fatra kay.
== Ekonomi ==
Kasumbalesa te fè eksperyans gwo kwasans ekonomik grasa etablisman [[SODIMIZA]]
== Nòt ak referans ==
{{Referans}}
== Sit entènèt ==
Sit entènèt ofisyèl nan vil Kasumbalesa : [https://web.archive.org/web/20241203054959/https://ville-de-kasumbalesa.cd/ www.ville-de-kasumbalesa.cd]
[[Kategori:Kasumbalesa]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Abjad</title>
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      <comment>Paj ki kreye ak &quot; Yon abjad (/ˈæbdʒæd/ ⓘ&lt;ref&gt;{{OED|abjad}}&lt;/ref&gt;; oubyen abgad lit. 'alfabè')&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Boyes|first1=Philip J.|last2=Steele|first2=Philippa M.|title=Understanding Relations Between Scripts II|date=10 October 2019|isbn=978-1-78925-092-3|page=24|publisher=Oxbow Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gF3JDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Lehmann|first=Reinhard G.|editor1-last=de Voogt|editor1-first=Alex|editor2-last=Quack|editor2-first=Joac... &quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="3561" sha1="jhlpwonzgjwh6hf52bkjdoa6fngnsk7" xml:space="preserve">Yon abjad (/ˈæbdʒæd/ ⓘ&lt;ref&gt;{{OED|abjad}}&lt;/ref&gt;; oubyen abgad lit. 'alfabè')&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Boyes|first1=Philip J.|last2=Steele|first2=Philippa M.|title=Understanding Relations Between Scripts II|date=10 October 2019|isbn=978-1-78925-092-3|page=24|publisher=Oxbow Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gF3JDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Lehmann|first=Reinhard G.|editor1-last=de Voogt|editor1-first=Alex|editor2-last=Quack|editor2-first=Joachim Friedrich|date=2012|title=The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, Boston|isbn=9789004215450|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTA6MsEjkPIC&amp;pg=PA46}}&lt;/ref&gt; se yon sistèm ekriti kote se sèlman konsòn yo ki reprezante pa siy lèt, kite lektè a dedwi vwayèl yo (sof si yo reprezante otreman, tankou pa dyakritik). Sa a kontraste ak alfabè ki bay grafèm pou tou de konsòn ak vwayèl. Tèm nan te entwodui an 1990 pa Peter T. Daniels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://abjadify.com/|title=Abjad Calculator|last=Beers|first=Theo|language=en|access-date=2026-05-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Daniels, P. (1990). &quot;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/602899 Fundamentals of Grammatology]&quot;. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 110(4), 727-731. {{doi|10.2307/602899}}. &quot;We must recognize that the West Semitic scripts constitute a third fundamental type of script, the kind that denotes individual consonants only. It cannot be subsumed under either of the other terms. A suitable name for this type would be &quot;alephbeth&quot;, in honor of its Levantine origin, but this term seems too similar to &quot;alphabet&quot; to be practical; so I propose to call this type an &quot;'''abjad'''&quot;, from the Arabic word for the traditional order [{{small|Footnote:  I.e., the ''alif-ba-jim'' order familiar from earlier Semitic alphabets, from which the modern order ''alif-ba-ta-tha'' is derived by placing together the letters with similar shapes and differing numbers of dots. The abjad is the order in which numerical values are assigned to the letters (as in Hebrew).}}] of its script, which (unvocalized) of course falls in this category. There is yet a fourth fundamental type of script, a type recognized over forty years ago by James-Germain Fevrier, called by him the &quot;'''neosyllabary'''&quot; (1948, 330), and again by Fred Householder thirty years ago, who called it &quot;pseudo-alphabet&quot; (1959, 382). These are the scripts of Ethiopia and &quot;greater India&quot; that use a basic form for the specific syllable consonant + a particular vowel (in practice always the unmarked ''a'') and modify it to denote the syllables with other vowels or with no vowel. Were it not for this existing term, I would propose maintaining the pattern by calling this type an &quot;abugida&quot;, from the Ethiopian word for the auxiliary order of consonants in the signary.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Lòt tèm pou menm konsèp la gen ladan ekriti fonemik pasyèl, ekriti fonografik defektye lineyè segmentè, konsonantè, ekriti konsòn, ak alfabè konsonan.&lt;ref&gt;Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2017), &quot;Towards a typology of phonemic scripts&quot;, ''Writing Systems Research'', 9:1, 14-35, {{doi|10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239}}. &quot;Daniels (1990, 1996a) proposes the name abjad for these scripts, and this term has gained considerable popularity. Other terms include partial phonemic script (Hill, 1967), segmentally linear defective phonographic script (Faber, 1992), consonantary (Trigger, 2004), consonant writing (Coulmas, 1989) and consonantal alphabet (Gnanadesikan, 2009; Healey, 1990). &quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

== '''Referans''' ==
[[Kategori:Sistèm ekriti]]</text>
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      <text bytes="3791" sha1="7gnq0jvkls6aajruus4melz9ffs49aa" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Ba`alat.jpg|lien=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ba%60alat.jpg|vignette|Yon espesimèn ekriti Proto-Sinaitik ki gen yon fraz ki ka vle di 'pou Baalat'. Liy ki soti anwo agoch ​​pou rive anba adwat la di mt l bclt.]]
Yon abjad (/ˈæbdʒæd/ ⓘ&lt;ref&gt;{{OED|abjad}}&lt;/ref&gt;; oubyen abgad lit. 'alfabè')&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Boyes|first1=Philip J.|last2=Steele|first2=Philippa M.|title=Understanding Relations Between Scripts II|date=10 October 2019|isbn=978-1-78925-092-3|page=24|publisher=Oxbow Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gF3JDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Lehmann|first=Reinhard G.|editor1-last=de Voogt|editor1-first=Alex|editor2-last=Quack|editor2-first=Joachim Friedrich|date=2012|title=The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, Boston|isbn=9789004215450|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTA6MsEjkPIC&amp;pg=PA46}}&lt;/ref&gt; se yon sistèm ekriti kote se sèlman konsòn yo ki reprezante pa siy lèt, kite lektè a dedwi vwayèl yo (sof si yo reprezante otreman, tankou pa dyakritik). Sa a kontraste ak alfabè ki bay grafèm pou tou de konsòn ak vwayèl. Tèm nan te entwodui an 1990 pa Peter T. Daniels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://abjadify.com/|title=Abjad Calculator|last=Beers|first=Theo|language=en|access-date=2026-05-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Daniels, P. (1990). &quot;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/602899 Fundamentals of Grammatology]&quot;. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 110(4), 727-731. {{doi|10.2307/602899}}. &quot;We must recognize that the West Semitic scripts constitute a third fundamental type of script, the kind that denotes individual consonants only. It cannot be subsumed under either of the other terms. A suitable name for this type would be &quot;alephbeth&quot;, in honor of its Levantine origin, but this term seems too similar to &quot;alphabet&quot; to be practical; so I propose to call this type an &quot;'''abjad'''&quot;, from the Arabic word for the traditional order [{{small|Footnote:  I.e., the ''alif-ba-jim'' order familiar from earlier Semitic alphabets, from which the modern order ''alif-ba-ta-tha'' is derived by placing together the letters with similar shapes and differing numbers of dots. The abjad is the order in which numerical values are assigned to the letters (as in Hebrew).}}] of its script, which (unvocalized) of course falls in this category. There is yet a fourth fundamental type of script, a type recognized over forty years ago by James-Germain Fevrier, called by him the &quot;'''neosyllabary'''&quot; (1948, 330), and again by Fred Householder thirty years ago, who called it &quot;pseudo-alphabet&quot; (1959, 382). These are the scripts of Ethiopia and &quot;greater India&quot; that use a basic form for the specific syllable consonant + a particular vowel (in practice always the unmarked ''a'') and modify it to denote the syllables with other vowels or with no vowel. Were it not for this existing term, I would propose maintaining the pattern by calling this type an &quot;abugida&quot;, from the Ethiopian word for the auxiliary order of consonants in the signary.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Lòt tèm pou menm konsèp la gen ladan ekriti fonemik pasyèl, ekriti fonografik defektye lineyè segmentè, konsonantè, ekriti konsòn, ak alfabè konsonan.&lt;ref&gt;Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2017), &quot;Towards a typology of phonemic scripts&quot;, ''Writing Systems Research'', 9:1, 14-35, {{doi|10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239}}. &quot;Daniels (1990, 1996a) proposes the name abjad for these scripts, and this term has gained considerable popularity. Other terms include partial phonemic script (Hill, 1967), segmentally linear defective phonographic script (Faber, 1992), consonantary (Trigger, 2004), consonant writing (Coulmas, 1989) and consonantal alphabet (Gnanadesikan, 2009; Healey, 1990). &quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

== '''Referans''' ==
[[Kategori:Sistèm ekriti]]</text>
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      <text bytes="3759" sha1="id2fpj2sviy8jkqccz9rq7p9l5ww3jn" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Ba`alat.jpg|lien=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ba%60alat.jpg|vignette|Yon espesimèn ekriti Proto-Sinaitik ki gen yon fraz ki ka vle di 'pou Baalat'. Liy ki soti anwo agoch ​​pou rive anba adwat la di mt l bclt.]]
Yon abjad (æbdʒæd; oubyen abgad lit. 'alfabè')&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Boyes|first1=Philip J.|last2=Steele|first2=Philippa M.|title=Understanding Relations Between Scripts II|date=10 October 2019|isbn=978-1-78925-092-3|page=24|publisher=Oxbow Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gF3JDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Lehmann|first=Reinhard G.|editor1-last=de Voogt|editor1-first=Alex|editor2-last=Quack|editor2-first=Joachim Friedrich|date=2012|title=The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, Boston|isbn=9789004215450|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTA6MsEjkPIC&amp;pg=PA46}}&lt;/ref&gt; se yon sistèm ekriti kote se sèlman konsòn yo ki reprezante pa siy lèt, kite lektè a dedwi vwayèl yo (sof si yo reprezante otreman, tankou pa dyakritik). Sa a kontraste ak alfabè ki bay grafèm pou tou de konsòn ak vwayèl. Tèm nan te entwodui an 1990 pa Peter T. Daniels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://abjadify.com/|title=Abjad Calculator|last=Beers|first=Theo|language=en|access-date=2026-05-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Daniels, P. (1990). &quot;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/602899 Fundamentals of Grammatology]&quot;. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 110(4), 727-731. {{doi|10.2307/602899}}. &quot;We must recognize that the West Semitic scripts constitute a third fundamental type of script, the kind that denotes individual consonants only. It cannot be subsumed under either of the other terms. A suitable name for this type would be &quot;alephbeth&quot;, in honor of its Levantine origin, but this term seems too similar to &quot;alphabet&quot; to be practical; so I propose to call this type an &quot;'''abjad'''&quot;, from the Arabic word for the traditional order [{{small|Footnote:  I.e., the ''alif-ba-jim'' order familiar from earlier Semitic alphabets, from which the modern order ''alif-ba-ta-tha'' is derived by placing together the letters with similar shapes and differing numbers of dots. The abjad is the order in which numerical values are assigned to the letters (as in Hebrew).}}] of its script, which (unvocalized) of course falls in this category. There is yet a fourth fundamental type of script, a type recognized over forty years ago by James-Germain Fevrier, called by him the &quot;'''neosyllabary'''&quot; (1948, 330), and again by Fred Householder thirty years ago, who called it &quot;pseudo-alphabet&quot; (1959, 382). These are the scripts of Ethiopia and &quot;greater India&quot; that use a basic form for the specific syllable consonant + a particular vowel (in practice always the unmarked ''a'') and modify it to denote the syllables with other vowels or with no vowel. Were it not for this existing term, I would propose maintaining the pattern by calling this type an &quot;abugida&quot;, from the Ethiopian word for the auxiliary order of consonants in the signary.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Lòt tèm pou menm konsèp la gen ladan ekriti fonemik pasyèl, ekriti fonografik defektye lineyè segmentè, konsonantè, ekriti konsòn, ak alfabè konsonan.&lt;ref&gt;Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2017), &quot;Towards a typology of phonemic scripts&quot;, ''Writing Systems Research'', 9:1, 14-35, {{doi|10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239}}. &quot;Daniels (1990, 1996a) proposes the name abjad for these scripts, and this term has gained considerable popularity. Other terms include partial phonemic script (Hill, 1967), segmentally linear defective phonographic script (Faber, 1992), consonantary (Trigger, 2004), consonant writing (Coulmas, 1989) and consonantal alphabet (Gnanadesikan, 2009; Healey, 1990). &quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

== '''Referans''' ==
[[Kategori:Sistèm ekriti]]</text>
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